THE  LIBRARY 

OF 
THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT 


RIVERSIDE  TEXTBOOKS 
IN  EDUCATION 

EDITED  BY  ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATION 
LELANU   STANFORD  JUNIOR    UNIVERSITY 


DIVISION  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

UNDER  THE  EDITORIAL  DIRECTION 

OF  ALEXANDER  INGLIS 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR    OF   EDUCATION 
HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


"'"Illl"' 
Mil'. 


PRINCIPLES  OF 
SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


BY 


ALEXANDER  INGLIS 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATION 
HARVARD    UNIVERSITY 


HOUGHTON   MIFFLIN   COMPANY 

BOSTON          NEW  YORK          CHICAGO 


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COPYRIGHT,    1918,   BY    ALEXANDER    INGLIS 
ALL   RIGHTS    RESERVED 


tCbe  XUberelbe  Dresftf 

CAMliRIDGB  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
O   .    S    .    A 


Education 
Library 

' 


PREFACE 

IN  this  book  the  author  has  attempted  to  make  a  sys- 
tematic analysis  of  the  factors  and  principles  involved  in  a 
constructive  theory  of  secondary  education.  The  theory 
herein  developed  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  writer's  experience 
in  secondary-school  teaching  and  administration,  together 
with  his  experience  as  a  college  instructor  in  the  theory  and 
practice  of  secondary  education.  The  present  volume  pre- 
sents the  content  and  method  employed  in  a  course  of  the 
Principles  of  Secondary  Education  at  Harvard  University. 
After  use  in  manuscript  form  for  several  years,  the  book  is 
now  published  in  the  hope  that  it  may  prove  of  some  value 
to  teachers,  administrators,  and  other  students  of  education. 

Three  factors  must  always  determine  the  form  which 
secondary  education  should  assume:  (a)  the  nature  of  the 
pupils  to  be  educated;  (6)  the  character  of  the  social  or- 
ganization and  of  social  ideals;  (c)  the  means  and  materials 
available  for  educational  purposes.  Accordingly  this  volume 
is  divided  into  three  parts.  Part  I  is  devoted  to  a  consider- 
ation of  the  raw  material  with  which  secondary  education 
deals,  i.e.,  boys  and  girls  approximately  twelve  to  eighteen 
years  of  age.  Part  II  is  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the 
secondary  school  as  a  social  institution  —  its  character, 
place,  and  function.  Part  III  is  devoted  to  a  consideration 
of  the  means  and  materials  wherewith  the  aims  of  secondary 
education  can  be  achieved.  Throughout  it  has  been  the 
endeavor  of  the  author  to  coordinate  and  correlate  the 
various  portions  of  the  book  in  such  a  way  as  to  develop 
a  theory  of  secondary  education  in  which  the  several  ele- 
ments are  organically  related  and  mutually  consistent.  For 


1C86432 


vi  PREFACE 

that  reason  each  succeeding  chapter  or  topic  must  be  con- 
sidered in  its  relation  to  the  principles  formulated  or  the 
factors  treated  in  preceding  sections.  The  complex  inter- 
relations of  secondary  education  preclude  the  adequate  con- 
sideration of  any  single  phase  in  isolation. 

In  the  construction  of  a  book  on  the  principles  of  second- 
ary education  one  of  two  methods  may  be  employed.  A 
number  of  specialists  may  collaborate  in  the  production 
of  a  book  which  consists  of  several  more  or  less  isolated 
treatises  on  various  separate  phases  of  secondary  education. 
Such  a  method  has  many  merits,  but  precludes  the  develop- 
ment of  a  consistently  constructive  theory.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  a  single  individual  attempts  to  write  a  book 
covering  a  field  as  broad  as  that  of  secondary  education, 
there  are  always  two  possible  dangers :  either  the  limitations 
of  the  individual  may  lead  to  superficial  treatment  and  error, 
or  unsupported  personal  opinion  and  bias  may  dominate. 
The  first  of  these  dangers  is  minimized  when  the  writer 
refrains  from  attempting  to  deal  with  the  details  of  teach- 
ing appropriate  to  the  various  studies  of  the  secondary- 
school  program  and  confines  this  attention  to  more  funda- 
mental principles.  In  this  book  the  author  deals  with  special 
studies  only  in  connection  with  the  broader  matters  of  aims 
and  values,  together  with  the  larger  elements  of  method 
necessarily  involved.  A  later  volume  in  this  series  will  deal 
with  the  principles  of  teaching  in  the  secondary  school  and 
several  volumes  will  deal  with  methods  of  teaching  special 
subjects  or  groups  of  subjects. 

Bias  and  personal  opinion  the  author  has  attempted  to 
minimize  in  three  ways:  first,  by  supporting  important 
statements  on  disputed  points  by  reference  to  the  opinions 
of  specialists  and  to  the  results  of  impersonal  investigation ; 
secondly,  by  presenting  directly  the  findings  or  theories  of 
specialists  and  limiting  his  personal  judgment  to  their 


PREFACE  vii 

evaluation  in  synthesis;  thirdly,  by  securing  the  direct  criti- 
cism of  specialists  and  utilizing  their  judgments  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  book.  Practically  every  chapter  of  the  book 
has  been  examined  and  criticized  by  two  or  more  specialists 
in  the  field  treated  in  that  chapter.  In  this  way  the  author 
has  hoped  to  safeguard  himself  and  his  readers  from  the 
errors  of  purely  personal  opinion  and  bias. 

The  mere  listing  of  the  names  of  those  men  and  women 
who  have  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume  would 
take  more  space  than  is  here  available.  The  author  takes 
this  opportunity  to  express  to  those  persons  collectively  his 
deep  appreciation  of  their  assistance.  Here  also  he  wishes  to 
acknowledge  the  courtesy  of  publishers  and  authors  who 
have  permitted  the  use  of  quotations  for  the  clearer  pres- 
entation of  typical  opinions  on  important  points. 

ALEXANDER  INGLIS. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I.  THE  PUPILS 

CHAPTER  I.   THE    SECONDARY-SCHOOL    PUPIL:  PHYSICAL 

TRAITS 3 

1.  Physical  traits  as  basic  data.  2.  The  chronological  ages 
of  pupils.  3.  The  growth  of  children  in  height  and  weight. 
4.  The  growth  of  organs  and  parts  of  the  body.  5.  Physical  de- 
velopment in  relation  to  health.  6.  The  physiological  phenom- 
ena of  adolescence.  7.  Some  implications  for  secondary  edu- 
cation. 8.  The  distribution  of  pupils  according  to  puberty. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  II.   THE   SECONDARY-SCHOOL   PUPIL:   MENTAL 

TRAITS 34 

9.  Secondary  education  and  the  development  of  mental  traits.' 
10.  The  development  of  mental  traits  with  age.  11.  Theories  of 
the  development  of  mental  traits.  12.  The  theory  of  serial  de- 
velopment. 13.  The  theory  of  concomitant  development.  14.  An 
evaluation  of  the  theories  of  development.  15.  Implications  for 
secondary  education.  16.  Theories  of  the  influence  of  adoles- 
cence. 17.  The  theory  of  saltatory  development.  18.  The  theory 
of  gradual  development.  19.  Evaluation  of  the  two  theories. 
20.  Implications  for  secondary  education. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  III.   THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  PUPIL:  INDIVID- 
UAL DIFFERENCES 74 

21.  Importance  of  recognizing  individual  differences.  22.  The 
distribution  of  individual  differences.  23.  The  interpretation  of 
measures.  24.  The  causes  of  individual  differences.  25.  Com- 
mon errors  in  interpreting  differences.  26.  Individual  differences 
due  to  biological  heredity.  27.  Individual  differences  due  to  so- 
cial heredity.  28.  Individual  differences  due  to  environment. 
29.  Individual  differences  in  interests,  etc.  30.  Individual  differ- 
ences due  to  sex. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IV.   THE  SECONDABY-SCHOOL  POPULATION:  ITS 

CHARACTER  AND  CLASSIFICATION       .       .118 

31.  Some  illustrative  figures.  32.  The  distribution  of  pupils  by 
schools.  33.  The  distribution  of  pupils  by  grades.  34.  Retarda- 
tion and  acceleration.  35.  The  elimination  of  pupils  by  grades. 
36.  The  elimination  of  pupils  by  age.  37.  Elimination  and  home 
conditions.  38.  Elimination,  early  intention,  and  early  promise. 
39.  The  lure  of  the  out-of-school  world.  40.  Expectancy  of  stay 
in  the  secondary  school.  41.-  The  classification  of  secondary- 
school  pupils.  42.  Pupils  completing  the  course.  43.  The  dis- 
tribution of  secondary-school  graduates.  44.  Pupils  destined  not 
to  complete  the  course. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 


PART  II.  THE  INSTITUTION  AND  ITS  PURPOSE 

CHAPTER  V.    THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF   SECONDARY  EDU- 
CATION IN  AMERICA 161 

45.  Three  principal  periods  of  development.  46.  The  Latin 
grammar  school  of  England.  47.  The  beginning  of  secondary 
education  in  America.  48.  The  Public  Latin  School  of  Boston. 
49.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  law  of  1647.  50.  Further 
legal  provision  in  Massachusetts.  51.  Legal  provision  in  other 
colonies.  52.  The  Latin  school  in  New  England  and  elsewhere. 
63.  The  origin  of  the  academy  in  America.  54.  The  Franklin 
Academy  in  Philadelphia.  55.  The  academy  in  Massachusetts. 
56.  The  academy  movement  in  other  states.  57.  The  control  and 
support  of  the  academy.  58.  The  curriculum  of  the  academy. 
59.  Secondary  education  for  girls  in  the  academy.  60.  Effect  of 
the  academy  movement.  61.  Secondary  education  in  the  early 
nineteenth  century.  62.  The  English  Classical  (High)  School 
of  Boston.  63.  The  Girls'  High  School  of  Boston.  64.  The  Massa- 
chusetts law  of  1827.  65.  The  public  high  school  in  Massachusetts. 
66.  The  high-school  movement  in  the  United  States.  67.  The 
public  high  school  and  the  academy.  68.  State  systems  of  sec- 
ondary education. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  VI.  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  203 

69.  The  comparative  study  of  secondary  education.  70.  Pur- 
view of  secondary  education  in  other  countries.  71.  The  organi- 
zation of  school  systems  in  Prussia.  72.  The  place  of  "higher 
schools"  in  Prussian  education.  73.  Higher  schools  for  boys  in 


CONTENTS  xi 

Prussia.  74.  "Reform  schools"  in  Germany.  75.  Higher  schools 
for  girls  in  Prussia.  76.  Statistics  of  higher  schools  in  Germany. 
77.  "Intermediate  schools,"  etc.,  in  Germany.  78.  Teachers  in 
Prussian  higher  schools  forboys.  79.  Higher  schools  and  the  social 
organization.  80.  Secondary  education  in  Germany  and  America. 
81.  The  system  of  education  in  France.  82.  Types  of  "second- 
ary schools  "  for  boys  in  France.  83.  Other  forms  of  secondary 
education  in  France.  84.  "Secondary"  education  of  girls  in 
France.  85.  Statistics  of  "secondary"  schools  in  France.  86.  The 
"secondary  school  "  teacher  in  France.  87.  Secondary  education 
and  the  social  organization  in  France.  88.  Secondary  education 
in  France  and  America.  89.  Organization  of  secondary  education 
in  England.  90.  The  "Great  Public  Schools"  of  England. 
91.  Other  endowed  and  private  secondary  schools.  92.  The  old 
municipal  "board"  secondary  schools.  93.  "Grant-list"  and 
"efficient"  secondary  schools.  94.  The  curricula  of  English  sec- 
ondary schools.  95.  The  secondary  education  of  girls  in  Eng- 
land. 96.  Secondary  schools  and  other  departments  of  education. 
97.  Secondary  schools  and  the  social  organization  in  England. 
Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  VII.  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  RELATION  TO 

ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     .      .      .      .261 

98.  Factors  involved  in  making  distinctions.  99.  Distinctions 
based  on  chronological  age.  100.  Distinctions  based  on  develop- 
ment. 101.  Distinctions  based  on  social  factors.  102.  Distinc- 
tions based  on  studies.  103.  The  fallacy  of  sharp  distinctions. 
104.  Historical  development.  105.  The  development  of  articu- 
lation in  America.  106.  Practice  in  foreign  countries.  107.  The 
eight-four  system.  108.  The  age  of  pupils  transferred.  109.  The 
pedagogical  age  of  pupils  transferred.  110.  Evidences  of  defects 
in  articulation.  111.  Retardation  and  elimination  as  evidence. 
112.  Instruction  in  later  elementary-school  grades.  113.  Further 
objections  to  present  conditions.  114.  Psychological  considera- 
tions. 115.  Social  and  economic  principles  involved.  116.  Ad- 
ministrative factors  involved.  117.  The  six-grade  course  of  second- 
ary education.  118.  The  junior  high-school  movement.  119.  The 
purposes  of  the  junior  high-school.  120.  Difficulties  to  be  met. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  — •  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  VIII.  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  RELATION  TO 

HIGHER  EDUCATION 303 

121.  Early  relations.  122.  The  Latin  grammar  school  and  the 
college.  123.  The  early  academy  and  the  college.  124.  The  public 


xii  CONTENTS 

high  school  and  the  college.  125.  The  rise  of  public  state  univer- 
sities. 126.  The  secondary  school  and  the  normal  school.  127. 
The  overlapping  of  secondary  school  and  college.  128.  High-school 
pupils  entering  higher  institutions.  129?  Early  requirements  and 
changes.  130.  The  amount  of  preparation  required.  131.  "Pre- 
scribed," "accepted,"  and  "elective"  subjects.  132.  The  dis- 
tribution of  prescribed  units.  133.  Recommendations  of  the 
Committee  on  Articulation.  134.  Examination  and  certificating 
systems.  135.  Examination  methods  in  practice.  136.  Advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  of  examinations.  137.  The  certificating 
or  accrediting  system.  138.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  the  accrediting  system.  139.  Methods  of  administering  the 
accrediting  system.  ' 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  IX.   SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  DETERMINING  SECOND- 
ARY EDUCATION 340 

140.  Some  underlying  assumptions.  141.  Secondary  educa- 
tion as  a  social  institution.  142.  Social  ideals  and  social  organi- 
zation. 143.  Social  evolution  and  educational  adjustment. 
144.  Social  integration  and  differentiation.  145.  Changes  in  other 
social  institutions.  146.  Changes  in  the  home  and  family  life. 
147.  Changes  in  community  life.  148.  Changes  in  the  Church 
and  religion.  149.  Changes  in  the  vocation. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  X.  THE  AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  SECONDARY 

EDUCATION 367 

150.  The  aims  of  secondary  education:  their  basis.  151.  Three 
fundamental  aims  of  secondary  education.  152.  The  social- 
civic  aim.  153.  The  economic-vocational  aim.  154.  The  individ- 
ualistic-avocational  aim.  155.  The  interrelation  of  the  three 
aims.  156.  Aims  based  on  traits  involved.  157.  The  functions  of 
secondary  education.  158.  The  adjustive  or  adaptive  function. 
159.  The  integrating  function.  160.  The  differentiating  func- 
tion. 161.  The  propaedeutic  function.  162.  The  selective  func- 
tion. 163.  The  diagnostic  and  directive  function. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PART  III.  THE  MEANS  AND  MATERIALS  OF 
SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  XI.  THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  —  CRITERIA 
OF  SUBJECT  VALUES:  ANALYSIS  OF  THE 
PROGRAM .  387 

164.  Subject  values  determined  by  aims  and  functions. 
165.  Direct  values.  166.  The  transfer  of  improved  efficiency. 
167.  Is  transfer  or  spread  a  reality?  168.  What  is  the  mode  of 
transfer  or  spread?  169.  Transfer  or  spread  dependent  on  dis- 
sociation. 170.  Factors  which  foster  and  facilitate  dissociation. 
171.  The  above  principles  illustrated.  172.  An  answer  to 
problem  2.  173.  Problem  3:  What  is  the  extent  of  transfer? 
174.  The  results  of  experimental  investigations.  175.  Impli- 
cations of  psychological  theory.  176.  Problem  4:  The  trans- 
fer values  of  studies.  177.  The  evolution  of  the  program  in 
America.  178.  The  relative  prominence  of  various  subjects. 
179.  The  necessity  of  selection. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  XII.   THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE  PROGRAM 

OF  STUDIES 420 

180.  The  historic  dominance  of  linguistic  and  literary  studies. 
181.  The  present  status  of  English  in  the  program.  182.  English 
and  the  aims  of  secondary  education.  183.  The  aims  of  language 
and  of  literature  distinguished.  184.  The  relation  of  language  to 
thought.  185.  The  aims  and  values  of  the  study  of  language. 
186.  Language  as  an  intellectual  instrument.  187.  The  dominant 
purposes  of  language  studies.  188.  Limitations  of  the  study  of 
the  mother  tongue.  189.  Literature  and  the  social- civic  aim  of 
education.  190.  Literature  and  the  economic- vocational  aim. 
191.  Literature  and  the  individualistic-avocational  aim.  192.  Cri- 
ticism of  English  study  as  now  organized. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

\s 
CHAPTER  XIII.  THE    PLACE    OF    FOREIGN    LANGUAGES 

IN  THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES       .      .  447 

193.  Historical  development  in  America.  194.  Present  status. 
195.  Preliminary  analysis  of  aims  and  values.  196.  Values  for 
social  intercourse.  197.  Values  for  commercial  purposes.  198. 
Values  for  instrumental  purposes.  199.  Values  for  social-cultural 
purposes.  200.  Summary  and  correlation  of  direct  values. 
201.  Foreign-language  study  and  "general  discipline."  202.  Val- 
ues for  language-thought  relations.  203.  The  mother  tongue  and 


xiv  CONTENTS 

foreign,  languages.  204.  The  relative  values  of  foreign  languages. 
205.  The  place  of  foreign  languages. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  XIV.   THE   PLACE   OF   MATHEMATICS   IN   THE 

PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES       ....  481 

206.  Historical  development  of  the  study  of  mathematics. 
207.  Present  status  of  mathematics  instruction.  208.  Preliminary 
analysis  of  aims  and  values.  209.  Mathematics  in  the  affairs  of 
everyday  life.  210.  Mathematics  in  various  vocations.  211.  The 
propaedeutic  values  of  mathematics.  212.  Direct  values  limited 
and  contingent.  213.  Indirect  values  claimed:  number  and  space 
concepts.  214.  Mathematics  and  the  transfer  of  improved  effi- 
ciency. 215.  Characteristics  claimed  to  favor  transfer  values. 
216.  Rugg's  experiment.  217.  Criticism  of  mathematics  as  now 
organized.  218.  The  order  and  position  of  mathematical  studies. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  — •  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  XV.  THF  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES 

IN  THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES          .       .  506 

219.  Historical  development.  220.  Present  status.  221.  Values 
claimed  for  the  natural  sciences.  222.  Spencer's  fallacies  perpetu- 
ated. 223.  Preliminary  analysis  of  the  values  claimed.  224.  Natu- 
ral science  in  the  affairs  of  everyday  life.  225.  Direct  values  for 
vocations.  226.  Propaedeutic  values.  227.  Conceptual  values 
claimed.  228.  Transfer  values  claimed.  229.  The  values  and  aims 
of  "general  science."  230.  The  aims  and  values  of  natural  science 
instruction. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  — •  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  XVI.  THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  IN  THE 

PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES        ....  534 

231.  Historical  position  in  the  program.  232.  Present  status. 
233.  Character  and  ultimate  aims.  234.  Values  of  the  study  of 
history.  235.  Direct  social-civic  values.  236.  Direct  vocational 
values.  237.  Direct  avocational  values.  238.  Direct  propaedeutic 
values.  239.  Conceptual  values  claimed.  240.  Transfer  values 
claimed.  241.  Factors  conditioning  the  values  of  history.  242. 
Meaning  and  scope  of  civics.  243.  The  aims  and  values  of  civics. 
244.  The  scope  and  function  of  "community  civics."  245.  Eco- 
nomics as  a  study  in  the  program.  246.  The  study  of  "  Problems 
of  American  Democracy."  247.  Criticism  of  social  studies  as  now 
organized. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 


CONTENTS  xv 

CHAPTER  XVII.   THE  PLACE  OF  PRACTICAL  AND  VOCA- 
TIONAL ARTS  IN  THE  PROGRAM    .      .  572 

248.  Historical  position  of  the  practical  arts.  249.  Present 
status  in  the  program.  250.  Values  of  the  practical  and  vocational 
arts.  251.  Conditions  emphasizing  practical  and  vocational  arts. 
252.  The  field  of  vocational  education.  253.  Relative  importance 
of  various  occupations.  254.  Principles  governing  selection. 
255.  The  scope  of  clerical  and  commercial  education.  256.  Aims 
of  clerical  and  commercial  subjects.  257.  The  place  of  clerical 
arts  in  the  program.  258.  Analysis  of  clerical  occupations. 
259.  Non-clerical  commercial  subjects.  260.  "General  subjects" 
modified.  261.  Criticism  of  present  commercial  education. 
262.  Meaning  and  scope  of  industrial  education.  263.  Conditions 
emphasizing  industrial  education.  264.  Values  and  aims  of  in- 
dustrial subjects.  265.  Analysis  of  industrial  occupations. 
266.  Variation  in  industrial  conditions.  267.  The  selection  of  in- 
dustrial subjects.  268.  "General  subjects"  modified.  269.  The 
scope  of  agricultural  education.  270.  Factors  emphasizing  agri- 
cultural education.  271.  Aims  and  values  of  agricultural  educa- 
tion. 272.  Analysis  of  agricultural  occupations.  273.  Variation 
in  agricultural  activities.  274.  The  adaptation  of  "general" 
subjects.  275.  Scope  and  field  of  domestic  education.  276.  Fac- 
tors emphasizing  domestic  education.  277.  Females  in  various 
occupations.  278.  Values  of  domestic  education  for  girls. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  XVIII.  THE    PLACE    OF   ESTHETIC    ARTS    m 

THE  PROGRAM 621 

279.  Historical  position  in  the  program.  280.  Present  status. 
281.  Fundamental  principles  involved.  282.  Values  of  the  aes- 
thetic arts.  283.  ^Esthetic  art  and  literature.  284.  Present  status 
of  the  study  of  music.  285.  The  social-civic  values  of  music. 
286.  Economic-vocational  values  of  music.  287.  Individualistic- 
avocational  values  of  music.  288.  Three  groups  of  pupils  to  be 
considered.  289.  Courses  emphasizing  musical  accomplishment. 
290.  Courses  emphasizing  musical  appreciation.  291.  Courses  for 
other  pupils.  292.  The  field  of  design  and  related  arts.  293.  Two 
broad  divisions  of  art  instruction.  294.  Design  and  related  arts  as 
related  to  industrial  arts.  295.  Design  and  related  arts  as  related 
to  commercial  arts.  296.  Design  and  related  arts  as  related  to 
domestic  arts. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XIX.  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECOND- 
ARY SCHOOL          640 

297.  Historical  development.  298.  Present  status.  299.  The 
values  of  physical  education.  300.  Factors  emphasizing  physical 
education.  301.  Three  general  divisions  of  physical  education. 
302.  Physiology  and  hygiene:  past  and  present  status.  303.  Place 
of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  program.  304.  Direct  import- 
ance of  physiology  and  hygiene.  305.  Sex  hygiene  and  sex 
pedagogy.  306.  Past  and  present  status  of  physical  training. 
307.  Values  and  aims  of  physical  training.  308.  Gymnastics  in 
the  program.  309.  Athletics,  dancing,  and  games.  310.  Some 
dangers  in  such  organization.  311.  Military  training  and  phys- 
ical training. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  XX.  THE    ORGANIZATION  OF  SECONDARY  EDU- 
CATION: CURRICULUMS 662 

312.  Historical  development  of  curriculums.  313.  Curriculums 
recommended  by  the  Committee  of  Ten.  314.  Criticism  of  the 
committee's  recommendations.  315.  Suggestions  from  foreign 
practice.  316.  The  aims  and  functions  of  secondary  education. 
317.  Principles  arising  from  pupils'  development.  318.  Principles 
arising  from  individual  differences.  319.  The  distribution  and 
classification  of  pupils.  320.  Constant  and  variable  elements. 
321.  The  determination  of  constants.  322.  The  determination 
of  variables.  323.  Rigid  versus  flexible  curriculums.  324.  Con- 
tinuity and  concentration.  325.  Required,  preferential,  and  elec- 
tive subjects.  326.  Immediate  and  deferred  values.  327.  Prelim- 
inary explanation  of  curriculums.  328.  Curriculum  organization 
for  the  junior  high  school.  329.  Curriculum  organization  of  the 
senior  high  school. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  XXI.  THE     ORGANIZATION     OF      SECONDARY 

EDUCATION  (continued)       ....  693 

330.  The  place  of  the  secondary  school.  331.  Comprehensive 
versus  special-type  secondary  schools.  332.  Organization  of  vo- 
cational secondary  education.  333.  The  organization  of  instruc- 
tion. 334.  The  organization  of  extra- curriculum  education. 
335.  Educational  diagnosis  and  guidance.  336.  The  social  or- 
ganization of  the  school. 

Problems  for  further  consideration  —  Selected  references. 

INDEX  .  723 


PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

PART  I 
THE  PUPILS 


PRINCIPLES  OF 
SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  PUPIL:  PHYSICAL  TRAITS 

i.  Physical  traits  as  basic  data.  All  educational  theory 
and  practice  must  be  determined  primarily  by  the  nature  of 
the  individuals  to  be  educated.  Reduced  to  its  lowest  terms 
education  is  the  process  of  producing,  directing,  and  prevent- 
ing changes  in  human  beings.  For  the  intelligent  production, 
direction,  and  prevention  of  such  changes  a  knowledge  of 
the  raw  material  with  which  education  deals  is  a  funda- 
mental necessity,  and  hence  the  first  problem  of  educational 
theory  and  practice  in  any  department  is  concerned  with 
the  nature  of  those  to  be  educated.  It  is,  perhaps,  a  plati- 
tude  to  say  that  the  physical  and  physiological  traits  of  the 
individual  primarily  condition  his  total  nature.  As  is  the 
case  with  many  general  truths,  the  readiness  with  which  one 
accepts  such  a  statement  sometimes  tends  to  interfere  with 
a  full  appreciation  of  its  significance  and  to  leave  one  con- 
tent with  the  acceptance  of  the  generalization.  The  result- 
ing tendency  to  minimize  the  importance  of  a  knowledge 
of  the  physical  and  physiological  traits  of  the  educand  is 
furthered  by  recognition  of  the  fact  that  such  traits  are 
amenable  to  control  through  education  to  a  limited  degree 
only  and  that  the  demands  of  modern  life  emphasize  atten- 
tion to  the  phenomena  of  mental  traits. 

Secondary  education,  as  any  other  department  of  educa- 
tion, demands  for  initial  consideration  the  physical  and 


4         PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

physiological  traits  of  boys  and  girls,  special  interest  center- 
ing on  those  traits  and  their  development  in  boys  and  girls 
of  ages  approximately  twelve  to  eighteen.  Out  of  the  char- 
acter of  those  traits  and  their  development  arise  numerous 
important  problems  for  secondary  education,  some  of  gen- 
eral and  indirect  importance,  others  of  very  specific  and 
direct  bearing.  The  present  chapter,  therefore,  is  concerned 
with  the  nature  of  physical  or  physiological  traits  in  boys 
and  girls,  their  development,  and  their  bearing  on  the  the- 
ory and  practice  of  secondary  education. 

Before  approaching  the  material  presented  in  this  chapter 
the  reader  should  be  warned  that  much  remains  to  be  accom- 
plished in  the  measurement  of  physical  and  physiological 
traits  and  that  even  the  best  material  available  is  open  to 
severe  criticism.  In  particular  one  must  be  careful  not  to 
infer  too  much  from  averages  which  can  hold  true  for  large 
groups  only  and  cannot  be  applied  safely  to  individuals  or 
small  groups  because  of  the  great  variability  found.  Like- 
wise one  should  be  on  guard  against  unqualified  acceptance 
of  the  results  of  one  or  a  few  limited  investigations.  Finally, 
one  must  be  aware  of  the  danger  of  inferring  the  nature  of 
development  "in  general,"  or  the  nature  of  the  development 
of  all  organs  and  parts  of  the  body,  from  the  nature  of  the 
development  of  one  or  more  specific  parts  or  organs. 

Two  errors  have  been  so  common  in  the  measurement  of 
physical  and  physiological  traits  that  they  merit  special 
mention.  One  of  those  errors  is  the  practice  of  attempting 
to  determine  norms  of  development  by  measuring  different 
groups  of  children  at  various  ages,  instead  of  measuring  the 
growth  of  the  same  children.  The  second  error  is  that  of 
failing  to  recognize  properly  the  importance  of  variability 
and  of  overemphasizing  the  importance  of  averages  in  the 
measurement  of  any  given  trait.  Recent  investigations  have 
tended  to  avoid  these  errors. 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 


2.  The  chronological  ages  of  pupils.  Data  concerning 
physical  traits  and  their  development  are  best  understood 
when  referred  to  terms  of  maturity  or  "age."  Ordinarily 
maturity  or  age  is  expressed  in  chronological  terms  —  years, 
months,  and  days  —  and  "norms"  for  physical  and  mental 
traits  are  commonly  expressed  by  the  layman  and  educator 
in  such  terms.  However,  chronological  age  is  a  very  unsatis- 
factory measure  of  maturity  and  is  likely  to  be  misleading. 

The  organization  of  the  American  school  system  at  present 
postulates  that  the  age  and  grade  distribution  of  pupils  will 
conform  roughly  to  the  following  standard: 


TABLE  I 

Elementary  School 

Grade:  ...1234  5  6  7  8 

Age: 6-7   7-8  8-9   9-10   10-11    11-12   12-13   13-14 


Secondary  School 

I         II        III          IV 

14-15   15-16   16-17     17-18 


That  the  actual  situation  is  far  from  this  age-grade  distri- 
bution may  be  seen  from  the  following  typical  example: 

TABLE  II.   AGE-GRADE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PUPILS  IN  THE 
PATERSON  (N.J.)  SCHOOLS,  1912 


Age 


Grades 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

/ 

II 

/// 

IV 

Total 

4 

39 

39 

5 

712 

11 

723 

6 

1239 

367 

16 

1622 

7 

628 

965 

364 

15 

1 

1973 

8 

154 

584 

943 

270 

20 

1 

1972 

9 

55 

219 

644 

680 

280 

17 

1895 

10 

23 

102 

294 

602 

617 

254 

5 

1897 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

13 

9 
5 

2 

37 
22 
13 
3 

137 
61 
36 
8 

364 
210 
93 

26 
2 

502 
356 
193 
60 
8 
3 

518 
660 
323 
124 
19 
5 

172 
489 
523 
234 
74 
8 

28 
152 
400 
366 
182 
29 

2 
25 
151 

47 

'i9 

<T59> 

'  i 

17 
$ 

'16 

60 

1773 
1884 
1757 
1214 
691 
364 

17 
18 

1 

1 

1 

10 
3 

38 
10 

26 

!'j> 
44 

233 
83 

19 

1 

1 

4 

14 

20 

20 

3 

6 

9 

Over  20 

3 

3 

6 

Total 

2879 

2323 

2503 

2263 

2040 

1821 

1506 

1158 

681 

411 

338 

232 

18155 

<5         PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

From  such  a  table  as  this  a  number  of  important  facts 
regarding  the  chronological  age  of  secondary -school  pupils 
are  evident.  It  is  probable  that  in  our  schools  as  at  present 
administered  one  will  not  find  as  many  as  one  half  of  the 
pupils  in  any  grade  belonging  to  any  single  age  group.  Thus 
in  the  above  table  the  largest  age  group  in  the  eighth  grade 
is  the  group  of  thirteen-year-old  pupils  who  form  34.6  per 
cent  of  the  entire  grade  group.  In  the  first  year  of  the  high 
school  the  fourteen-year-old  pupils  constitute  42.0  per  cent 
of  the  entire  grade  group.  In  the  second  year  of  the  high 
school  the  fifteen-year-old  pupils  constitute  38.7  per  cent 
of  the  entire  grade  group.  In  the  third  year  of  the  high 
school  the  sixteen-year-old  pupils  constitute  34.3  per  cent 
of  the  grade  group.  In  the  fourth  year  of  the  high  school  the 
seventeen-year-old  pupils  constitute  34.3  per  cent  of  the 
grade  group.  Further,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  until  the  factor 
of  selection  operates  strongly  in  the  later  years  of  the 
secondary  school  the  proportion  of  pupils  belonging  to  any 
age  group  which  is  found  in  any  single  grade  of  the  school 
rarely  is  as  great  as  one-third  of  the  entire  age  group  found 
in  the  entire  school  system.  This  is  seen  clearly  from  the 
figures  presented  in  Table  III. 

Consideration  of  such  a  typical  situation  as  that  indicated 
in  the  tables  given  shows  clearly  that  chronological  age  is  a 
very  poor  measure  of  maturity  for  educational  purposes  and 
that  the  actual  existing  situation  in  our  educational  system 
does  not  even  approximately  conform  to  the  theoretical  dis- 
tribution of  age  and  grade.  Hence  it  is  that  the  term  "peda- 
gogical age"  is  frequently  employed  to  denote  degrees  of 
maturity  as  measured  by  the  stages  of  educational  progress 
(school  grades)  reached.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  peda- 
gogical age  is  a  general  term  designed  largely  to  eliminate 
the  confusion  caused  by  the  use  of  chronological  age  as  a 
measure  of  maturity  and  that  it  depends  for  real  meaning 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 


TABLE  HI.  PERCENTAGES  OF  PUPILS  OF  DIFFERENT  AGE  GROUPS 
LOCATED  IN  VARIOUS  GRADES  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  OF  SlX  ClTIES. 
THE  TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  PUPILS  CONSIDERED  WAS  APPROXI- 
MATELY 35,000* 


Grades 

Age  in  years 

12 

13 

U 

15 

16 

17 

1  

0.7% 
1.9 
5.8 
11.7 
22.1 
28.2 
21.6 
7.0 
0.9 
0.1 
0.0 
0.0 

0.2% 
0.8 
2.8 
6.7 
13.2 
21.5 
27.5 
19.8 
6.4 
1.0 
0.0 
0.0 

0.2% 
0.4 
1.5 
3.4 
7.1 
12.2 
21.3 
28.5 

<*% 

0.8 
0.0 

0.2% 
0.1 
0.6 
2.0 
3.3 
6.6 
12.7 
19.6 
27.5 

0.6 

0.2% 
0.1 
0.4 
0.6 
1.4 
1.9 
5.8 
12.6 
20.7 
31.0 

cdg) 

5.9 

0.1% 
0.1 
0.0 
0.1 
0.3 
0.8 
1.7 
4.6 
10.9 
26.6 
27.9 

2..  

3  

4  

5  

6  

7  

8  

I  

II  

Ill  

IV.  .. 

*  Inglis,  A.  J.  "A  Fundamental  Problem  in  the  Reorganization  of  the  High  School,'.' 
School  Review,  vol.  xxin,  p.  316. 

on  more  fundamental  measures  of  the  two  underlying  and 
correlated  factors,  physical  and  mental  maturity.  Thus  we 
have  at  least  four  measures  of  maturity:  chronological  age, 
pedagogical  age,  physiological  age,  and  psychological  age. 
By  chronological  age  is  meant  the  number  of  years  and 
months  a  boy  or  girl  has  lived.  By  pedagogical  age  is  meant 
the  grade  which  he  has  reached  in  school  or  the  stage  of  his 
educational  progress.  By  physiological  age  is  meant  the 
degree  of  maturity  which  he  has  reached  as  measured  by  the 
development  of  various  organs  and  parts  of  the  body,  or  of 
the  body  as  a  whole.  It  is  sometimes  restricted  in  its  appli- 
cation to  stages  of  pubescence  and  adolescence.  By  psycho- 
logical or  mental  age  is  meant  the  degree  of  maturity  which 
the  boy  or  girl  has  reached  as  measured  by  the  development 
of  mental  traits.  That  chronological  age  is  by  no  means 


8         PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

parallel  with  pedagogical  age  has  been  suggested  above. 
That  it  is  not  closely  paralleled  by  physiological  age  or  by 
psychological  age  is  a  matter  of  everyday  observation.  A 
boy  sixteen  years  of  age  may  be  less  mature  physiologically 
and  mentally  than  another  boy  twelve  years  of  age. 

The  consideration  of  physiological  age  is  the  special  pur- 
pose of  this  chapter.  The  consideration  of  psychological  age, 
together  with  problems  of  the  relation  between  psychological 
age  and  other  "ages,"  is  the  special  purpose  of  Chapter  II. 

3.  The  growth  of  children  in  height  and  weight.  The 
phenomena  of  growth  in  height  and  weight  are  probably  the 
most  easily  observed  and  readily  measured  phenomena 
affording  information  concerning  the  physical  growth  of 
children  and  hence  they  have  received  the  most  attention. 
Numerous  studies  afford  valuable  data  regarding  the  height 
and  weight  of  children  at  various  chronological  ages.  For 
the  present  purpose  we  may  consider  the  figures  calculated 
by  Boas  from  data  concerning  88,449  American  school  chil- 
dren in  height  and  about  68,000  in  weight.  (Tables  IV-V.) 

From  these  two  tables  a  number  of  facts  may  be  deduced: 
(1)  The  rate  of  growth  in  height  and  weight  as  measured  by 
the  per  cent  of  annual  increase  varies  at  different  periods 
and  between  the  sexes.  (2)  For  boys  the  rate  of  growth  in 
height  is  relatively  high  (average  per  year  5.4  per  cent) 
from  age  5.5  to  age  8.5,  is  relatively  low  (average  per  year 
3.25  per  cent)  from  age  8.5  to  age  12.5,  and  is  relatively  high 
again  (average  per  year  4  per  cent)  from  age  12.5  to  age  16.5 
where  the  limit  of  average  height  for  adults  (about  68  inches) 
is  approached.  (3)  For  boys  the  rate  of  growth  in  weight  is 
relatively  high  (average  per  year  9.8  per  cent)  from  age  6.5 
to  age  8.5,  is  relatively  low  (average  per  year  8.95  per  cent) 
from  age  8.5  to  age  12.5,  and  is  relatively  high  again  (average 
per  year  12  per  cent)  from  age  12.5  to  age  16.5.  (4)  For  girls 
the  rate  of  growth  in  height  remains  relatively  constant  from 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 


9 


TABLE  TV.  AVERAGE  HEIGHT  OP  45,151  BOYS  AND  43,298  GIRLS 
IN  THE  SCHOOLS  OF  CERTAIN  AMERICAN  CITIES,  WITH  MEASURES 
OF  INCREASE  AND  VARIABILITY* 


Boys 

Girls 

Average 
age 

Average  annual 

Average  annual 

in 
years 

Average 
i    •  1  1 

Mean 

increase 

Average 

L  -.'-.Li 

Mean 

increase 

height 
(inches) 

Variation 

(inches) 

Inches 

Per  cent 

height 
(inches) 

variation 
(inches) 

Inches 

Per  cent 

5.5 

41.7 

1.7, 

41.3 

•  .  .  \ 

2.2 

5.3 

2.0 

4.8 

6.5 

43.9 

1.8  [ 

43.3 

1.9 

2.1 

4.8 

2.4 

5.5 

7.5 

46.0 

2.0 

45.7 

2.0 

2.8 

6.1 

2.0 

4.4 

8.5 

48.8 

2.1  { 

47.7 

2.2 

1.2 

2.5 

[ 

2.0 

4.2 

9.5 

50.0 

2.2J 

49.7 

2.2! 

} 

1.9 

3.8 

i 

2.0 

4.0 

10.5 

51.9 

2.3  ' 

51.7 

2.4 

} 

1.7 

3.3 

I 

2.1 

4.1 

11.5 

53.6 

2.4  ( 

53.8 

2.6 

1.8 

3.4 

} 

2.3 

4.3 

12.5 

55.4 

2.6 

56.1 

2.9 

} 

2.1 

3.8 

1 

2.4 

4.3 

13.5 

57.5 

3.0 

58.5 

2.8 

} 

2.5 

4.3 

1.9 

3.2 

14.5 

60.0 

3.3 

60.4 

2.6 

I 

2.9 

4.8 

1 

1.2 

2.0 

15.5 

62.9 

3.4 

61.6 

2.3  | 

1 

2.0 

3.2 

} 

0.6 

1.0 

16.5 

64.9 

3.0 

62.2 

2.2 

1.6 

2.5 

0.5 

0.8 

17.5 

66.5 

4    2.8 

62.7 

I 
" 

0.9 

1.4 

18.5 

67.4 

...  ' 

...  » 

*  Burk,  F.,  "Growth  of  Children  in  Height  and  Weight,"  American  Journal  of  Psychology, 
vol.  ix,  p.  262.  Figures  after  Boas,  F.,  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation (1896-97),  vol.  ii,  pp.  1541-99.  Measurements  were  made  on  different  groups  of 
children  for  the  several  ages. 

age  7.5  to  age  13.5  where  the  average  adult  limit  begins  to 
be  approached.  (5)  For  girls  the  rate  of  growth  in  weight  is 
relatively  high  (average  per  year  10  per  cent)  from  age  6.5 
to  age  8.5,  is  relatively  low  (average  per  year  9.5  per  cent) 
from  age  8.5  to  age  10.5,  and  is  relatively  high  (average  per 
year  12  per  cent)  from  age  10.5  to  age  14.5.  (6)  Boys  excel 
girls  in  height  from  birth  up  to  age  about  11.5  and  after 
about  14.5.  In  weight  they  excel  girls  from  birth  up  to 


10       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  V.  AVERAGE  WEIGHT  OF  ABOUT  68,000  AMERICAN 
CHILDREN  IN  CERTAIN  CITIES,  WITH  THE  ANNUAL  INCREASES* 


Boy$ 

Girls 

age  in 
years 

Average  for 
each  age 
(pounds) 

Absolute 
annual 
increase 
(pounds) 

Annual 
increase 
(per  cent) 

Average  for 
each  age 
(pounds) 

Absolute 
annual 
increase 
(pounds) 

Annual 
increase 
(per  cent) 

6.5 

45.2    , 

43.4   , 

f 

4.3 

9.5 

4.3 

9.9 

7.5 

49.5 

47.7 

5.0 

10.1 

4.8 

10.0 

8.5 

54.5 

52.5 

5.1 

9.3 

i 

c 

4.9 

9.3 

9.5 

59.6    ? 

57.4 

5.8 

9.7 

5.5 

9.6 

10.5 

65.4 

62.9 

5.3 

8.1 

6.6 

10.5 

11.5 

70.7 

69.5 

6.2 

8.7 

9.2 

13.2 

12.5 

76.9 

78.7 

7.9 

10.3 

10.0 

12.7 

13.5 

84.8 

88.7 

10.4 

12.3 

9.6 

11.9 

14.5 

95.2 

98.3 

12.2 

12.8 

8.4 

8.5 

15.5 

107.4 

106.7 

13.6 

12.7 

.5.6 

5.2 

16.5 

121.0   ' 

112.3 

3.1 

2.8 

17.5 

115.4   | 

18.5 

114.9   ' 

*  From  Burk,  F.  (after  Boas),  op.  cit.,  p.  263. 

about  age  12.5  and  after  about  15.5.  For  a  period  of  about 
three  years  around  the  age  of  puberty  and  early  adolescence 
girls  excel  boys  in  height  and  weight.  They  tend  to  mature 
earlier.  (7)  For  girls  and  boys  the  mean  variation  in  height 
from  age  8.5  on  is  at  every  age  greater  than  the  amount 
of  the  average  annual  increase.  This  fact  illustrates  very 
clearly  the  danger  of  applying  general  averages  to  individual 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 


11 


cases  or  to  small  groups.  "Each  individual  is  a  law  unto 
himself.  A  school  child  may  be  several  inches  shorter  and 
many  pounds  lighter  than  the  average  for  children  of  his 
age,  race,  and  sex,  while  fully  reaching  the  standard  which 
nature  set.  for  him." l  Even  when  we  are  dealing  with  large 
groups  the  amount  of  the  variability  must  be  considered 
just  as  important  as  the  average.  This  is  shown  for  height 
in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  VI.  SHOWING  THE  FREQUENCIES  OF  HEIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN 
BOYS  AND  GIRLS  OF  AGES  FROM  11.5  TO  16.5  YEARS.  FRE- 
QUENCIES IN  PER  CENTS  OF  TOTAL  AGE  GROUPS* 


Height  in 
centi- 
meters 

Boys  :  age  in  years 

Girls  :  age  in  years 

11.5 

12.5 

13.5 

14.5 

15.5 

26.5 

11.5 

12.5 

13.5 

14.5 

15.5 

16.5 

109-112 
113-116 
117-120 
121-124 
125-H8 
129-132 
133-136 
137-140 
141-144 
145-148 
149-152 
153-156 
157-160 
161-164 
165-168 
169-172 
173-176 
177-180 
181-184 
185-188 

0.2 
0.2 
0.4 
2.5 
9.1 
18.1 
25.5 
22.3 
13.9 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 
0.7 
2.7 
8.8 
18.2 
23.3 
21.2 

0.1 
0.3 
0.9 
2.6 
7.6 
14.9 
20  9 

0.6 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
2.0 
6.1 
10  8 

0.1 

3.1 
8.6 

0.7 
2.1 

0.2 
0.3 

0.2 

... 

18.0 

6.5 

1.2 

0.3 

0.4 

1.1 
4.4 

0.5 
1  i 

23.4 
20.8 
14  3 

13.1 
19.5 
21.7 

3.9 
10.0 
14.3 

1.0 

2.6 
6.1 

0.9 

2.2 

0.2 
1  0 

5.3 
1.9 
0.4 
0.2 

13.6 
7.0 
3.0 
1.1 
0.3 

19.8 
14.9 
10.2 
4.8 
1.8 
0.6 
0.4 

17.1 
18.2 
17.1 
11.9 
8.4 
3.9 
2.3 

7.4 
13.4 
15.4 
16.8 
14.7 
12.9 
8.0 

1.5 
5.1 

7.6 
13.8 
18.9 
20.3 
19.1 

6.8 
S.I 
0.7 
0.3 

16.2 
11.0 
5.8 
2.4 
0.4 
0.2 

20.1 
21.7 
16.0 
8.3 
3.0 
0.6 
0.2 

12.6 
22.6 
26.2 
16.7 
8.1 
2.7 
0.7 
0.2 

6.4 
18.0 
27.4 
23.0 
14.8 
5.7 
1.2 
0.4 

4.6 
13.6 
23.9 
26.5 
18.6 
8.7 
2.6 
0.2 
0.1 

0.7 

3.1 

7.5 

0.3 

1.0 

3.9 

0.1 

0.6 

0.1 

*  Adapted  from  Burk,  F.  (after  Boas),  op.  cit.,  pp.  265-66. 

The  figures  in  this  table  indicate  clearly  the  danger  of 
relying  on  averages.  This  is  obvious  from  the  extensive 
range  in  height  between  the  smallest  boy  or  girl  of  any 
given  age  and  the  tallest  of  the  same  age  (averaging  nearly 
a  foot  and  a  half),  from  the  great  amount  of  variation  in 
1  Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child,  p.  21. 


12       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

each  age  group,  and  from  the  great  amount  of  overlapping. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  average  height  for  a  boy 
or  girl  of  any  chronological  age  from  11.5  to  18.5  is  equalled 
or  surpassed  by  the  height  of  more  than  twenty  per  cent  of 
the  boys  or  girls  a  year  younger. 

The  variability  in  height  and  weight  has  been  made  the 
basis  of  several  investigations  designed  to  discover  what 
relation,  if  any,  exists  between  physical  growth  and  mental 
ability.  Are  children  who  are  heavier  and  taller  than  their 
fellows  of  the  same  chronological  age  more  or  less  mature 
mentally  than  the  latter,  or  is  there  no  relation  between 
physical  growth  (as  measured  by  height  and  weight)  and 
mental  ability?  Porter  maintained  that  there  is  a  physical 
basis  for  precocity  and  dullness,  with  the  advantage  in  favor 
of  those  physically  more  mature.  He  bases  his  argument 
primarily  on  data  collected  and  compiled  by  himself  for  the 
heights  and  weights  of  about  34,500  boys  and  girls  as  related 
to  their  pedagogical  progress.  While  his  figures  apply  partic- 
ularly to  elementary-school  pupils  the  point  which  he  raises 
may  be  made  clear  through  the  presentation  of  data  for 
pupils  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age.  (Table  VII.) 

Porter  says:  "The  truth  which  the  [original]  table  ex- 
presses is  very  plain.  It  declares  in  unmistakable  lines  that 
precocious  children  are  heavier  and  dull  children  lighter  than 
the  mean  child  of  the  same  age.  It  establishes  a  physical 
basis  of  precocity  and  dullness."  Boas  calls  attention  to  the 
fact,  however,  that  the  figures  show  a  correlation  between 
mental  and  physical  growth  but  not  necessarily  that  mental 
development  depends  on  physical  growth.  West  further 
notes  that  two  errors  are  involved  in  Porter's  results  because 
a  number  of  pupils  enter  school  at  a  late  age  and  are  there- 
fore incorrectly  counted  as  "dull"  pupils,  and  because 
Porter's  results  are  capable  of  misinterpretation  through  his 
method  of  reckoning  age  according  to  the  nearest  birthday.1 
1  West,  G.  M.,  Science,  vol.  iv,  pp.  156-59. 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 


13 


TABLE  VII.  SHOWING  THE  RELATION  OF  SCHOOL  PROGRESS  TO 
WEIGHT  AS  INDICATED  BY  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  HEAVY  AND 
LIGHT  CHILDREN  OF  THE  SAME  AGES  IN  DIFFERENT  GRADES  OF 
THE  ST.  Louis  SCHOOLS* 


Age  at  near- 
ett  birthday 

Mean  weight 
(pounds') 

Average  weight  of  children  in  grades 

Elementary  school 

High 
School 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

S 

,.  (  Boys 
14  {  Girls 

88.08 
03.94 

81.00 
90.50 

84.00 
87.17 

87.83 
92.67 

87.20 
94.64 

93.63 
96.15 

97.50 
99.00 

86.50 
103.12 

,,  (Boys 
15  I  Girls 

100.20 
103.20 

— 

89.00 
98.50 

95  .  33 
100.96 

99.17 
99.83 

105.50 
104.00 

105.17 
104.58 

105.08 
105.15 

i«  )  Boys 
16  {  Girls 

114.17 
110.00 

- 

— 

- 

114  .50 
108.12 

104.00 
107.38 

114.00 
110.29 

123.00 
113.37 

*  Adapted  from  Burk,  F.  (after  Porter),  op.  cit.,  pp.  296-97. 

Boas,  using  data  collected  by  West  at  Toronto,  made  a  com- 
parison of  the  relative  brightness  of  children  and  their  stages 
of  physical  development  in  weight.1  The  results  which  he 
obtained  were  diametrically  opposed  to  those  found  by 
Porter,  though  his  results  cannot  be  accepted  as  satisfac- 
torily obtained  because  of  methods  employed  in  determining 
the  "brightness"  of  pupils  on  the  basis  of  teachers'  judg- 
ments. MacDonald,2  using  the  teachers'  estimates  of 
"brightness,"  and  Smedley,3  using  age  and  grade  progress 
as  measures,  found  that  "bright"  children  were  taller  and 
heavier  than  "dull"  children.  Baldwin4  distinguishes  be- 
tween "precocity"  and  advanced  stages  of  mental  matura- 
tion, and,  basing  his  conclusions  on  the  school  grades  and 

1  Boas,  F.,  Science,  vol.  i,  pp.  225-30. 

2  MacDonald,  A.,  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
(1897-98),  vol.  i,  pp.  989-1204;  vol.  n,  pp.  1281-90. 

3  Smedley,  F.  W.,  Report  of  the  Department  of  Child  Study  of  the  Public 
Schools,  Chicago,  vol.  2,  pp.  10-48. 

4  Baldwin,  B.  T.,  Physical  Growth  and  School  Progress,  pp.  89-90. 


14       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

physical  growth  measured  in  the  same  children  at  different 
ages,  states  that  tall  children  are  older  physiologically  and 
more  mature  mentally,  though  frequently  not  as  bright. 
Gilbert1  claims  a  lack  of  correlation.  The  conflicting  con- 
clusions reached  by  the  different  investigators  render  the 
problem  complex.  However,  the  consensus  of  opinion  that 
feeble-minded  children  are  commonly  inferior  in  height  and 
weight  could  lend  support  to  the  theory  that  there  is  an 
important  correlation  between  mental  ability  and  physical 
growth  in  height  and  weight.  Terman  claims:  "For  masses, 
however,  the  relationship  undoubtedly  holds."2  Porter's 
suggestion  is  not  without  importance  that:  "No  child  whose 
weight  or  height  is  below  the  average  (median  or  norm)  for 
its  age  should  be  permitted  to  enter  a  school  grade  beyond 
the  average  of  its  age  except  after  such  a  physical  examina- 
tion as  shall  make  it  probable  that  the  child's  strength  is 
equal  to  the  strain."3 

4.  The  growth  of  organs  and  parts  of  the  body.  It  is  some- 
times thought  that  the  process  of  growth  throughout  the 
body  is  essentially  uniform  and  that  the  various  organs  and 
parts  of  the  body  develop  at  about  the  same  rates  and  in 
about  the  same  proportions  at  different  stages.  Such  a  con- 
ception is  erroneous.  Growth  is  relative  in  the  various 
organs  and  parts  of  the  body.  Each  organ  and  part  has  its 
own  rate  of  development.  After  initial  rapid  development 
in  babyhood  some  organs  and  parts  develop  at  a  fairly  con- 
stant rate  until  the  limits  of  growth  are  approached.  Others 
develop  rapidly  in  early  childhood  and  more  slowly  later. 
Still  others  manifest  a  relatively  rapid  rate  of  development  in 


1  Gilbert,  J.  A.,  Researches  on  School  Children  and  College  Students,  Studies 
from  the  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory,  vol.  I,  pp.  1-39. 

2  Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child,  pp.  27-29. 

3  Porter,  W.  T.,  The  Physical  Basis  of  School  Progress,  Transactions  of 
the  St.  Louis  Academy  of  Science,  vol.  6,  pp.  IGl-bl. 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 


15 


early  childhood,  then  a  period  of  relatively  slow  develop- 
ment, followed  again  by  a  relatively  rapid  rate  of  develop- 
ment. The  various  organs  and  parts  of  the  body  which  have 
been  measured  carefully  in  their  development  manifest 
widely  varying  rates  of  growth.1  Growth  in  height  and 
weight  may  be  and  probably  is  significant  of  activity  in  the 
growth  processes  of  various  organs  and  parts  of  the  body 
whose  rates  of  development  vary  widely  from  each  other 
and  from  such  total  growth  as  can  be  measured  by  height 
and  weight. 

In  the  following  table  are  presented  figures  for  growth  in 
vital  capacity  and  in  the  circumference  of  the  head. 

TABLE  VIII* 


Vital  capacity  in  cubic  centimeters 

Circumference  of  the  head  in  millimeters 

(Smedley) 

(MacDonald) 

Age 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

Norm 

Increase 

Norm 

Increase 

Norm 

Increase 

Norm 

Increase 

6 

1023 

950 

513.6 

506.2 

7 

1168 

14.2 

1061 

11.7 

519.4 

11.10 

606.5 

0.06 

8 

1316 

12.7 

1165 

9.1 

520.0 

0.29 

511.6 

1.01 

9 

1469 

11.6 

1286 

10.4 

523.5 

0.50 

615.4 

0.74 

10 

1603 

9.1 

1409 

9.6 

526.5 

0.57 

518.9 

0.68 

11 

173* 

8.0 

1526 

8.3 

528.8 

0.44 

521.7 

0.54 

12 

1883 

8.7 

1664 

9.0 

531.9 

0.58 

527.8 

1.17 

13 

8108 

12.0 

1827 

9.8 

633.7 

0.34 

532.1 

0.81 

14 

2395 

13.6 

2014 

10.2 

538.7 

0.93 

538.0 

1.11 

15 

2697 

12.6 

2168 

7.6 

544.8 

1.13 

540.5 

0.46 

16 

3120 

15.7 

2266 

4.5 

550.4 

1.03 

643.0 

0.46 

17 

3483 

11.3 

2319 

2.3 

555.5 

0.93 

547.4 

0.81 

18 

3655 

4.0 

2343 

1.0 

556.5 

0.18 

548.6 

0.22 

*  Table  adapted  and  increments  derived  by  the  writer  from  data  given  by  Smedley, 

F.  W.,  Report  of  the  Department  of  Child-Study,  Chicago,  vol.  2,  pp.  13-14,  and  from  Whipple, 

G.  M.  (after  MacDonald,  A.),  Manual  of  Menial  and  Physical  Testa,  Part  I,  pp.  88-89. 

Hall  claims  that  the  lungs  share  in  the  augmented  devel- 
opment of  adolescence.    Smedley  claims  that  girls  increase 

1  Cf.  Hall,  G.  S.,  Adolescence;  and  Weissenberg,  S.,  Das  Wachstum  des 
Menschen  naeh  Alter. 


16        PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

most  rapidly  in  vital  capacity  from  12  to  14,  after  which  the 
increment  is  at  a  diminished  rate;  that  boys  take  a  sudden 
start  upward  at  14,  and  continue  a  rapid  rise  until  at  least 
19|;  and  that  boys  have  a  larger  vital  capacity  than  girls  at 
all  ages.  Baldwin  and  Smedley  claim  that  there  is  a  positive 
correlation  between  vital  capacity  and  school  standing. 
Gilbert  claims  that  there  is  no  correlation. 

It  is  tempting  to  take  the  development  of  the  skull  as 
indicating  a  possible  measurement  of  the  development  of 
the  brain  and  nervous  system.  Such  a  theory  is  in  all  prob- 
ability quite  untenable,  inasmuch  as  the  development  of 
the  head  in  circumference  is  largely  due  to  the  growth  of  the 
bones  of  the  skull  and  the  weight  of  the  brain  does  not  in- 
crease in  the  same  proportion  as  intelligence.  The  most 
appropriate  analogy  between  the  development  of  mental 
traits  and  physical  traits  would  naturally  be  concerned  with 
the  development  of  the  nervous  system  and  especially  of 
the  brain.  It  is  recognized,  however,  that  the  development 
of  mental  traits  depends  not  so  much  on  the  increase  of  the 
brain  in  mass  as  measured  by  size  or  weight  as  on  the 
development  of  neurone  cells  and  their  interconnections. 
On  this  our  present  knowledge  sheds  little  light  and  infer- 
ences are  dangerous.  To  argue  for  a  parallelism  of  mental 
development  and  physical  development  by  analogy,  and  then 
to  argue  that  there  is  correspondence  in  the  development  of 
the  nervous  system  following  from  the  supposed  develop- 
ment of  mental  traits,  is  to  argue  in  a  vicious  circle.  Concern- 
ing the  development  of  the  nervous  system  Terman's  state- 
ments are  here  appropriate: 

Compared  to  the  rest  of  the  body,  the  central  nervous  system 
shows  a  precocious  growth  in  size  and  weight.  At  birth  the  brain 
has  already  attained  about  one  fourth  of  its  final  size,  and  by  seven 
years  over  ninety  per  cent.  Growth  continues  much  retarded  up 
to  about  fourteen,  and  then  practically  ceases.  But  here,  least  of 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  17 

all,  does  weight  give  any  idea  as  to  maturity.  The  cells  of  the 
brain,  although  all  present  in  embryonic,  granule  form  for  several 
months  preceding  birth,  only  gradually  ripen  into  their  fully 
differentiated  structure  and  put  forth  their  branching  network  of 
dendrites.  .  .  .  The  acquisition  of  the  medullary  sheath,  which  we 
have  above  spoken  of  as  the  ripening  process,  proceeds  rapidly 
in  the  sensory  centers  and  more  gradually  in  the  frontal  portion, 
named  by  Flechsig  the  "association  centers."  This  includes  almost 
two  thirds  of  the  cerebral  cortex,  which  together  with  the  middle 
sheath  of  tangential  fibers,  shows  remarkable  and  important 
changes  in  the  cellular  development  of  later  adolescence,  the 
changes  continuing  probably  as  late  as  forty  years.1 

Studies  of  the  growth  of  the  bones  of  the  body  have  em- 
phasized the  variations  in  the  development  of  parts  of  the 
body  in  two  rather  noteworthy  respects.  The  researches  of 
Rotch  and  Pryor  indicate  that  anatomical  development,  as 
measured  by  stages  in  ossification,  is  largely  independent  of 
chronological  age  and  of  development  in  height  or  weight, 
except  in  the  most  general  way.  They  further  indicate  that 
girls  are  more  advanced  than  boys  at  every  age  with  respect 
to  the  stage  of  ossification  of  the  epiphyseal  cartilage,  though 
in  height,  weight,  and  possibly  in  vital  capacity,  such  supe- 
riority on  the  part  of  girls  is  found  only  as  previously  indi- 
cated from  about  twelve  to  about  fourteen.2 

5.  Physical  development  in  relation  to  health.  On  the 
whole  it  appears  probable  that  mortality  is  lowest  and  the 
capacity  to  resist  disease  highest  at  ages  about  ten  to  four- 
teen, or  preceding  and  during  the  early  stages  of  pu- 
berty. Accurate  figures  are  difficult  to  secure  and  still  more 
difficult  to  interpret.  In  1910-11  for  certain  registration 
areas  of  the  United  States  the  uncorrected  death  rates 
for  various  age  groups  were  as  indicated  in  the  following 
table: 

1  Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child,  pp.  57-58. 

2  Ibid.,  pp.  62-63. 


18       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  IX.    DEATH-RATES  PER  1000  POPULATION  FOR  VARIOUS 
AGE  GROUPS  IN  1910-11* 


22  slates 

60  cities 

Male 

Female 

Both  sexes 

Male 

Female 

Both  sexes 

1-  4  years 

12.2 

11.3 

11.8 

15.3 

13.9 

14.6 

5-  9      " 

3.2 

3.0 

3.1 

4.0 

3.6 

3.8 

10-14      " 

2.3 

2.1 

2.2 

2.9 

2.5 

2.7 

15-19      " 

3.8 

3.5 

3.6 

4.5 

4.0 

4.3 

20-24      " 

5.4 

5.0 

5.2 

6.6 

5.7 

6.1 

*  Compiled  by  the  writer  from  data  given  on  pp.  16-17  of  Department  of  Commerce, 
Bureau  of  the  Census,  Mortality  Statistics  (1911).  Figures  for  cities  are  in  terms  of  the 
average  rates  for  fifty  cities  each  of  100,000  population  or  over. 

Hartwell's  figures  for  death  rates  in  the  City  of  Boston 
were  obtained  more  than  twenty-five  years  ago.  In  terms 
of  deaths  per  thousand  for  various  ages  they  are  indicated 
in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  X* 


Age 

Male 

Female 

Age 

Male 

Female 

4-  5 

20.73 

21.55 

12-13 

3.44 

4.30 

5-  6 

14.85 

16.44 

13-14 

4.18 

6.17 

6-  7 

13.40 

14.38 

14-15 

3.98 

5.83 

7-  8 

9.35 

9.62 

15-16 

5.31 

5.89 

8-  9 

6.09 

8.11 

16-17 

6.58 

6.57 

9-10 

7.41 

5.11 

17-18 

6.43 

7.94 

10-11 

4.77 

5.23 

18-19 

10.48 

6.32 

11-12 

4.28 

3.23 

19-20 

10.35 

10.48 

*  Hartwell,  E.  M.,  Report  on  Physical  Education  in  the  Boston  Public  Schools. 

Such  figures  as  those  presented  in  these  two  tables  must 
be  interpreted  with  great  caution.  The  removal  at  early 
ages  of  those  who  are  more  susceptible  to  illness  and  death 
constantly  makes  each  successive  group  more  select  in 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  19 

bealth  so  that  the  decrease  in  the  death-rate  from  childhood 
to  puberty  may  in  no  direct  way  be  related  to  development 
with  age.  It  is  to  be  noted  also  that  preventive  medicine 
and  improved  hygiene  tend  to  decrease  the  death-rate  at 
early  ages  and  tend  to  increase  it  at  later  ages.  In  this  con- 
nection it  may  be  mentioned  that  Hartwell  found  that  the 
age  of  the  minimum  death-rate  was  the  thirteenth  year  in 
1875,  the  fourteenth  year  in  1885,  and  the  fifteenth  year 
in  1890. 

It  is  frequently  stated  that  the  period  of  puberty  and 
early  adolescence  is  characterized  by  low  mortality  rates  and 
a  high  resistance  to  diseases  of  a  serious  character,  but  by  a 
susceptibility  to  minor  illnesses.  The  evidence  in  all  cases 
is  by  no  means  clear.  Neither  is  it  clear  that  a  low  rate  of 
mortality,  if  it  is  found  for  puberty,  is  necessarily  related 
to  the  phenomena  of  development.  On  the  whole  Terman's 
statements  concerning  investigations  in  this  field  are  appro- 
priate.1 

Investigations  on  this  point  are  somewhat  contradictory,  but 
indicate  on  the  whole  that,  although  the  mortality  rate  is  lowest 
when  the  adolescent  acceleration  is  greatest,  morbid  conditions 
of  both  mind  and  body  are  at  that  time  most  frequent.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  girls.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  discriminate 
diseases  and  to  determine  the  curve  of  liability  of  each.  To  lump 
together  diseases  and  complaints  of  every  kind  and  to  enumerate 
them  as  so  many  "illnesses"  or  "defects"  is  of  doubtful  value,  at 
best,  and  may  be  misleading. 

Many  more  and  much  more  accurate  investigations  are 
necessary  before  we  may,  with  any  certainty,  determine  the 
relation  of  health  to  maturity  or  the  phenomena  of  develop- 
ment. 

6.  The  physiological  phenomena  of  adolescence.  "Ado- 
lescence" (from  the  Latin  adolescere  —  to  grow  up,  to  ma- 
1  Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Hygiene  of  the  Scliool  Child,  p.  26. 


20       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

tare)  is  the  term  applied  to  that  stage  of  development  of 
boys  and  girls  between  the  approximate  ages  of  twelve 
and  twenty,  when  the  procreative  powers  are  developing. 
"Puberty"  is  the  term  applied  to  the  initial  stage  of  physio- 
logical development  at  adolescence.1  From  its  beginning 
secondary  education  has  been  closely  associated  with  the 
period  of  puberty  and  adolescence  and  in  many  ways  its 
character  has  frequently  been  determined,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, by  the  physiological  phenomena  connected  with  that 
period  of  development.  Thus  among  primitive  peoples  what 
formal  education  existed  was  related  to  the  initiatory  rites 
and  ceremonies  which  took  place  at  puberty  or  during 
adolescence.  Among  the  Greeks  the  very  terms  employed 
to  characterize  certain  forms  or  stages  of  education  indi- 
cated the  connection  between  education  and  puberty.2  At 
the  present  time  the  period  of  secondary  education  either 
coincides  with  or  is  included  in  the  period  of  puberty  or 
early  adolescence  so  that  any  fruitful  analysis  of  physical 
or  physiological  development  and  of  secondary  education 
requires  careful  study  of  the  phenomena  of  adolescence. 
Such  an  analysis  is  of  great  importance  for  the  proper  under- 
standing and  treatment  of  adolescent  boys  and  girls  in  direct 
connection  with  the  physical  and  physiological  traits  them- 
selves. It  becomes  increasingly  important  in  view  of  the 
correlation  sometimes  claimed  between  physiological  and 
mental  traits  and  in  view  of  certain  indirect  effects  of  physi- 
cal or  physiological  traits  on  mental  traits  through  the 
determination  of  subjective  attitudes. 

If  puberty  began  for  all  children  or  even  for  all  boys  or  all 
girls  at  approximately  the  same  chronological  age,  problems 

1  In  its  strict  sense  puberty  has  reference  to  the  growth  of  hair  on  the 
body. 

2  Eirenic  and  ephebic  from  etpyv  and  I0e£oj  =  having  attained  the  age  of 
puberty,  from  M  =  at  and  ?j/3i?  =  puberty,  the  state  of  being  marriageable. 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 


arising  out  of  the  phenomena  of  adolescence  would  be  much 
less  complicated  than  they  are.  The  date  of  the  onset  of 
puberty  varies  both  for  boys  and  for  girls.  It  varies  accord- 
ing to  race,  according  to  climate,  and  according  to  many 
other  conditions.  Hence,  from  the  mere  fact  of  chronological 
age  one  cannot  predicate  that  a  child  is  immature,  maturing, 
or  already  mature.  This  appears  clearly  from  the  results 
obtained  by  Crampton  who  measured  3825  boys  in  the  high 
schools  of  New  York  City  and  classified  them  in  three  groups 
of  the  prepubescent  (immature),  pubescent  (maturing),  and 
postpubescent  (mature). 

TABLE  XI.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  BOYS  BY  CHRONOLOGICAL  AGE 
AND  BY  PHYSIOLOGICAL  AGE  AS  MEASURED  BY  STAGES  OP 
PUBESCENCE  * 


Mean  age  in  years 

Prepubescent 
(immature) 

Pubescent 
(maturing) 

Postpubescent 
(mature) 

12.25 

(8D% 

(16)% 

(*)% 

12.75 

69 

25 

6 

13.25 

55 

26 

18 

13.75 

41 

28 

31 

14.25 

26 

28 

46 

14.75 

16 

24 

60 

15.25 

9 

20 

70 

15.75 

5 

10 

85 

16.25 

2 

4 

93 

16.75 

1 

4 

95 

17.25 

0 

2 

98 

17.75 

0 

0 

100 

*  Crampton,  C.  W.,  "Physiological  Age  —  A  Fundamental  Principle,"  American 
Physical  Education  Review,  vol.  xm,  p.  150. 

The  change  from  prepubescence  to  pubescence  is  most 
noticeable  from  age  13.75  to  age  14.25. 

The  other  ages  immediately  preceding .  this,  however,  are  also 
popular,  and  the  average  date  is  much  earlier  than  the  mean  date. 
For  the  ending  of  prepubescence  and  the  beginning  of  pubescence 


22       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


the  middle  of  the  mean  year  is  14.00  years,  the  average  date  is 
13.44  years  with  a  variability  (mean  square  deviation)  of  1.51 
years.1 

This  means  that  it  requires  a  range  of  about  three  years 
to  include  approximately  two  thirds  of  the  cases.  The  full 
significance  of  this  variability  is  noted  by  Crampton: 

If  the  immature  differed  from  the  mature  in  no  other  way  than 
this  particular  sign,  it  would  hardly  be  worth  while  to  segregate 
these  groups.  The  classification  shows,  however,  that  there  is  a 
striking  physical  change  in  the  progress  from  immaturity  to  matur- 
ity. At  characteristic  ages,  the  mature  are  more  than  33  per  cent 
heavier,  10  per  cent  taller,  and  33  per  cent  stronger  than  the 
immature. 

To  substantiate  this  statement  he  presents  among  others 
the  following  figures: 

TABLE  XII  * 


Average  weight  in 

Average  height  in 

Average  strength  of 

Age 

in 

kilograms 

centimeters 

grip  in  kilograms 

years 

Prepu- 
bescent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Postpu- 
bescent 

Prepu- 
bescent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Postpu- 
bescent 

Prepu- 
bescent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Postpu- 
bescent 

12.75 

25.2 

36.6 

(50.8) 

144.0 

147.5 

150.5 

26.6 

28.2 

(32.5) 

13.25 

35.0 

37.2 

44.3 

144.2 

148.7 

153.9 

26.3 

28.1 

33.6 

13.75 

35.4 

37.9 

43.8 

145.7 

150.4 

155.9 

27.6 

30.4 

85.2 

14.25 

35.2 

38.6 

45.4 

146.6 

150.6 

157.9 

27.3 

30.2 

37.8 

14.75 

36.8 

39.0 

47.2 

147.3 

151.7 

158.9 

29.4 

30.8 

38.3 

15.25 

37.9 

38.8 

47.7 

149.8 

151.5 

160.7 

29.6 

31.1 

40.1 

15.75 

36.7 

41.8 

49.3 

149.8 

153.1 

162.6 

32.5 

30.4 

42.9 

16.25 

(40.0) 

38.3 

51.6 

151.0 

152.4 

164.6 

31.7 

29.6 

43.8 

16.75 

(42.5) 

(41.5) 

53.5 

(153.0) 

(151.4) 

165.4 

(27.5) 

33.2 

48.3 

*  Crampton,  C.  W.,  "The  Influence  of  Physiological  Age  on  Scholarship,"    The  Psycho- 
logical Clinic,  vol.  i,  pp.  117-18. 

The  correlation  between  stages  of  puberty  and  such  physi- 
cal traits  as  height  and  weight  is  indicated  by  these  data. 
The  correlation  between  physical  development  in  height  and 
1  Crampton,  C.  W.,  op.  cit.,  p.  146. 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  23 

weight  and  mental  ability  or  school  progress  was  considered 
in  a  preceding  section.   Crampton  maintains: 

Greater  height,  weight,  and  strength  are  related  to  better  scholar- 
ship because  they  are  all  effects  of  the  same  cause,  —  earlier 
pubescence.  ...  It  is  possible  that  if  this  factor  were  to  be  elimi- 
nated there  would  appear  a  minus  instead  of  a  plus  relation  between 
scholarship  and  weight.1 

These  statements  he  bases  on  the  results  obtained  by  com- 
paring the  average  status  in  physical  traits  of  boys  of  the 
same  chronological  age  and  the  same  physiological  age 
groups  which  differed  only  in  pedagogical  age  by  one  high- 
school  term,  and  by  observing  the  rate  of  success  and  fail- 
ure of  boys  of  each  chronological  age  and  physiological  age 
group.  Employing  the  latter  method  he  found  that  postpu- 
bescents  were  more  successful,  eighteen  per  cent  failing  to 
pass  into  the  next  form  as  against  twenty -seven  per  cent  of 
failure  for  the  prepubescents  at  thirteen  years  of  age.  At 
the  age  of  fourteen  the  per  cents  of  failure  were  twenty-four 
and  thirty-four  respectively;  at  fifteen  they  were  twenty-nine 
and  thirty-six.  As  a  result  he  maintains  that  earlier  pubes- 
cence favors  good  scholarship  and  later  pubescence  poorer 
scholarship. 

Variability  also  characterizes  the  date  of  the  appearance 
and  development  of  pubescence  among  girls.  This  is  shown 
in  Table  XIII. 

From  these  figures  the  following  conclusions  may  be 
drawn:  (1)  the  date  of  the  onset  of  puberty  is  highly  variable 
for  girls;  (2)  girls  of  the  same  chronological  age  differ  widely 
with  respect  to  their  stages  of  physiological  maturity  as 
measured  by  puberty;  (3)  less  than  five  per  cent  of  girls  are 
still  prepubescent  at  the  age  of  fifteen;  (4)  pubescence  begins 
for  girls  earlier  than  for  boys. 

7.  Some  implications  for  secondary  education.  As  a  result 

1  Crampton,  C.  W.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  118-19. 


24       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  XIII.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  1241  GIRLS  BY  CHRONOLOGICAL 
AGE  AND  STAGES  OF  PUBERTY* 


Mean  age  in  years 

Prepubescent 
(immature) 

Pubescent  (maturing) 

Postpubescent 
(mature) 

10.0 

100.00% 

0.00% 

0.00% 

10.5 

93.75 

6.25 

0.00 

11.0 

100.00 

0.00 

0.00 

11.5 

78.84 

19.23 

1.92 

12.0 

62.06 

37.93 

0.00 

12.5 

58.20 

23.88 

17.91 

13.0 

39.53 

34.88 

25.58 

13.5 

15.15 

37.87 

46.96 

14.0 

15.38 

38.46 

46.15 

14.5 

4.83 

17.74 

77.42 

15.0 

0.00 

14.54 

JB5.45 

15.5 

1.55 

7.81 

90.62 

16.0 

2.04 

6.12 

91.83 

16.5 

0.00 

3.17 

96.83 

17.0 

0.00 

0.00 

100.00 

*  Baldwin,  B.  T.,  "A  Measuring  Scale  for  Physical  Growth  and  Physiological  Age," 
Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  part  I,  chap,  i,  p.  17. 
The  relatively  small  number  of  cases  examined  precludes  any  exact  interpretation  and 
explains  some  minor  fluctuations.  The  general  tendency  is,  however,  obvious. 

of  his  study  of  physiological  age  in  connection  with  high- 
school  pupils  Crampton  recommends: 

Where  mature  and  immature  children  are  now  brought  together 
in  the  same  class  in  the  elementary  or  high  school,  they  should 
be  separated  into  different  classes,  so  that  the  pedagogical,  ethical 
and  social  treatment  to  which  they  are  subjected  may  be  better 
adapted  to  their  disparate  and  distinct  requirements  and  abilities.1 

An  experiment  carried  on  in  a  New  York  City  high 
school  more  or  less  sustained  Crampton's  thesis.  Foster, 
giving  the  results  of  that  experiment,  presents  the  following 
figures: 

1  Crampton,  C.  W.,  "  Anatomical  or  Physiological  Age:  versus  Chron- 
ological Age,"  Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  xv,  p.  236. 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 
TABLE  XIV  * 


Registered 
number 

Discharges 
(per  cent) 

Failures 
(per  cent) 

Promotions 
(per  cent) 

Eight  classes    arranged 
by  physiological  age  .  -. 
Four  classes  not  arranged 
by  physiological  age  .  . 
Previous    class    not    ar- 
ranged by  physiological 
age.  . 

295 
149 

818 

20 
.31 

27 

19 
17 

17 

61 
52 

56 

_*  Foster,  W.  L.,  "Physiological  Age  as  a  Basis  for  the  Classification  of  Pupils  entering 
High  Schools,"  Psychological  Clinic,  vol.  iv,  p.  86. 

From  these  and  other  results  Foster  drew  the  following 
conclusions: 

(1)  It  is  more  agreeable  for  boys  of  the  same  development  to 
associate  with  one  another.  (2)  A  classification  of  high  school  stu- 
dents according  to  physiological  age,  based  on  pubescence,  is  easy 
and  practical.  (3)  By  an  experiment  in  a  New  York  City  high 
school  it  was  shown  that  the  efficiency  of  the  students  was  increased 
by  such  a  classification.  The  percentage  of  discharges  was  very 
materially  decreased  (from  7  per  cent  to  11  per  cent  decrease). 
(4)  This  increased  efficiency  is  due  to  pleasanter  associations  with 
students  of  the  same  development.  (5)  There  exists  a  very  close 
relationship  between  pubescence  and  height.  (6)  In  schools  where 
physical  examination  is  impossible,  a  classification  according  to 
height  would  probably  produce  almost  the  same  results.1 

Such  statements  are  dangerous  when  made  on  the  basis  of 
such  limited  investigations  as  those  of  Foster. 

The  classification  suggested  by  Crampton  and  by  Foster, 
however  promising  it  may  appear  when  considered  apart 
from  the  exigencies  of  school  administration,  presents  cer- 
tain difficulties  when  considered  in  relation  to  the  ordinary 
demands  of  administration  in  the  secondary  school.  Any 
1  Foster,  VV.  L.,  op.  tit.,  p.  88. 


26       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

scheme  of  classification  which  increases  the  homogeneity  of 
the  groups  to  be  taught  in  one  direction  without  decreasing 
it  in  another  may  be  considered  a  priori  as  a  means  of  im- 
proving teaching  and  increasing  the  measure  of  success. 
Hence  it  is  to  be  expected  that  where  conditions  permit  the 
division  of  pupils  in  a  given  grade  into  groups  roughly  homo- 
geneous with  respect  to  the  stages  of  physiological  develop- 
ment (or  any  other  important  factor),  better  results  may  be 
looked  for.  In  a  large  secondary  school  such  a  classification 
is  frequently  possible.  In  a  small  school,  or  even  one  of 
average  size,  such  a  subdivision  of  classes  is  impossible.  Of 
the  11,674  public  high  schools  in  the  United  States  in  1914- 
15  less  than  one  tenth  (990)  were  in  cities  of  8000  population 
or  over  and  10,684  were  in  communities  of  less  than  8000 
population  each.  In  smaller  communities  the  "average" 
high  school  has  62  pupils.  The  "average"  high  school  for 
the  country  at  large  has  about  114  pupils,  distributed  some- 
what as  follows:  47  (41  per  cent)  in  the,  first-year  class,  30 
(27  per  cent)  in  the  second-year  class,  21  (19  per  cent)  in 
the  third-year  class,  and  16  (14  per  cent)  in  the  fourth-year 
class.'  It  is  obvious  that  in  the  great  majority  of  public 
secondary  schools  it  is  impracticable  to  subdivide  classes  for 
the  purpose  of  segregating  boys  or  girls  or  both  according  to 
degrees  of  pubescence. 

Far  more  practicable  and  far  more  justifiable  is  the  sug- 
gestion of  Baldwin: ] 

Therefore,  the  obvious  educational  corollary  is  that  our  school 
systems,  public  and  private,  should  take  into  careful  consideration 
the  physiological  age  and  the  accompanying  stages  of  mental  maturity 
of  boys  and  girls,  rather  than  the  chronological  age  and  brightness, 
as  is  now  done.  This  would  require  that  tall,  healthy  children  of 
accelerated  development  be  encouraged  to  proceed  through  school 

1  Baldwin,  B.  T.,  "  A  Measuring  Scale  for  Physical  Growth  and  Physio- 
logical Age,"  Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Edu- 
cation, part  i,  pp.  15-17. 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  27 

as  rapidly  as  possible  within  the  limits  of  thoroughness,  and  that 
small,  light  children  of  retarded  physiological  development  be 
kept  below  or  in  the  normal  grade,  doing  supplementary  work, 
since  these  short,  light  'pupils  are  immature  in  mental  development, 
although  in  many  cases  precocious  in  degree  of  brightness. 

Incomplete  though  our  knowledge  o"  physiological  age  is, 
it  is  sufficient  to  put  us  on  guard  against  the  practice  of 
ignoring  it  as  a  factor  of  importance  in  school  organization 
and  administration.  In  a  later  section  attention  will  be 
called  to  the  fact  that  the  practice  of  determining  promo- 
tion by  pedagogical  age  alone  should  be  supplemented  by 
recognition  of  physiological  age,  psychological  age,  chrono- 
logical age,  and  social  age. 

8.  The  distribution  of  pupils  according  to  puberty.  Some 
conception  of  the  complexity  of  problems  involved  in  at- 
tempts to  adjust  education  to  stages  of  maturity  according 
to  puberty  may  be  gained  from  an  analysis  of  the  pupil  pop- 
ulation of  a  school  system.  In  Tables  XV-XVIII  an  esti- 
mate is  made  of  such  a  distribution  of  pupils  in  the  schools 
of  Paterson  New  Jersey,  in  1913. 

From  these  figures,  and  from  more  extended  tables  on 
which  those  given  are  based,  a  number  of  facts  may  be 
deduced: 

(1)  Prepubescent,  pubescent,  and  postpubescent  children 
were  found  in  almost  every  grade  of  the  school  system,  the 
proportion  of  prepubescents  gradually  decreasing  and  the 
proportion  of  postpubescents  gradually  increasing. 

(2)  Particularly  noteworthy  is  the  fact  that  the  ratio  of 
prepubescent  boys  to  postpubescent  boys  is  almost  exactly 
inverted  from  56/22  in  the  seventh  grade  to  22/58  in  the 
ninth  grade,  while  a  similar  ratio  for  girls  is  approximately 
inverted  from  58/21  in  the  sixth  grade  to  18/57  in  the  eighth 
grade.   Herein  are  observable :  (a)  the  earlier  pubescence  of 
girls;   (6)   the  transitional  character  of  grades  6/7  to  I. 


28       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  XV.  PERCENTAGES  OF  PREPUBESCENT,  PUBESCENT,  AND 

POSTPUBESCENT  PUPILS  IN  VARIOUS  GRADES  OF  THE  PATERSON 

(N.J.)  SCHOOLS  IN  NOVEMBER,  1913  * 


Boys 

Girls 

Both 

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a 

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100 

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100 

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89 

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96 

10 

B 

81 

11 

8 

92 

19 

74 

15 

11 

89 

26 

78 

13 

9 

91 

22 

6 

69 

17 

14 

86 

31 

58 

21 

21 

79 

42 

64 

19 

17 

83 

36 

1 

56 

22 

22 

78 

44 

36 

26 

38 

62 

64 

46 

24 

30 

60 

54 

8 

35 

22 

43 

57 

65 

18 

25 

57 

43 

82 

26 

14 

60 

40 

74 

I 

22 

20 

58 

44 

78 

10 

19 

71 

29 

90 

17 

20 

63 

37 

83 

11 

12 

15 

73 

27 

88 

3 

10 

87 

13 

97 

8 

12 

80 

20 

92 

III 

2 

8 

89 

11 

97 

1 

4 

96 

5 

100 

2 

5 

93 

7 

98 

IV 

1 

3 

96 

4 

99 

0 

1 

99 

1 

100 

0 

2 

98 

2 

100 

TABLE  XVI.    DISTRIBUTION  ACCORDING  TO  CERTAIN  IMPORTANT 
DIVISIONS  —  NUMBERS 


Grades 

Boys 

Girls 

Both 

Pre- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Post- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pre- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Post 

pubes- 
cent 

Pre- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Post- 
pubes- 
cent 

1-8  
I-IV.... 

1-IV.... 

l-«  

7-1  
II-IV.  .  . 

7053 
121 

665 
125 

688 
629 

6267 

42 

828 
96 

1020 
743 

13320 
163 

1593 
121 

1708 
1372 

7174 

790 

1317 

6309 

924 

1763 

13483 

1714 

3080 

6404 
73B 
32 

363 
381 
46 

254 
665 
398 

5886 
415 
8 

470 
325 
29 

366 
899 
498 

12290 
1153 
M 

833 
706 
75 

620 
1564 
896 

PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 


29 


TABLE  XVII.   DISTRIBUTION  ACCORDING  TO  CERTAIN  IMPORTANT 
DIVISIONS — PER  CENTS 


Grades 

Boys 

Girls 

Both 

Pre- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Post- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pre- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Post- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pre- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Post- 
pubes- 
cent 

1-8  .  . 
I-IV.... 

1-IV.... 

1-6... 
7-1  
II-IV... 

98.3 
1.7 

84.1 
15.9 

52.3 

4Y.7 

99.4 
0.6 

89.6 
10.4 

57.8 

42.2 

98.9 
1.1 

86.9 
13.1 

55.4 
44.6 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

89.4 
10.1 
0.5 

45.9 
48.2 
5.9 

19.1 
50.7 
30.2 

93.4 
6.5 
0.1 

50.9 
45.9 
3.2 

20.7 
51.0 
28.3 

91.2 
8.6 
0.2 

48.8 
46.6 
4.6 

20.1 
50.8 
29.1 

Explanation:  Of  prepubescent  boys  in  the  schools  98.3  per  cent  were  in  grades  1-8  and  1.7 
per  cent  were  in  grades  I-IV,  etc. 


TABLE  XVIII.    DISTRIBUTION  ACCORDING  TO  STAGE  OF  PUBERTY 
IN  VARIOUS  DIVISIONS  —  PER  CENTS 


Boys 

Girls 

Both 

Grades 

Pre- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Post- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pre- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Post- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pre- 
pubes- 
cent 

Pubes- 
cent 

Post- 
pubes- 
cent 

1-8.. 
I-IV. 

83.9 
13.8 

7.9 
14.3 

8.2 
71.9 

77.2 
4.8 

10.2 
10.9 

12.6 
84.3 

80.1 
9.3 

9.6 
12.6 

10.3 
78.1 

1-6.. 
7-1.. 
II-IV 

91.2 
41.4 
6.7 

5.2 
21.3 
9.7 

3.6 
37.3 
83.6 

87.5 
25.3 
1.5 

7.0 
19.8 
5.4 

5.5 
54.9 
93.1 

89.4 
33.7 
4.0 

6.1 
20.6 
7.4 

4.5 
45.7 
88.6 

Explanation:  Of  all  boys  in  grades  1-8  (elementary  school)  83.9  per  cent  were  prepu- 
:scent,  7.9  per  cent  were  pubescent,  and  8.2  per  cent  were  postpubescent,  etc. 


besce 


(3)  Of  all  the  immature  (prepubescent)  boys  and  girls  in 
the  public  schools  of  Paterson  in  1913  all  but  about  one  per 
cent  were  in  the  elementary  school  (grades  1-8). 

(4)  Of  all  the  maturing  (pubescent)  boys  more  than  five 
sixths  were  in  the  elementary  school:  of  all  the  pubescent 


30       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

girls  nearly^  nine  tenths  were  in  the  elementary  school :  of  all 
pubescent  pupils  (boys  and  girls  together)  more  than  six 
sevenths  were  in  the  elementary  school.  The  largest  per^ 
centage  of  pubescent  pupils  (about  21  per  cent)  was  found 
in  the  seventh  grade.  About  six  per  cent  of  pubescent  boys, 
about  three  per  cent  of  pubescent  girls,  and  about  five  per 
cent  of  pubescent  pupils  were  found  in  grades  II,  III,  IV  of 
the  high  school.  Other  pubescent  pupils  were  about  equally 
divided  between  the  division  comprising  grades  1-6  and  the 
division  comprising  grades  7-1,  More  pubescent  boys  were 
in  the  sixth  grade  than  in  the  entire  high  school,  more  pubes- 
cent girls  in  the  fifth  grade  than  in  the  entire  high  school, 
and  more  pubescent  pupils  in  the  fifth  grade  than  in  the 
entire  high  school. 

(5)  Of  all  the  mature  boys  (postpubescents)  in  the  schools 
more  than  one  half  were  in  the  elementary  school  (grades 
1-8) .  Of  all  the  mature  girls  more  than  one  half  were  in  the 
elementary  school.  Of  all  mature  pupils  more  than  one  half 
were  in  the  elementary  school  and  less  than  one  half  in  the 
high  school.  More  than  one  half  of  the  postpubescent  pupils 
of  either  sex  were  in  grades  7,  6, 1.  Less  than  one  third  of  all 
postpubescent  pupils  were  in  grades  II,  III,  IV,  of  the  high 
school.  The  largest  number  of  postpubescent  pupils  was  in 
the  eighth  grade.  Two  thirds  as  many  postpubescent  pupils 
were  in  grades  1-6  as  in  grades  II-IV.  There  were  more  post- 
pubescent  girls  in  the  sixth  grade  than  in  any  grade  of  the 
high  school  except  grade  I. 

(6)  Of  all  boys  in  grades  1-8  of  the  elementary  school 
84  per  cent  were  prepubescent,  8  per  cent  were  pubescent, 
and  8  per  cent  postpubescent;  of  all  the  girls  77  per  cent  were 
prepubescent,  10  per  cent  pubescent,  and  13  per  cent  post- 
pubescent;  of  all  pupils  in  the  elementary  school  (grades  1-8) 
80  per  cent  were  prepubescent,  10  per  cent  pubescent,  and 
10  per  cent  postpubescent. 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  31 

(7)  Of  all  boys  in  the  high  school  (grades  I-IV)  14  per 
cent  were  prepubescent,  14  per  cent  pubescent,  and  72  per 
cent  postpubescent;  of  all  the  girls  5  per  cent  were  pre- 
pubescent, 11  per  cent  pubescent,  and  84  per  cent  post- 
pubescent;  of  all  pupils  in  the  high  school  9  per  cent  were 
prepubescent,  13  per  cent  pubescent,  and  78  per  cent  post- 
pubescent. 

(8)  Of  all  boys  in  grades  1-6  of  the  elementary  school 
91  per  cent  were  prepubescent,  5  per  cent  pubescent,  and 
4  per  cent  postpubescent;  of  all  the  girls  in  those  grades  88 
per  cent  were  prepubescent,  7  per  cent  pubescent,  and  5  per 
cent  postpubescent;  of  all  pupils  in  those  grades  89  per  cent 
were  prepubescent,  6  per  cent  pubescent,  and  5  per  cent 
postpubescent. 

(9)  Of  all  boys  in  grades  7,  8,  I  (last  two  grades  of  the 
elementary  school  and  first  grade  of  the  high  school)  41 
per  cent  were  prepubescent,  21  per  cent  pubescent,  and 
37  per  cent  postpubescent;  of  all  the  girls  in  those  grades  25 
per  cent  were  prepubescent,  20  per  cent  pubescent,  and 
55  per  cent  postpubescent;  of  all  pupils  in  those  grades  34  per 
cent  were  prepubescent,  20  per  cent  pubescent,  and  46 
per  cent  postpubescent. 

(10)  Of  all  boys  in  grades  II-IV  (high  school  II,  III,  IV) 
7  per  cent  were  prepubescent,  10  per  cent  pubescent,  and 
84  per  cent  postpubescent;  of  all  girls  in  those  grades  2  per 
cent  were  prepubescent,  5  per  cent  pubescent,  and  93  per 
cent  postpubescent;  of  all  pupils  in  those  grades  4  per  cent 
were  prepubescent,  7  per  cent  pubescent,  and  89  per  cent 
postpubescent. 

While  these  figures  can  apply  with  exactness  to  one  city 
only,  it  is  quite  probable  that  they  would  hold  true  approxi- 
mately for  the  majority  of  school  systems.  A  number  of  city 
school  systems  examined  in  the  same  way  indicate  similar 
conditions.  Certainly  it  is  true  that  no  simple  means  can  be 


32       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

found  to  relate  the  organization  of  the  school  system  to  the 
complexities  found  in  the  phenomena  of  puberty. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  How  do  differences  between  boys  and  girls  in  the  rates  of  physical 
development  affect  the  problem  of  coeducation? 

2.  What  administrative  problems  would  be  affected  by  the  classification 
of  pupils  according  to  physiological  age?  How  would  they  be  affected? 

3.  What  organs  and  parts  of  the  body  show  increased  rates  of  development 
at  adolescence?   Which  do  not?    Can  any  one  age  be  set  to  cover  all 
cases?    (Cf.  Hall,  G.  S.,  Adolescence,  vol.  i.) 

4.  Show  how  growth  in  height  or  weight  may  affect  mental  traits  by  caus- 
ing changes  in  environmental  (social)  conditions. 

5.  Compare  any  two  boys  or  any  two  girls  of  approximately  the  same 
age  (e.g.,  between  14.0  and  15.0)  and  note  all  the  differences  in  phys- 
ical traits  you  can.    Do  any  of  the  observed  differences  cause  differ- 
ences in  the  treatment  of  them  by  other  people? 

6.  Reduce  the  age-grade  distribution  table  of  any  secondary  school  to 
terms  of  per  cents  and  note  the  variability. 

7.  Arrange  about  one  hundred  boys  or  girls  of  any  secondary  school  grade 
in  the  order  of  their  scholastic  records  (marks) :  arrange  them  in  the 
order  of  their  ages:  arrange  them  in  the  order  of  their  heights  or 
weights.   How  do  the  three  arrangements  compare? 

8.  Apply  the  tables  of  Crampton  (Table  XI)  and  of  Baldwin  (Table  XIII) 
to  the  age-grade  distribution  of  any  school  system.   Compare  with  the 
tables  given  for  Paterson.    (Cf.  Tables  XV-XVIII.) 

9.  Compare  boys  of  the  same  chronological  age  (reckoned  within  a  six- 
months  range)  but  in  different  school  grades,  as  to  their  physical  devel- 
opment (height,  weight,  etc.) .   Do  the  same  for  girls. 

10.  Compare  the  boys  who  leave  school  during  the  first  year  of  the  second- 
ary school  with  those  who  remain,  as  to  height,  weight,  etc. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Baldwin,  B.  T.,  Physical  Growth  and  School  Progress,  Bureau  of  Education, 
Bulletin  (1914),  no.  10.  Bibliography  of  336  titles. 

Baldwin,  B.  T.,  "A  Measuring  Scale  for  Physical  Growth  and  Physio- 
logical Age,"  Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education,  part  i,  pp.  11-22. 

Baldwin,  B.  T.,  "The  Normal  Child:  Its  Physical  Growth  and  Mental 
Development,"  Popular  Science  Monthly,  vol.  LXXXV,  pp.  559  ff. 

Boas,  F.,  "  On  Dr.  William  Townsend  Porter's  Investigation  of  the  Growth 
of  School  Children  of  St.  Louis,"  Science,  vol.  i,  pp.  225-30. 


PHYSICAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  33 

Boas,  F.,  "Growth  of  School  Children,"  Science,  vol.  xx,  pp.  351-52. 

Boas,  F.,  "Growth  of  American  Children,"  Report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education  (1896-97),  vol.  n,  pp.  1541-59.  • 

Burk,  F.,  "  Growth  of  Children,  in  Height  and  Weight,"  American  Journal 
of  Psychology,  vol.  rx,  pp.  253-326.  Bibliography. 

Burnham,  W.  H.,  "The  Study  of  Adolescence,"  Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol. 
i,  pp.  174-95. 

Crampton,  C.  W.,  "  Physiological  Age  —  A  Fundamental  Principle," 
American  Physical  Education  Review,  vol.  xm,  pp.  141-54,  214-27,  268- 
83,  345-58. 

Crampton,  C.  W.,  "  Anatomical  or  Physiological  Age  versus  Chronological 
Age,"  Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  xv,  pp.  230-37. 

Crampton,  C.  W.,  "The  Influence  of  Physiological  Age  on  Scholarship," 
Psychological  Clinic,  vol.  i,  pp.  115-20. 

De  Busk,  B.  W.,  "  The  Vital  Index  in  Development,"  Pedagogical  Seminary, 
vol.  xxiv,  pp.  1-18. 

Foster,  W.  L.,  "  Physiological  Age  as  a  Basis  for  the  Classification  of  Pupils 
Entering  High  Schools  —  Relation  of  Pubescence  to  Height,"  Psycho- 
logical Clinic,  vol.  iv,  pp.  83-88. 

Gilbert,  J.  A.,  "Researches  on  the  Mental  and  Physical  Development  of 
School  Children,"  Studies  from  the  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory,  vol.  n, 
pp.  40-100. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  Adolescence. 

Hartwell,  E.  M.,  "Reports  on  Physical  Training  in  the  Boston  Public 
Schools,"  Boston  School  Committee  Report,  1894-95,  pp.  181-200. 

King,  I.,  The  High  School  Age,  especially  chapter  n. 

King,  I.,  "  Physiological  Age  and  School  Standing,"  Psychological  Clinic, 
vol.  vi,  pp.  222-29. 

McDonald,  A.,  "  Experimental  Study  of  Children,"  Report  of  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1897-98),  vol.  i,  pp.  985-1204. 

Porter,  W.  T.,  "  Growth  of  School  Children,"  Report  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ence of  St.  Louis,  vol.  vi,  pp.  263-380. 

Porter,  W.  T.,  "The  Physical  Basis  of  Precocity  and  Dullness,"  Transac- 
tions of  the  Academy  of  Science  of  St.  Louis,  vol.  vi,  pp.  161-8-1. 

Smedley,  F.  W.,  Report  of  the  Development  of  Child  Study  and  Pedagogic 
Investigation  of  the  Chicago  Public  Schools,  vol.  11,  pp.  10-48. 

Stewart,  S.  F.,  "  A  Study  of  Physical  Growth  and  School  Standing  of  Boys," 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  vn,  pp.  414-26. 

Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child,  pp.  13-71. 

West,  G.  M.,  "  Observation  of  the  Relation  of  Physical  Development  to 
the  Intellectual  Ability  Made  on  the  School  Children  of  Toronto,  Can- 
ada," Science,  vol.  iv,  pp.  156-59. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  PUPIL:  MENTAL  TRAITS 

9.  Secondary  education  and  the  development  of  mental 
traits.  While  education  is  fundamentally  and  primarily 
conditioned  by  physical  traits  of  the  pupils,  secondary  edu- 
cation is  more  directly  and  immediately  concerned  for  the 
most  part  with  mental  traits.  Predominantly  it  is  a  process 
of  producing,  directing,  or  preventing  changes  in  the  neurone 
connections  which  control  and  determine  mental  traits.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  the  greater  is  our  knowledge  of  men- 
tal traits  and  the  nature  of  their  development,  the  more 
intelligently  and  efficiently  can  the  process  of  education  be 
conducted.  As  was  suggested  in  the  previous  chapter  our 
knowledge  of  physical  traits  and  the  nature  of  their  develop- 
ment is  very  inadequate.  Even  less  adequate  and  reliable  is 
our  knowledge  of  mental  traits.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that 
no  single  psychological  trait  has  ever  been  adequately 
measured  and  that  .the  most  painstaking  investigations  have 
failed  to  afford  evidence  which  is  entirely  satisfactory. 
Nevertheless  such  evidence  as  we  have  suggests  certain 
general  tendencies  which  it  is  our  duty  to  recognize  until 
further  investigation  either  confirms  or  invalidates.  An 
analysis  of  all  the  mental  traits  involved  in  secondary  edu- 
cation lies  far  beyond  the  scope  of  this  book  and  in  fact  far 
beyond  the  bounds  of  available  knowledge.  All  that  can  be 
attempted  here  is  a  brief  consideration  of  a  few  fundamental 
traits  and  of  certain  problems  of  great  importance  for 
secondary  education.  The  chapter  will  deal:  (I)  with  the 
development  of  mental  traits  with  age;  (II)  with  the  order 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  35 

of  the  development  of  mental  traits;  (III)  with  the  relation 
of  adolescence  to  the  development  of  mental  traits. 

As  in  the  consideration  of  the  development  of  physical 
traits  in  the  preceding  chapter  the  reader  should  be  warned 
against  certain  misconceptions  and  misinterpretations.  He 
should  be  warned  that  the  statistical  data  presented  must 
be  considered  as  indicative  of  general  tendencies  rather  than 
as  exact  and  conclusive  evidence  as  to  details.  He  should 
remember  that  mental  traits  are  highly  susceptible  to  the 
influence  of  training  and  hence  that  in  every  case  such 
measurements  as  those  presented  indicate  the  status  of  a 
mental  trait  due  both  to  inner  growth  determined  by  nature 
and  to  training  through  exercise,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
separate  the  two  fg.ot.nrs  of  natnrft  p.nd  nurture  and  the  status 
indicated  represents  an  actual  but  not  a  necessary  condi- 
tion. Finally  it  must  be  remembered  that  where  statistical 
data  are  presented  one  must  always  keep  in  mind  the  dan- 
gers of  drawing  conclusions  from  a  relatively  small  number 
of  cases  or  of  interpreting  as  normal  a  status  determined 
from  the  measurement  of  a  select  group. 

I.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MENTAL  TRAITS  WITH  AGE 

10.  The  development  of  mental  traits  with  age.  It  is  an 
extremely  difficult  task  to  determine  the  status  of  any  men- 
tal trait  at  any  given  age  in  such  a  way  as  to  measure  the 
effect  of  maturity  or  inborn  tendencies  alone,  and  eliminate 
the  measurement  of  the  influence  of  training  or  the  environ- 
ment. Commonly  the  status  of  any  mental  trait  at  any  i 
time  represents  the  combined  effect  of  inborn  tendencies! 
and  of  training  so  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  iso- 
late the  effect  of  either  influence.  For  that  reason  it  is  best 
to  consider  first  the  character  of  the  development  of  mental 
traits  which  are,  perhaps,  likely  to  be  affected  least  by  spe- 


36       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


cial  training.  For  this  purpose  we  may  consider  the  results 
of  Gilbert's  measurement  of  children  of  different  ages  with 
respect  to  their  capacity  to  discriminate  differences  in  weight 
and  their  capacity  to  react  to  a  given  sensory  stimulus. 

TABLE  XIX.  NUMBER  OF  GRAMS  DIFFERENCE  REQUIRED  IN  ORDER 
THAT  THE  MEDIAN  CHILD  SHOULD  BE  ABLE  TO  PERCEIVE  THE 
DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  WEIGHTS.  DECREASE  IN  THE  AMOUNTS 
OF  DIFFERENCE  NECESSARY  DENOTES  INCREASE  IN  ABILITY.* 


Age  in  years 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

n 

IS 

14 

15 

16 

17 

Grams:  Boys 

13.0 

13.2 

12.2 

10.2 

8.6 

10.2 

7.6 

6.0 

5.2 

6.2 

6.0 

6.0 

Girls 

16.8 

13.2 

11.0 

10.0 

9.2 

7.6 

7.6 

5.6 

7.2 

7.2 

6.8 

(i.4 

Both 

14.8 

13.6 

11.4 

10.0 

8.8 

8.6 

7.2 

5.4 

5.6 

6.8 

6.6 

5.8 

TABLE  XX.  NUMBER  OF  THOUSANDTHS  OF  A  SECOND  BETWEEN 
THE  MOVEMENT  OF  A  DISK  AND  THE  MAKING  OF  A  CONTACT  BY  A 
CHILD  WHO  WAS  INSTRUCTED  TO  PRESS  DOWN  A  KEY  AS  SOON  AS 
HE -SAW  THE  DlSK  MOVE:  MEDIAN  TlME.  DECREASE  IN  THE 
RECORD  INDICATES  INCREASE  IN  ABILITY.* 


Age  in  years 


6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

n 

15 

16 

17 

Time:  Bovs 

282 

267 

245 

243 

210 

185 

178 

178 

180 

167 

147 

147 

Girls 

295 

315 

260 

2.55 

225 

20« 

198 

205 

187 

189 

172 

103 

Both 

295 

292 

262 

250 

215 

195 

187 

187 

180 

172 

155 

155 

*  Gilbert,  J.  A.,  Researches  on  the  Mental  and  Physical  Development  of  School  Children, 
Studies  from  the  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory,  vol.  n,  pp.  40-100;  reproduced  by  Thorn- 
dike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  in,  pp.  273-74.  Those  not  familiar  with  the  term 
median  may  without  serious  error  interpret  it  as  a  measure  of  the  central  tendency  some- 
what similar  to  the  average. 

The  general  tendency  of  the  abilities  measured  to  increase 
with  age  is  obvious.  Apparently  ability  in  speed  of  reaction 
increases  constantly  from  the  age  of  six  to  the  age  of  seven- 
teen, and  possibly  later.  Ability  to  discriminate  differences 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 


37 


in  weight  increases  continuously  until  the  age  of  thirteen 
or  fourteen,  where  the  apparent  limit  of  improvement  with- 
out special  practice  is  approached.  Again  the  reader  should 
be  warned  that  the  character  of  the  data  does  not  warrant 
more  than  the  most  general  conclusions  and  limits  interpre- 
tation except  with  regard  to  general  tendencies  —  possibly 
even  there.  The  particular  facts  to  be  noted  from  such  tables 
are  that,  in  so  far  as  the  data  are  reliable,  they  indicate  that 
the  traits  measured  tend  to  increase  with  age  as  the  result 
of  inner  growth  and  a  certain  amount  of  training,  and  that 
differences  in  the  rate  of  development  and  in  the  duration  of 
the  process  of  development  vary  with  different  mental  traits 
until  the  limits  of  capacity  are  approached. 

More  complex  and  more  susceptible  to  the  influences  of 
practice  and  training  are  the  mental  traits  involved  in  asso- 
ciation and  substitution.  The  results  of  certain  investiga- 
tions designed  to  measure  abilities  in  those  traits  are  pre- 
sented in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  XXI.    THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CAPACITY  IN  ASSOCIATION 
AND  SUBSTITUTION  (PYLE)* 


Age  in  years 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

lit 

15 

16 

17 

18 

a.  Part-whole  association: 

5.5 

4.6 

4.6 
5.5 

9.0 
8.0 

10.3 
13.0 

10.0 
10.9 

6.5 
5.9 

5.7 
5.4 

8.4 
7.6 

12.6 
15.7 

13.2 
16.0 

7.3 
7.8 

6.5 

7.8 

7.5 
10.9 

15.4 
18.8 

16.5 
19.9 

8.9 
10.0 

7.2 
8.2 

10.9 
11.2 

16.3 
18.5 

17.7 
19.6 

8.9 
10.0 

7.1 
9.3 

11.5 
13.9 

19.1 

22.7 

19.3 
23.1 

11.1 
10.8 

10.0 
9.5 

14.5 
14.9 

22.6 
23.4 

20.7 
25.6 

12.2 
12.5 

10.5 
11.8 

14.5 
17.4 

21.1 
26.8 

23.3 
27.4 

14.8 
14.0 

11.1 
14.0 

16.0 
17.3 

24.7 
26.8 

25.8 

29.7 

15.9 
16.9 

15.2 
16.4 

18.6 
19.3 

24.8 
27.5 

27.8 
29.1 

15.8 
16.2 

14.0 
16.0 

17.6 
21.4 

23.8 
28.5 

26.1 
32.0 

19.3 
19.7 

17.3 
18.3 

22.4 
23.4 

28.7 
25.9 

28.0 
33.1 

6.  Genus-species  association: 

record  (  Girls  

c.  Opposites  association: 

d.  Digit-symbol  substitution: 

e.  Symbol-digit  substitution: 

record  \  Girls  

*  The  figures  in  this  table  represent  the  results  of  Pyle's  investigations.  For  conven- 
ience the  figures  were  taken  from  Whipple,  G.  M.,  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests, 
part  ii,  pp.  75,  78,  82,  139,  140. 


38       PRINCIPLES  OP  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


In  this  table  it  is  to  be  noted  that  here  again  we  find 
development  of  the  various  mental  traits  with  age  and  differ- 
ences in  the  rates  of  development  as  well  as  in  the  dates 
when  the  limits  of  improvement  begin  to  be  approached. 
It  is,  of  course,  obvious  that  practice  and  training  exert 
great  influence  on  such  traits  as  are  involved  in  the  processes 
of  association. 

Measurement  of  the  development  of  various  memories 
with  age  indicate  much  the  same  general  tendencies  as  those 
suggested  by  the  measurements  of  various  forms  of  associa- 
tion and  substitution.  This  appears  from  figures  which 
represent  the  results  of  a  number  of  investigations. 

TABLE  XXII.   THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  VARIOUS  MEMORIES 
WITH  AGE* 


Age  in  years  , 

8 

9 

10 

11 

IS 

13 

U 

15 

16 

17 

18 

a.  Memory  span  for  Digits:  t  
6.  Memory  concrete  words  :J 
Average  (  Boys  

6.6 

31.2 
32.9 

22.9 
20.5 

ISO 

6.7 

32.4 
32.7 

26.3 
24.0 

140 

6.8 

35.8 
39.6 

26.8 
31.0 

150 

7.2 

37.7 
37.7 

31.7 
31.8 

150 

7.4 

37.7 
38.7 

31.0 
34.0 

164 

7.3 

38.3 
40.4 

32.4 
36.0 

Ifi  •> 

7.3 

40.0 
44.2 

37.3 
39.0 

16Q 

7.7 

40.2 
42.0 

34.1 
37.8 

160 

8.0 

43.4 
42.5 

40.0 
41.0 

170 

8.0 

45.7 
40.5 

41.1 
37.0 

8.0 

49.0 
52.0 

40.8 
49.0 

c.  Memory  abstract  words:  ** 

record  (  Girls  

d.  Memory  related  words  :tt 

record  |  Girls  
e.  Memory  unrelated  words:  it 
Average  (  Boys  

13.0 

11.1 
11  5 

14.0 

12.2 
1?  4 

15.3 

12.2 
144 

16.5 

12.5 

14  :! 

16.0 

12.8 
14.0 

17.0 

13.5 
IS  5 

17.5 

13.7 
14  0 

17.5 

13.7 
14  0 

17.8 

14.0 
14.5 

/.  Memory  ideas  :§ 
Average  (  Boys  

24.3 
28.5 

28.7 

si.q 

30.0 
33.5 

32.9 
36.4 

35.1 
38.1 

36.8 
38.5 

36.1 
39.0 

36.5 
39.1 

34.4 
37.3 

34.6 
36.6 

36.9 
37.8 

Whipple,  G.  M.,  Manual  of  Mental  and 

Physical  Tests,  part  n,  who  reproduced  them  from  works  and  reports 
cited.   For  the  original  data  see  the  references  given  by  Whipple,  op.  tit. 

**  Ibid.,  p.  174. 


*  The  figures  in  this  table  were  taken  from  Whipple,  G.  M.,  Manual  of  Mental  and 
ysical  Tests,  part  n,  who  reproduced  them  from  works  and  reports  of  the  investigators 


. 

t  Whipple,  op.  tit.,  p.  172. 
tt  Ibid.,  p.  188. 


I  Ibid.,  p.  173. 
tt  Ibid.,  p.  188. 


§  Ibid.,  p.  211. 


These  figures  indicate  a  general  growth  of  memories  with 
age  in  most  instances  continuing  through  the  period  of  school 
life.  Summarizing  the  matter  considered  in  this  section  we 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  39 

are  probably  safe  in  holding  (1)  that  in  general  mental  traits 
improve  in  efficiency,  throughout  the  period  of  elementary 
and  secondary  education;  (2)  that  the  rate  of  improvement 
with  age  varies  for  the  different  mental  traits;  (3)  that  the 
limits  of  improvement  vary;  (4)  that  there  is  no  evidence 
that  any  given  status  once  attained  is  diminished,  except 
in  so  far  as  being  in  part  due  to  practice  and  training,  deteri- 
oration may  take  place  because  of  the  discontinuance  of 
practice  or  a  change  in  training. 


II.  THE  ORDER  OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MENTAL 
TRAITS 

n.  Theories  of  the  development  of  mental  traits.  Serious 
consequences  for  secondary  education  depend  on  the  theory 
which  is  followed  concerning  the  order  of  the  development 
of  various  mental  traits.  Two  conflicting  theories  are  found. 
One  theory  postulates  that  certain  mental  processes,  e.g., 
memory,  begin  their  development  earlier,  develop  more 
rapidly,  and  approach  their  maximal  development  earlier 
than  other  mental  traits,  e.g.,  reasoning;  sometimes  further 
assuming  that  once  the  maximum  stage  of  development  is 
reached  a  period  of  deterioration  sets  in.  As  a  consequence 
it  is  sometimes  maintained  that  emphasis  should  be  placed 
on  special  mental  processes  at  particular  ages  or  stages  of 
development,  e.g.,  that  sense  perception  and  sensory  di&' 
crimination  should  be  emphasized  in  the  education  of  young 
children,  that  education  before  the  age  of  twelve  should  em- 
phasize memory  and  drill,  and  that  reasoning  should  be  re- 
served for  emphasis  at  adolescence  in  the  secondary  school. 
For  convenience  we  may  term  this  a  Theory  of  Serial  or 
Periodic  Development.  The  second  theory  assumes  that,  ex- 
cept as  affected  by  exercise  and  training  (factors  which  may 
be  controlled  extensively),  the  fundamental  mental  processes 


40       PRINCIPLES  OP  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

develop  gradually,  continuously,  and  in  a  relative  degree 
concomitantly,  if  not  from  birth,  certainly  from  the  begin- 
ning of  education  in  the  school,  until  their  maxima  are 
approached;  and,  further,  that  deterioration  does  not  nec- 
essarily set  in  until  an  age  much  later  than  the  limit  of 
school  life.  Consequently  on  the  basis  of  this  theory  it  is 
maintained  that  there  are  no  periods  in  school  education 
when  training  in  certain  mental  processes  should  be  em- 
phasized to  the  minimizing  or  neglect  of  others.  For  con- 
venience this  may  be  called  a  Theory  of  Concomitant  De- 
velopment. 

A  diagrammatic  presentation  may  illustrate  more  clearly 
the  difference  between  the  two  theories: 

Earlier  age                                       Later  age 
Theory  of      *|    f  Trait  A      

Serial  or  I    I  Trait  B 

Periodic 

Development  J    [  Trait  C 

Theory  of       1    f  Trait  A  

Concomitant  \  \  Trait  B  

Development  J    (.Trait  C  


For  examples,  sensory  discrimination  may  be  represented 
by  Trait  A,  certain  forms  of  memory  by  Trait  B,  and  certain 
forms  of  reasoning  by  Trait  C. 

12.  The  theory  of  serial  development.  From  the  begin- 
ning of  formal  education  the  theory  has  always  been  promi- 
nent that  certain  ages  were  especially  appropriate  for  the 
training  and  utilization  of  different  mental  processes,  on 
the  basis  of  the  supposed  superiority  of  those  mental  traits 
at  different  periods.  Likewise  it  has  been  supposed  that 
training  hi  and  use  of  certain  mental  processes  should  be 
deferred  until  the  periods  when  their  delayed  operation 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  41 

should  begin.  Typical  of  such  a  theory  from  one  point  of 
view  was  that  of  Rosenkrantz  who 

divides  the  life  of  the  child  into  an  intuitive,  an  imaginative,  and 
a  logical  epoch.  During  the  first  of  these  periods  the  appeal  should 
be  to  the  senses.  Later  imagination  and  memory  are  called  into 
play,  and  the  entire  movement  should  culminate  in  stirring  up  the 
logical  processes.1 

A  demarcation  somewhat  similar^  though  by  no  means  so 
rigid,  is  made  by  Bagley: 

The  factor  that  operates  most  effectively  hi  the  transition  period 
(ages  six  to  eight)  is  vivid  portrayal  dealing  almost  exclusively  with 
concrete  experiences.  Repetition  is  frequently  in  order,  provided 
that  it  involves  a  minimum  of  strain  and  fatigue.  Logical  reasoning 
is  entirely  out  of  place,  and  symbols  must  not  be  used  apart  from 
a  direct  connection  with  the  concrete  experiences  for  which  they 
stand.  ...  In  the  formative  period  (ages  eight  to  twelve),  repeti- 
tion is  the  watchword,  but  it  should  be  strongly  supplemented  by 
vivid  portrayal  and,  in  the  later  stages,  by  the  simpler  operations 
of  logical  reasoning.  Symbols  should  still  be  closely  associated  with 
the  concrete,  but  there  is  some  place  for  the  operation  of  verbal 
memory  through  repetition,  even  if  the  underlying  conceptions 
have  not  been  thoroughly  traced  out.  .  .  .  Organization  of  logical 
reasoning  holds  undisputed  sway  ha  the  adolescent  stage  (ages 
twelve  to  eighteen).  .  .  .  Moral  culture  is  now  entirely  of  the 
rational  type.2 

The  basis  of  this  theory  would  appear  to  be  found  in  the 
relation  which  exists  between  the  different  mental  processes 
and  the  order  of  their  operation  with  reference  to  any  given 
material.  If  we  consider  the  mental  processes  in  the  order 
of  the  simplest  and  most  fundamental  to  the  most  complex, 
e.g.,  sensation,  perception,  imagery,  association  and  disso- 

1  Henderson,  E.  N.,   Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Education,  p.  171. 
Quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  The  Macmillan  Company. 

2  Bagley,  W.  C.,  The  Educative  Process,  pp.  201-202  et  antea.    Quoted 
with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  The  Macmillan  Company. 


42       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

elation,  memory,  reasoning,  combinations  of  processes,  it  is 
recognized  that  the  efficient  operation  of  the  latter  must  be 
conditioned  by  the  operation  of  the  former  processes  on 
which  they  depend.  Association  cannot  take  place  without 
perception  and  imagery;  memory  depends  on  association; 
reasoning  depends  on  association  and  dissociation ;  ordinary 
learning  processes  depend  on  a  combination  of  all  mental 
processes.  In  a  sense,  therefore,  the  operation  of  the  more 
complex  mental  processes  must  follow  the  operation  of  the 
more  simple  processes.  This  is  true,  however,  with  respect 
to  the  application  of  those  processes  to  specific  material  and 
specific  situations  only;  it  cannot  be  considered  to  mean  that 
complex  mental  processes  applied  to  materials  of  every  sort 
and  to  every  situation  must  wait  on  the  perfection  of  the 
operation  of  the  simpler  processes  as  applied  to  all  materials 
and  to  all  situations,  or  to  mean  that  the  simpler  processes 
can  be  perfected  "  in  general."  Such  an  assumption  as  that 
commonly  made  involves  a  theory  of  general  faculties  which 
is  quite  contrary  to  modern  psychology.  The  point  is  well 
taken  by  Henderson  in  commenting  on  the  theory  of  Rosen- 
krantz : 

It  involves  the  assumption  that  the  faculties  are  distinct,  and 
that  they  develop  independently.  The  child,  it  is  assumed,  first 
observes  without  remembering  or  imagining  to  any  great  extent. 
He  thus  develops  a  power  of  observation  that  may  be  used  in  any 
field  without  reference  to  subject-matter.  Later  other  powers 
appear,  and  as  soon  as  one  emerges  a  new  form  of  instruction  be- 
comes possible.  It  is  absurd  to  reason  with  a  child  who  has  not  yet 
attained  to  the  logical  period,  or  to  expect  him  to  remember  and 
imagine  while  he  is  still  in  the  intuitive  stage.  Moreover,  when 
once  children  have  reached  the  rational  age,  it  is  supposed  that  they 
will  be  logical  on  any  subject.  All  these  assumptions  are  faulty. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  child  is  usually  in  the  intuitive  epoch  in 
respect  to  some  subjects  and  in  the  logical  as  regards  others.  The 
analysis  of  the  mental  processes  does  not,  as  we  now  realize,  mean 
the  discovery  of  independent  faculties,  but  rather  the  revelation 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  43 

of  the  forms  through  which  any  given  content  must  pass  as  the 
mind  reflects  upon  it  and  utilizes  it  in  new  conditions.  As  a  guide 
10  the  method  by  which  new  material  must  be  presented,  the  idea 
of  a  psychological  order  of  development  is  of  great  value.  But  as  a 
clue  to  the  way  in  which  a  subject  must  be  taught  to  a  child  of  a 
certain  age,  no  matter  what  his  previous  experience  with  that 
material  may  have  been,  it  is,  to  say  the  least,  to  be  used  with 
caution.  Common  sense,  indeed,  tells  us  that  we  cannot  expect 
from  young  children  certain  complicated  pieces  of  reasoning,  based 
on  comprehensive  experience  and  a  large  number  of  well-mastered 
concepts.  Nevertheless,  it  is  astonishing  what  seemingly  impossible 
feats  such  children  will  perform,  provided  the  ground  is  properly 
prepared.  Mathematical  analysis  impossible  to  untrained  though 
intelligent  adults  can  be  carried  on  by  children  in  the  primary 
grades.1 

13.  The  theory  of  concomitant  development.  Opposed  to 
the  theory  of  serial  or  periodic  development  is  the  theory  of 
concomitant  development  of  mental  processes.  This  theory 
postulates  that  with  respect  to  the  fundamental  psychologi- 
cal processes 2  the  mode  of  their  operation  is  the  same  from 
birth  to  death,  that  their  relative  efficiency  at  any  given 
period  is  determined  by  the  amount  of  their  exercise  and  the 
character  of  the  materials  on  which  they  are  exercised,  and 
that  development  of  mental  traits  is  to  be  measured  not 
with  reference  to  general  faculties  but  with  reference  to 
specific  material.  The  theory  may  be  illustrated  in  the  views 
of  representative  psychologists  and  educators.  Dewey's 
view  may  be  seen  from  the  following  quotations : 

The  method  that  emphasizes  the  psychological  and  natural,  but 
yet  fails  to  see  what  an  important  part  of  the  natural  tendencies  is 
constituted  at  every  period  by  growth  of  curiosity,  inference,  and 
the  desire  to  test,  cannot  secure  a  natural  development.  In  natural 
growth  each  successive  stage  of  activity  prepares  unconsciously, 

1  Henderson,  E.  N.,  Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  171-72. 
Quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  The  Macmillan  Company. 
8  For  the  time  being  excluding  instincts,  interests,  etc. 


44        PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

but  thoroughly,  the  conditions  for  the  manifestation  of  the  next 
stage  —  as  in  the  cycle  of  a  plant's  growth.  There  is  no  ground 
for  assuming  that  "thinking"  is  a  special,  isolated  natural  tendency 
that  will  bloom  inevitably  in  due  season  simply  because  various 
sense  and  motor  activities  have  been  freely  manifested  before;  or 
because  observation,  memory,  imagination,  and  manual  skill  have 
been  previously  exercised  without  thought.  Only  when  thinking 
is  constantly  employed  in  using  the  senses  and  muscles  for  the 
guidance  and  application  of  observations  and  movements,  is  the 
way  prepared  for  subsequent  higher  types  of  thinking. 

At  present  the  notion  is  current  that  childhood  is  almost  entirely 
unreflective  —  a  period  of  mere  sensory,  motor,  and  memory 
development,  while  adolescence  suddenly  brings  the  manifesta- 
tions of  thought  and  reason. 

Adolescence  is  not,  however,  a  synonym  for  magic.  Doubtless 
youth  should  bring  with  it  an  enlargement  of  the  horizon  of  child- 
hood, a  susceptibility  to  larger  concerns  and  issues,  a  more  generous 
and  a  more  general  standpoint  toward  nature  and  social  life.  This 
development  affords  an  opportunity  for  thinking  of  a  more  compre- 
hensive and  abstract  type  than  has  previously  obtained.  But  think- 
ing itself  remains  just  what  it  has  been  all  the  time:  a  matter  of 
following  up  and  testing  conclusions  suggested  by  the  facts  and 
events  of  life.  Thinking  begins  as  soon  as  the  baby  who  has  lost 
the  ball  that  he  is  playing  with  begins  to  foresee  the  possibility  of 
something  not  yet  existing  —  its  recovery ;  and  begins  to  forecast 
steps  toward  the  realization  of  this  possibility,  and,  by  experimen- 
tation, to  guide  his  acts  by  his  ideas  and  thereby  also  to  test  the 
ideas.  Only  by  making  the  most  of  the  thought  factor,  already 
active  in  the  experience  of  childhood,  is  there  any  promise  or  war- 
rant for  the  emergence  of  superior  reflective  power  at  adolescence, 
or  at  any  later  period.1 

I  have  come  to  believe  that  reasoning  itself,  the  capacity  or 
ability  to  reason  (or  that  bundle  of  minor  abilities  of  which  reason- 
ing consists),  is  not  capable  of  being  improved  with  growing  years, 
or,  at  least,  its  improvement  is  not  sufficiently  marked  to  be  worth 
mentioning.  Professor  James  in  his  Psychology  speaks  in  this  way 
about  organic  memory  —  "the  power  to  retain."  Later  investiga- 
tions have  led  to  some  modifications  of  his  statement,  but  it  is 

1  Dewey,  J.,  How  We  Think,  pp.  65-66.  Quoted  with  the  permission  of 
the  publishers,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  45 

generally  admitted  that  the  power  to  improve  radical  or  funda- 
mental memory  is  slight.1 

There  are  different  objects  to  think  about,  and  different  purposes 
for  which  to  think,  because  children  and  grown-ups  have  different 
kinds  of  acts  to  perform  —  different  lines  of  occupation,  hi  short. 
The  adult  has  obviously  more  complicated  activities  to  carry  on; 
he  has  concerns  that  continue  over  longer  stretches  of  time  so  that 
more  details  enter  in,  and  results  are  postponed.  Hence  he  must 
constantly  look  ahead.  The  process  of  thinking  is  essentially  the 
same  for  little  children;  but  there  is  such  a  difference  in  the  materi- 
als with  which  the  thinking  is  done,  and  the  ends  for  the  sake  of 
which  it  is  carried  on,  that  the  impression  is  easily  created  that  the 
thinking  itself  is  of  a  radically  different  order.2 

Much  the  same  general  viewpoint  is  that  of  Thorndike: 

Now  about  these  mental  states  (feelings  of  relationship,  meaning, 
judgments,  the  three  sorts  of  mental  stuff  that  play  the  great  roles 
in  rational  thinking)  in  children  we  may  say  that  by  the  school 
age,  and  in  fact  long  before  then,  they  are  all  present.  The  six- 
year-old  has  all  the  elementary  feelings  involved  in  reasoning.  The 
change  which  occurs  is  not  the  appearance  of  these  feelings,  but 
their  increase  in  number  and  definiteness  and  a  change  in  the 
manner  of  their  use.  The  constant  increase  in  general  experience 
of  things,  and  more  particularly  in  increase  in  definite  study  of 
things  due  to  educational  influences,  forces  children  to  know  more 
relationships  between  things  just  as  it  does  to  know  more  things. 
More  and  more  minute  and  more  comprehensive  relationships  are 
grasped.  We  have  thus  all  stages,  from  the  baby  who  feels  that  his 
father  is  not  like  his  mother,  that  two  pieces  of  candy  are  more  than 
one,  to  the  scientist  who  notes  the  similarity  between  man  and  the 
older  monkeys  or  relates  the  phenomena  of  gravitation  to  elec- 
trical charges  of  ions.3 

.  .  .  From  these  facts  it  is  clear  that,  as  regards  the  mechanics 
of  the  reasoning  process,  children  differ  from  adults  only  as  adults 
differ  among  themselves.  Not  some  mysterious  inner  transforma- 

1  Dewey,  J.,  "Reasoning  in  Early  Childhood,"  Teachers  College  Record, 
vol.  xv,  no.  1,  p.  9. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  10. 

s  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Notes  on  Child  Study  (2d  edition),  pp.  92-93. 


46       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

tion,  but  the  enlargement  and  refinement  of  experience,  the  forma- 
tion of  systems  and  suitable  ideas,  the  knowledge  of  aspects  or  ele- 
ments of  things  essential  to  different  purposes,  the  acquisition  and 
habitual  use  of  systematic  methods  of  forming  and  testing  con- 
clusions, the  growth  of  skepticism  concerning  the  similarity  of 
things  alike  in  some  respects,  the  definition  of  terms  and  the  crystal- 
lization of  experiences  into  judgments,  are  what  make  the  rational 
man  out  of  the  blundering  child.1 

From  these  typical  views  it  is  clear  that  the  theory  in- 
volved concerning  the  fundamental  mental  processes  is  one 
which  assumes  that  the  development  of  efficiency  is  more 
dependent  on  growth  as  affected  by  experience  and  training 
than  on  a  serial  development  of  capacities  determined  by 
the  forces  of  inner  growth,  and  that  all  the  mental  processes 
are  so  interrelated  and  interdependent  that  serial  or  periodic 
development  is  out  of  the  question. 

14.  An  evaluation  of  the  theories  of  development.  The 
burden  of  evidence  would  appear  to  be  in  favor  of  the  theory 
of  interdependent  or  concomitant  development,  especially 
with  reference  to  ordinary  mental  processes  fundamental 
to  learning.  Evidence  from  theoretic  psychology,  from  ex- 
perimental measurement,  and  from  empirical  knowledge 
gained  through  ordinary  experience  inside  and  outside  the 
school,  all  point  toward  the  same  conclusion  —  that  the  fun- 
damental mental  processes  begin  with  the  early  years  and 
continue  throughout  life  without  change  as  far  as  the  mode 
of  their  operation  is  concerned.  Development  is  predomi- 
nantly a  matter  of  the  accumulation  of  experiences  which 
affect  all  the  fundamental  processes.  The  laws  of  mental 
life  point  unmistakably  to  an  interdependence  of  the  mental 
processes  which  precludes  any  conception  of  a  development 
of  any  fundamental  process  without  a  possible,  commonly 
a  necessary,  corresponding  modification  of  those  by  which 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Notes  on  Child  Study  (2d  edition),  p.  97. 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  47 

its  development  is  conditioned  and  those  whose  develop- 
ment is  conditioned  by  it.  The  stimulus  of  life's  activities, 
including  those  of  formal  education,  alone  determine  whether 
or  not  any  given  mental  process  shall  be  exercised  and  that 
stimulus  affects  all  mental  processes  at  all  ages. 

If  we  turn  from  the  general  laws  of  psychology  to  the  re- 
sults of  experimental  investigation  of  the  mental  processes 
employed  by  children  of  different  ages  the  evidence  points 
in  the  same  direction.  Such  measurements  as  those  con- 
sidered in  Tables  XIX  to  XXII  indicate  that  the  processes 
or  traits  considered  were  to  be  found  in  some  degree  La 
children  of  all  ages  within  the  period  of  school  life.  This  is 
clearly  shown  also  by  the  Courtis  Tests  and  by  Bonser's 
studies.1  It  is  also  true  of  more  general  mental  operations: 

The  ideas  of  the  child  are  largely  new,  while  those  of  the  adult 
are  oftener  old  or  connected  with  old  ideas;  hence  the  adult's 
mental  grasp  is  greater  chiefly  because  of  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence. The  effect  of  knowledge  on  mental  grasp  is  well  shown  by 
a  series  of  experiments  in  which  first-grade  children  and  adults 
reproduce  ordinary  letters,  Greek  letters,  and  familiar  sentences. 
The  adults  have  little  advantage  in  the  case  of  Greek  letters,  a 
great  deal  in  ordinary  letters,  and  are  almost  infinitely  better  in 
reproducing  the  letters  making  a  sentence.  Evidently  the  differ- 
ence is  due  to  greater  familiarity  and  increased  mental  grasp.2 

If  the  evidence  from  the  general  laws  of  mental  life  and 
the  evidence  from  experimental  investigation  were  wanting, 
ordinary  empirical  evidence  should  be  sufficient  to  guard  us 
against  the  assumption  that  young  children  remember  bet- 
ter than  older  children  or  that  the  processes  of  reasoning  do 
not  afford  educational  opportunity  to  any  considerable  ex- 
tent until  the  dawn  of  adolescence.  All  forms  of  the  mental 

1  Bonser,  F.  G.,  The  Reasoning  Abilities  of  Children  of  the  Fourth,  Fifth 
and  Sixth  School  Grades. 

2  Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  p.  255.   Quoted  with 
the  permission  of  the  publishers,  The  Maciiiillan  Company. 


4U       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

processes  are  found  in  the  activities  of  children  throughout 
the  school  period.  Nor  is  it  true  that  during  the  early  pe- 
riods concrete  experience  alone  forms  the  stuff  of  mental  life 
and  that  symbolic  and  abstract  materials  are  either  the  sole 
materials  appropriate  to  later  school  life  or  confined  to  the 
later  periods.  Symbolic  imagery  of  the  most  common  type, 
i.e.,  letters,  words,  arithmetical  symbols,  etc.,  are  employed 
almost  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  child's  school  life  and 
play  a  most  prominent  part  throughout.  Abstract  thinking 
of  a  high  order  may  be  found  in  operation  in  any  grade  of 
the  school.  The  extent  to  which  one  may  rely  in  teaching  on 
the  more  complex  mental  processes  is  determined  by  the 
amount  of  previous  experience  rather  than  by  the  chrono- 
logical age  reached  by  the  pupils. 

There  is  a  dangerous  tendency  manifest  in  some  quarters 
to  assume  that  a  close  analogy  is  warranted  between  the  fun- 
damental mental  processes  and  instincts  and  to  base  a  theory 
of  deferred  development  and  transitory  quality  for  the  com- 
mon mental  processes  on  the  assumption  of  such  character- 
istics for  instincts.  While  the  majority  of  instincts,  e.g., 
fear,  curiosity,  imitation,  etc.,  are  manifest  in  children  from 
birth,  certain  other  instincts,  e.g.,  the  sex  instincts,  are  con- 
ceived to  be  delayed  until  about  the  stage  of  puberty.  Like- 
wise j.t  is  commonly  held  that  certain  instincts,  e.g.,  the 
"  collecting  instinct,"  tend  to  be  transitory,  manifesting  a 
period  of  waxing,  a  period  of  ascendency,  and  a  period  of 
waning.  Whether  or  not  such  characteristics  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  with  reference  to  instincts,  there  is  little  ground 
for  assuming  like  phenomena  to  be  characteristic  of  the 
fundamental  mental  processes  of  sense-perception,  memory, 
reasoning,  and  the  like. 

If  this  is  the  case  with  James's  temperate  account,  what  shall 
we  say  of  those  who  describe  the  inner  growth  of  man's  instincts 
and  capacities  altogether  as  a  series  of  tendencies,  appearing,  wait- 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  49 

ing,  lasting  a  brief  space  and  vanishing  unless  then  and  there  fixed 
as  habits  —  like  the  ripening  of  fruits  which  soon  decay  unless  pre- 
served by  the  housewivery  of  habits,  or  like  a  procession  of  candi- 
dates which  pass  through  an  office,  disappearing  for  good  and  all 
unless  enlisted  at  the  time  and  drilled  by  some  recruiting  officer 
of  the  mind.  Such  a  sharp  definition  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  original 
tendencies  in  a  serial  order  of  stages  or  epochs  seems  to  me  to  be  a 
gross  exaggeration,  corresponding  only  here  and  there  to  the  actual 
progress  of  inner  development.1 

It  is  doubtful,  indeed,  that  delay  in  appearance  or  tran- 
sitoriness  is  a  law  of  any  extensive  application  with  refer- 
ence to  instincts  (though  perhaps  quite  the  reverse  is  true 
with  respect  to  specific  manifestations  in  the  form  of  special 
interests  which  are  highly  susceptible  to  the  influence  of 
the  environment  and  special  training) .  With  respect  to  the 
fundamental  mental  processes  evidence  is  wanting  that  it 
can  apply  at  all. 

15.  Implications  for  secondary  education.  Almost  every 
phase  of  the  work  of  the  secondary  school  is  affected  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  by  the  theory  accepted  concerning  the 
order  and  rate  of  mental  development.  Certain  implications 
may  be  briefly  considered  here. 

(1)  Affecting  organization  and  administration:  The  articu- 
lation between  elementary  education  and  secondary  educa- 
tion has  frequently  been  based  in  part  on  the  theory  that 
the  mental  development  of  children  is  serial  and  periodic 
and  that  important  differences  between  children  of  earlier 
and  later  ages  justify  a  rather  sharp  distinction  between 
elementary  and  secondary  education.  This  theory  is  always 
more  or  less  associated  with  certain  theories  of  adolescence 
in  relation  to  secondary  education  which  will  be  considered 
at  greater  length  in  following  sections.  In  anticipation,  how- 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Original  Nature  of  Man,  pp.  266-67.  Quoted 
with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Teachers  College  Bureau  of  Publica- 
tions. 


50        PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ever,  two  quotations  may  be  given  to  illustrate  the  general 
attitude.  Thus  Bagley: 

From  these  facts  (those  of  mental  changes  at  adolescence),  it 
follows  that  the  methods  of  moral  culture  must  be  transformed 
almost  in  a  day.  Just  as  in  mental  training  "the  drill  and  mechan- 
ism of  the  previous  period  must  be  relaxed,"  so,  in  moral  training, 
the  arbitrary  and  authoritative  rulings  that  have  hitherto  been  the 
mainstay  must  now  give  place  to  reason.1 

In  a  similar  vein  writes  Davis: 

American  educational  work  wrongly  organized.  —  Again  the  pres- 
ent mode  of  organizing  and  administering  educational  work  in 
America  is  psychologically  ill-grounded.  The  adolescent  period 
usually  begins  at  about  the  age  of  twelve  years.  With  the  dawn  of 
this  new  period  come  most  notable  changes  in  physical  form, 
structure,  and  function  and  most  decided  concomitant  psycho- 
logical changes.  At  this  period  self-consciousness  is  born.  The 
interests  that  formerly  held  dominant  sway  are  cast  aside.  New 
motives  stir,  new  aspirations  fire,  new  goals  beckon.  Conscious 
logical  reason  begins  to  proclaim  itself.  The  mind  is  no  longer  satisfied 
with  mere  empirical  facts,  but  it  demands  that  the  facts  be  presented  in 
their  essential  relations.  .  ,  .  To  enforce  unnatural  restraints  upon 
an  adolescent  is  to  deaden  his  sensibilities,  stifle  his  intellectual  and 
his  social  enthusiasm,  and  atrophy  his  powers.  To  keep  him  under 
the  restrictive  and  arbitrary  discipline  of  the  ordinary  elementary 
school  is  to  sin  against  nature  and  to  commit  an  offence  against 
the  laws  of  social  well-being.  To  employ  with  him  the  methods  of 
instruction  and  training  of  the  elementary  school  is  to  provoke 
him  to  truancy,  encourage  him  to  evade  school  work,  and  impel 
him  to  forsake  school  duties  altogether.  The.  beginning  of  adoles- 
cence is  most  emphatically  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  secondary 
education.  As  our  schools  are  organized  and  administered  to-day 
this  fact  is  ignored.2 

1  Bagley,  W.  C.,  The  Educative  Process,  p.  200.    Italics  by  the  present 
writer.     Quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  The  Macmillan 
Company. 

2  Davis,  C.  O.,  Principles  and  Plans  for  Reorganizing  Secondary  Educa- 
tion, pp.  69-70  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High  School  Education.   Italics 
by  the  present  writer.     Quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  publishers, 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  51 

Underlying  such  statements  as  those  cited  is  a  theory  that 
elementary  and  secondary  education  can  be  distinguished  on 
the  basis  of  the  "  mental  stages  "  of  the  children  as  deter- 
mined by  the  inner  growth  of  certain  mental  traits,  with 
particular  reference  to  a  sudden  burst  of  the  capacity  to  rea- 
son with  an  assumed  sudden  onset  of  adolescence.  In  con- 
trast with  such  a  theory  the  theory  of  concomitant  develop- 
ment of  mental  traits  would  justify  no  such  sharp  division 
between  elementary  and  secondary  education,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  emphasizes  the  importance  of  recognizing  that 
there  can  be  no  sharp  dividing  line  between  the  two  and 
demands  that  the  transition  from  elementary  education  to 
secondary  education  be  gradual  and  continuous. 

(2}  Affecting  subject-matter:  A  theory  of  the  serial  and 
periodic  development  of  mental  traits  has  frequently  been 
made  the  basis  of  the  assignment  of  various  subjects  of 
study  to  different  parts  of  the  school  course,  assigning  to  the 
earlier  years  subjects  of  study  which  are  conceived  to  de- 
pend for  their  mastery  on  more  or  less  mechanical  processes, 
especially  motor  ability  and  memory,  and  assigning  to  the 
later  years  those  subjects  of  study  which  are  conceived  to 
demand  reasoning  ability.  Thus  it  is  frequently  argued  that 
subjects  of  study  requiring  motor  skill  are  best  acquired  by 
children  in  the  elementary  school  or  in  the  early  grades  of 
the  secondary  school.  Likewise  it  is  argued  that  the  study 
of  foreign  languages  should  be  begun  at  about  the  age  of 
twelve  because  of  the  demand  which  it  makes  on  memory. 
So,  also,  it  is  claimed  that  subjects  calling  for  aesthetic  ap- 
preciation such  as  literature,  and  subjects  calling  for  logical 
reasoning  should  be  deferred  and  offered  relatively  late  in 
the  school  course.  Whatever  other  reasons  may  justify  the 
location  of  subjects  in  various  grades  of  the  school,  little  jus- 
tification can  be  found  for  such  arguments  as  may  depend 
for  their  validity  on  an  assumption  that  special  mental  pro' 


52       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

cesses  are  especially  favorable  at  certain  ages.  Far  more  satis- 
factory is  the  theory  that  social  economy  and  the  character 
of  specific  training  already  given  and  acquired  should  be 
the  criteria  determining  the  values  and  positions  of  subjects 
of  study  in  the  school.  As  a  matter  of  fact  a  subject  of  study 
which  made  no  demand  ori  perception,  conception,  imagery, 
memory,  reasoning  (if  such  should  be  conceived  as  a  reality) 
could  not  be  considered  appropriate  for  education,  and  fail- 
ure to  employ  any  of  those  processes  in  earlier  education 
would  probably  be  the  best  guarantee  that  that  process 
would  not  be  efficient  at  a  later  stage. 

(3)  Affecting  methods  of  teaching:  Obviously  the  theory 
adopted  with  respect  to  the  development  of  mental  traits 
vitally  concerns  the  methods  to  be  employed  in  teaching  any 
subject.  According  to  the  theory  of  serial  or  periodic  de- 
velopment emphasis  on  the  concrete  or  abstract,  on  memory 
or  reasoning,  is  to  be  determined  by  the  age  of  the  pupil  and 
without  reference  to  the  stage  of  his  development  with  re- 
spect to  the  specific  materials  concerned.  At  a  certain  age 
teaching  methods  are  to  rely  primarily  on  memory  and  to 
minimize  dependence  on  reasoning.  In  the  succeeding  stage 
the  process  is  to  be  reversed  and  inner  growth  alone  is  sup- 
posed to  make  possible  extensive  reliance  on  the  pupil's 
ability  to  reason.  The  conception  has  vicious  results,  not 
only  in  that  it  assumes  the  possibility  of  the  sudden  aban- 
donment of  habits  of  memorizing  which  have  been  fostered 
carefully  in  the  earlier  stage,  and  assumes  the  ready  develop- 
ment of  habits  and  ideals  of  reasoning,  but  also  because  it 
leads  to  an  overemphasis  on  memorization  in  the  earlier 
stages  and  a  failure  to  give  needed  practice  to  reasoning  with- 
out which  it  is  impossible  to  find  it  effective  at  later  stages. 
Only  when  proper  exercise  is  given  to  the  reasoning  processes 
in  connection  with  the  simpler  experiences  of  the  earlier 
stages  is  there  any  warrant  for  expecting  their  effective  oper- 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  55 

ation  with  the  more  complex  experiences  of  the  later  period. 
In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  when  reasoning  is 
neglected  in  the  elementary  school  and  emphasized  in  the 
high  school  the  rather  rapid  development  of  capacity  previ- 
ously discouraged  may  give  the  appearance  of  a  sudden  inner 
growth  which  is,  however,  but  the  natural  expansion  of  a 
capacity  previously  neglected. 

As  opposed  to  this  theory,  the  theory  of  continuous  and 
concomitant  development  demands  that  each  mental  trait 
receive  due  attention  throughout  the  school  course  and  that 
methods  of  teaching  be  adapted  to  utilize  all  the  fundamental 
mental  traits  from  the  beginning.  Obviously  maturity  here 
as  elsewhere  must  be  an  important  factor,  but  maturity 
should  not  be  measured  on  the  basis  of  a  series  of  delayed 
developments  of  the  different  mental  traits. 

(4)  Affecting  discipline  and  treatment  of  the  pupil:  Ac- 
cording to  the  theory  of  serial  or  periodic  development  the 
treatment  of  pupils  would  be  determined  largely  by  the 
factor  of  age,  postulating  rather  mechanical,  submissive 
action  by  the  pupils  during  the  earlier  stages  and  deferring 
appeals  to  reason  until  the  later  stages.  According  to  the 
theory  of  continuous  and  concomitant  development  appeals 
to  the  reason  of  pupils  are  as  appropriate  at  one  age  as  at 
another,  provided  they  are  adapted  to  the  specific  stages  of 
development  and  provided  they  are  expressed  in  terms  or 
actions  which  the  pupils'  previous  experiences  can  interpret. 
In  any  event  the  transition  from  the  rule  of  rules  to  the  rule 
of  reason  must  be  gradual. 

III.    THEORIES  OF  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  ADOLESCENCE  ON 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  MENTAL  TRAITS 

16.  Theories  of  the  influence  of  adolescence.  Closely 
related  to  the  problem  considered  above  is  the  problem  of 


54       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

the  influence  of  adolescence  on  the  development  of  mental 
traits  and  its  bearing  on  secondary  education.  In  its  most 
general  form  the  problem  may  be  stated  as  follows:  Is  the 
course  of  the  development  of  mental  traits  such  that  there 
are  periods  of  relatively  rapid  and  relatively  slow  growth,  or, 
is  the  process  of  development  essentially  continuous  and 
gradual?  In  more  special  form  as  having  direct  bearing  on 
secondary  education  the  problem  may  be  stated  thus :  Is  the 
onset  of  puberty  (the  initial  stage  of  adolescence)  relatively 
sudden  and  abrupt,  does  its  abrupt  appearance  entail  sud- 
den marked  changes  in  general  physical  development,  and 
do  abrupt  and  sudden  changes  in  mental  traits  coincide  with 
such  physical  changes,  or,  are  all  the  mental  phenomena 
which  are  supposed  to  accompany  adolescence  characterized 
by  gradual  maturing  ?  Two  theories  are  found  in  psycho- 
logical and  educational  theory.  One  theory  assumes  that  the 
development  of  mental  traits  at  adolescence  is  relatively 
rapid  and  is  characterized  by  sudden  and  relatively  abrupt 
changes.  It  is  commonly  termed  the  Theory  of  Saltatory 
Development  (Latin  saltare  =  to  leap,  to  proceed  by  leaps). 
The  other  theory  assumes  that  development  is  essentially 
continuous  and  gradual,  such  fluctuations  as  occur  merely 
representing  the  usual  phenomena  of  a  variable  factor.  This 
may  be  called  the  Theory  of  Gradual  Development.  The  two 
theories  may  be  roughly  contrasted  by  diagrams.  (Figure  A.) 
17.  The  theory  of  saltatory  development.  The  phenomena 
of  puberty  and  adolescence  have  always  been  fraught  with 
interest  to  students  of  education  and  particularly  to  students 
of  secondary  education.  This  interest  always  present  has 
been  stimulated  to  a  high  degree  by  the  results  of  the  child 
study  movement  of  the  past  quarter  century  and  especially 
by  the  publication  of  Hall 's  monumental  work  on  Ado- 
lescence in  1904.  Subsequent  to  the  publication  of  that  book 
few  treatments  of  adolescence,  or  of  the  development  of 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL 


Theory  of 

Saltatory 

Development 


Ago  0 


Theory  of 

Gradual 

Development 


Age  0 


physical  and  mental  traits  with  age,  have  been  unaffected  by 
the  data  which  Hall  presented  and  the  theories  which  he  set 
forth.  Prominent  among  those  theories  was  the  theory  of 
the  saltatory  development  of  mental  traits  at  adolescence, 
and  most  treatments  of  that  topic  have  been  more  or  less 
colored  by  the  tenets  of  Hall  and  his  school. 

Representative  opinions  will  illustrate  the  form  which  the 
theory  of  saltatory  development  takes  among  its  advocates. 
Burnham  states  it  thus: 

Physiological  changes:  Everybody  is  familiar  with  the  more  ob- 
vious changes  that  occur  at  this  period.  The  reproductive  organs 
increase  in  size,  the  larynx  enlarges,  the  vocal  cords  become  elon- 
gated, the  volume  of  the  heart  is  increased.  .  .  .  Probably  equally 
important  changes  occur  in  the  brain;  for  the  shape  of  the  head 
changes,  .and  new  intellectual  and  emotional  activities  of  this 
period  must  be  accompanied  by  the  functioning  of  the  cerebral 
centres  that  have  lain  dormant  before.  This  is,  moreover,  a  period 
of  specially  rapid  growth  in  both  sexes. 


56       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Psychological  changes.  The  psychological  changes  at  puberty  are 
no  less  remarkable.  There  is  a  great  influx  of  new  sensations.  The 
brain,  aroused  by  these  new  stimuli,  increases  its  activity.  The 
psychic  concomitant  of  this  increased  cerebral  activity  is  mani- 
fested in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  adolescent  mind  is  filled  with 
hopes,  dreams,  tempestuous  passions,  and  new  ideas.  Social  and 
ethical  impulses  become  dominant;  egoism  often  gives  place  to 
altruism.  Political  or  religious  zeal  sometimes  become  the  main- 
spring of  action.  The  reasoning  powers  come  into  use.1 

Hall's  theory  of  the  development  of  physical  and  mental 
traits  with  adolescence  is  not  so  readily  gained  through  a 
single  quotation  or  a  few  quotations,  as  from  the  general 
tenor  of  his  work.  A  few  characteristic  passages,  however, 
will  illustrate  his  theory: 

Adolescence  is  a  new  birth,  for  the  higher  and  more  completely 
human  traits  are  now  born.  The  qualities  of  body  and  soul  that 
now  emerge  are  far  newer.  The  child  comes  from  and  harks  "back 
to  a  remoter  past;  the  adolescent  is  neo-atavistic,  and  in  him  the 
later  acquisitions  of  the  race  slowly  become  prepotent.  Develop- 
ment is  less  gradual  and  more  saltatory,  suggestive  of  some  ancient 
period  of  storm  and  stress  when  old  moorings  were  broken  and  a 
higher  level  attained.  The  annual  rate  of  growth  in  height,  weight, 
and  strength  is  increased  and  often  doubled,  and  even  more.  Im- 
portant functions  previously  non-existent  arise.  Growth  of  parts 
and  organs  loses  its  former  proportions,  some  permanently  and 
some  for  a  season.  Some  of  these  are  still  growing  in  old  age  and 
others  are  soon  arrested  and  atrophy.  The  old  moduli  of  dimen- 
sions become  obsolete  and  old  harmonies  are  broken.  The  range 
of  individual  differences  and  average  errors  in  all  physical  measure- 
ments and  all  psychic  tests  increases.  Some  linger  long  in  the 
childish  stage  and  advance  late  or  slowly,  while  others  push  on 
with  a  sudden  outburst  of  impulsion  to  early  maturity.2 

1  Burnham,  W.  H.,  "The  Study  of  Adolescence,"  Pedagogical  Seminary, 
vol.  i  (1891),  pp.  175-76. 

2  Hall,  G.  S.,  Adolescence,  vol.  i,  p.  xiii.  Hall's  statement  that, the  range 
of  individual  differences  in  all  physical  measurements  and  psychic  tests  in- 
creases is  open  to  contradiction.    Cf.  Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Measurement 
of  Intelligence,  p.  67. 


57 

In  adolescence,  individualism  is  suddenly  augmented  and  begins 
to  sense  its  limits  and  its  gradual  subordination  to  the  race  which 
the  Fates  prescribe.1 

At  adolescence  each  of  the  senses  undergoes  certain  character- 
istic changes  of  structure,  function,  or  both.  Interests  change  and 
with  them  the  organs  of  apperception,  so  that  aspects  and  elements 
different  from  those  hitherto  absorbing  the  complex  but  already 
familiar  objects  of  sense  become  foci  of  attention.  .  .  .  One  of  the 
most  important  and  comprehensive  modifications  is,  that  whereas 
most  sense  stimuli  before  this  age  tend  strongly  to  provoke  reflex 
reactions,  after  it  these  tend  to  be  delayed  or  better  organized, 
as  if  there  were  a  marked  increase  of  associative  or  central  func- 
tions. Before,  the  projection  system  predominated,  and  stimuli, 
suggestion,  and  afferent  processes  generally  passed  more  readily 
over  to  the  efferent  or  motor  tracts;  but  now  we  have  increased 
cerebral  irradiations,  and  there  is  a  marked  advance  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  long-circuiting  functions  of  thought,  deliberation,  and 
reflection.2 

Of  all  the  changes  normal  at  adolescence,  none  are  more  com- 
prehensive and  perhaps  none  are  now  more  typical  of  the  psychic 
transformation  of  this  age  than  those  that  occur  in  the  attitude 
toward  the  various  aspects  of  nature.  .  .  .  The  new  life  is  first  born 
in  the  heart,  and  is  more  or  less  unconscious,  and  among  its  first 
spontaneous  creations  are  metaphors  that  may  fade  and  be  often 
recreated,  so  that  language  itself  becomes  fossil  poetry.  Allegory 
gives  things  a  dual  meaning;  symbolism  is  now  first  possible,  and 
a  widening  circle  of  objects  and  events  acquire  a  new  purport.3 

At  the  dawn  of  adolescence  this  impulse  to  migrate  or  wander 
shows  a  great  and  sudden  increase.4 

But  with  the  teens  all  this  begins  to  be  changed  and  many  of 
these  precepts  (for  previous  education)  must  be  gradually  reversed. 
There  is  an  outburst  of  growth  that  needs  a  large  part  of  the  total 
kinetic  energy  of  the  -body.  .  .  .  The  mind  at  times  grows  in  leaps 
and  bounds  in  a  way  that  seems  to  defy  the  great  enemy,  fatigue, 
and  yet  when  the  teacher  grows  a  little  tiresome  the  pupil  is  tired 
in  a  moment.5 

1  Hall,  G.  S.,  Adolescence,  vol.  n,  p.  58.    Quotations  from  Adolescence 
with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

2  Ibid.,  vol.  ii,  p.  2.  3  Ibid.,  vol.  n,  pp.  144-45. 
4  Ibid.,  vol.  11,  p.  377.                       6  Ibid.,  vol.  n,  pp.  453-54. 


58       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Whether  or  not  unqualified  advocacy  of  the  theory  of 
saltatory  development  can  be  ascribed  to  Hall,  certain  it  is 
that  many  educators  and  psychologists  more  or  less  in- 
fluenced by  his  work  have  adopted  that  theory  without 
appreciable  qualification.  On  no  other  theory  could  be  justi- 
fied such  extravagant  expressions  as  the  following:  "  At  this 
period  self-consciousness  is  born.  The  interests  that  for- 
merly held  dominant  sway  are  cast  aside.  New  motives  stir, 
new  aspirations  fire,  new  goals  beckon.  Conscious  logical 
reason  begins  to  proclaim  itself."  1  "  Mentally,  then,  as 
well  as  physically,  adolescence  is  a  new  birth";  2  etc. 

18.  The  theory  of  gradual  development.  Opposed  to  the 
theory  of  saltatory  development  is  the  theory  of  gradual 
development  which  postulates  that  growth  in  the  mental 
traits  is  essentially  gradual.  Again  the  form  which  this  theory 
may  be  seen  best  from  typical  views.  Thus  Thorndike: 

I  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  development  of  mental  traits  with 
age  has  not  been  and  cannot  be  adequately  measured  by  such 
studies  as  those  quoted  (Gilbert).  To  measure  it  we  must  repeat 
measurements  upon  the  same  individuals  and  for  all  purposes  of 
inference  preserve  intact  each  of  the  individual  changes.  In  con- 
nection with  each  of  them  account  must  be  taken  of  the  training 
which  the  individual  in  question  has  undergone. 

What  measurements  we  do  have  may  serve,-  however,  to  correct 
two  errors  of  common  opinion.  The  notion  that  the  increases  in 
ability  due  to  a  given  amount  of  progress  toward  maturity  are 
closely  alike  for  all  children,  save  the  so-called  "abnormally  preco- 
cious" or  "retarded,"  is  false.  The  same  fraction  of  the  total  inner 
development,  from  zero  to  adult  ability,  will  produce  very  unequal 
results  in  different  children.  Inner  growth  acts  differently,  accord- 
ing to  the  original  nature  that  is  growing. 

The  notion  that  maturity  is  the  main  factor  in  the  differences 
found  amongst  school  children,  so  that  grading  and  methods  of 

1  Davis,  C.  O.,  p.  69,  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High  School  Educa- 
tion. 

2  Bagley,  W.  C.,  The  Educative  Process,  p.  196. 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  59 

teaching  should  be  fitted  closely  to  "stage  of  growth,"  is  also  false. 
It  is  by  no  means  very  hard  to  find  seven-year-olds  who  can  do 
intellectual  work  at  which  one  in  twenty  seventeen-year-olds 
would  fail.1 

Two  general  questions  concerning  the  time-relations  of  original 
tendencies  may  be  discussed  here  because  of  their  intrinsic  impor- 
tance and  their  service  in  predisposing  the  student  to  a  critical  atti- 
tude in  connection  with  the  general  literature  of  mental  development 
in  childhood.  These  questions  concern  the  suddenness  of  the  wax- 
ing of  delayed  tendencies  and  the  frequency  of  transitory  tendencies. 

It  is  a  favorite  dictum  of  superficial  psychology  and  pedagogy 
that  instincts  lie  entirely  dormant  and  then  spring  into  full  strength 
within  a  few  weeks.  At  a  certain  stage,  we  are  told,  such  and  such 
a  tendency  has  its  "nascent  period"  or  ripening  time.  Three  is  the 
age  for  fear,  six  is  the  age  for  climbing,  fifteen  is  the  age  for  coopera- 
tiveness,  and  the  like.  The  same  doctrine  is  applied  to  the  sup- 
posed "faculties"  or  very  general  capacities  of  the  mind.  Within 
a  year  or  two  around  eight  the  child  is  said  to  change  from  a  mere 
bundle  of  sensory  capacities,  to  a  child  possessed  of  imagination; 
somewhere  around  thirteen  another  brief  score  of  months  brings 
his  reasoning  up  from  near  zero  to  nearly  full  energy;  a  year  or  two 
somewhere  in  the  teens  creates  altruism! 

These  statements  are  almost  certainly  misleading.  The  one  in- 
stinct whose  appearance  seems  most  like  a  dramatic  rushing  upon 
life's  stage  — •  the  sex  instinct  —  is  found  upon  careful  study  to  be 
gradually  maturing  for  years.  The  capacity  for  reasoning  shows  no 
signs  by  any  tests  as  yet  given  of  developing  twice  as  much  in  any 
one  year  from  five  to  twenty-five  as  in  any  other.  In  the  cases 
where  the  differences  between  children  of  different  ages  may  be 
taken  roughly  to  measure  the  rate  of  inner  growth  of  capacities, 
what  data  we  have  show  nothing  to  justify  the  doctrine  of  sudden 
ripening  in  a  serial  order.2 

The  few  interests  whose  strength,  period  by  period,  have  been 
more  or  less  well  measured,  give  no  evidence  of  any  sudden  acces- 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  m  (1914),  pp.  279-80. 
Quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Teachers  College  Bureau  of 
Publications. 

2  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Original  Nature  of  Man,  pp.  260-61.    Quoted 
with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Teachers  College  Bureau  of  Publi- 
cations. 


60       PRINCIPLES  OP  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

sion  of  power.  Thus  collecting  seems  to  increase  in  vigor  gradually 
from  before  six  to  ten.  The  capacities  of  sensory  discrimination, 
memory,  observation  and  the  like  which  have  been  measured  in 
children  at  different  ages,  are  of  course  in  the  conditions  that  they 
are  at  any  age  because  of  training  as  well  as  inner  growth,  and  the 
facts  concerning  their  rates  of  gain  cannot  be  used  at  their  face 
value  in  our  argument.  But  so  far  as  they  do  go,  they  give  no  sup- 
port to  the  theory  of  the  sudden  rise  of  inner  tendencies.  Indeed 
every  tendency  that  has  been  subjected  to  anything  like  rigid  scru- 
tiny seems  to  fit  the  word  gradual  rather  than  the  word  sudden  in 
the  rate  of  its  maturing.1 

Briefly  stated,  Thorndike's  theory  may  be  considered 
essentially  this:  that  development  must  be  considered 
chiefly  with  reference  to  the  individual  and  with  less  im- 
portance attached  to  group  averages;  that  development  is  a 
matter  of  specific  traits,  not  general  "  faculties  ";  that  the 
data  accessible  as  regards  both  physical  and  mental  develop- 
ment are  at  present  very  inadequate;  that,  such  as  the  evi- 
dence is,  it  points  toward  continuous  and  gradual  develop- 
ment rather  than  toward  sudden  transitions.  These  views 
essentially  constitute  the  theory  of  gradual  development. 

The  general  theory  of  continuous  and  gradual  develop- 
ment is  expressed  by  King  as  follows: 

When  any  period  of  life  is  set  off  for  special  study  there  is  dan- 
ger of  drawing  a  picture  that  is  exaggerated  and  untrue  to  reality. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  both  childhood  and  youth.  In  our 
eagerness  to  state  clearly  the  traits  of  the  period  with  which  we  are 
concerned,  we  tend  to  draw  lines  of  definite  separation  between 
what  has  come  before  and  what  comes  after.  This  indeed  has  been 
a  vice  of  all  those  who  take  up  any  part  of  a  series  of  changes  for 
particular  study.  .  .  . 

In  just  this  same  way  the  so-called  periods  of  life  from  birth  to 
maturity  exist  largely  in  the  mind  of  the  over-eager  observer.  The 
more  we  know  about  human  nature,  the  more  we  are  convinced 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Original  Nature  of  Man,  pp.  262-63.  Quoted 
with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Teachers  College  Bureau  of  Publi- 
cations. 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  61 

that  development  is  a  continuous  process.  The  child  is,  it  is  true, 
different  from  the  youth,  and  the  youth  from  the  man,  but  these 
differences  have  come  about  through  infinitely  minute  gradations 
rather  than  by  great  leaps.  Much  has  been  made,  for  instance,  of 
the  difference  between  the  religion  of  the  child  and  of  the  youth, 
and  yet  everything  to  be  found  in  the  moral  and  religious  point 
of  view  of  the  youth  had  its  beginnings  and  its  incubation  in  child- 
hood. There  is  no  abrupt  shift  from  one  to  the  other.  This  does 
not  mean,  of  course,  that  no  time  of  life  has  any  striking  or  dis- 
tinctive characteristics.  We  are  striving  rather  to  emphasize  the 
fact  that  what  we  always  find,  when  we  look  carefully,  is  continuity 
in  development  rather  than  abrupt  transition. 

Even  on  the  physical  side  of  child  development,  this  is  perfectly 
true.  The  tune  of  rapid  growth,  at  the  period  of  puberty,  does  not 
normally  begin  suddenly  nor  does  it  end  all  at  once.  Even  though 
the  actual  rise  in  the  curves  of  height  and  weight  occur  with  seem- 
ing abruptness,  the  child  has,  in  the  years  previous,  been  getting 
ready  for  this  accelerated  development.  .  .  . 

The  development  of  the  sex  instinct  at  puberty  is  no  exception 
to  this  rule.  The  manifestations  of  this  impulse  at  that  time  are 
usually  so  striking  that  psychologists  have  tended  to  point  to  it 
as  an  instance  of  sudden  transition.  The  little  child  has  been  as- 
sumed to  be  sexless  in  all  his  interests.  The  meaning  of  sex  sud- 
denly, it  has  been  held,  dawns  upon  him  at  puberty.  This  view  is 
quite  erroneous.  The  sex  life  of  the  child  begins  at  birth.  Gradually, 
through  the  years  of  childhood,  differentiation  goes  on,  not  merely 
in  the  physical  organism  but  also  hi  mental  attitudes,  interests,  in 
general  points  of  view.  One  of  the  most  important  contributions  of 
the  study  of  early  and  later  childhood  has  been  the  discovery  that 
sex  impulses  and  interests  appear,  normally,  very  early  and  develop 
as  an  integral  part  of  the  childhood  self.  The  period  of  puberty, 
therefore,  marks  no  abrupt  transition;  but  is  simply  the  time  when 
the  long  antecedent  development  emerges,  occupies  a  larger  place 
in  the  child's  horizon,  and  attracts  the  attention  of  the  observer 
so  that  he  drops  into  the  fallacy  of  imagining  that  something 
entirely  new  has  suddenly  come  into  being. 

Youth  is  a  transition  period,  but  no  more  so  than  is  any  season 
of  life,  so  long  as  life  continues  to  be  truly  alive,  for  life  is,  in  its 
essence,  change  and  progress  for  better  or  for  worse.1 

1  King,  I.,  The  High-School  Age,  pp.  66-71.  Quoted  with  the  permission 
of  the  author  and  his  publishers,  Bobbs-Merrill  Company. 


62       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

The  clarity  of  King's  presentation  leaves  no  opportunity 
to  escape  the  conclusion  that  his  views  involve  the  theory 
of  continuous  and  gradual  development. 

19.  Evaluation  of  the  two  theories.  In  attempting  to 
evaluate  the  two  theories  of  development  above  presented 
it  is  necessary  briefly  to  examine  and  interpret  the  data  and 
arguments  on  which  the  theories  depend.  When  the  theory 
of  saltatory  development  is  thus  examined  it  is  found  to  rest 
on  the  assumption  of  the  saltatory  development  of  physical 
traits,  an  analogy  between  physical  and  mental  traits,  and 
certain  evidence  which  is  supposed  to  support  the  theory 
directly.  Thus  it  is  held  that  quantitative  measurements  of 
certain  parts  and  organs  of  the  body  indicate  that  at  puberty 
a  rather  sudden  and  abrupt  change  is  found  in  the  rates  of 
development.  Growth  in  height  and  weight  at  adolescence 
especially  is  instanced.  Facts  indicate  the  possibility  of  such 
sudden  accession  of  development  in  the  case  of  some 'organs 
and  parts  of  the  body,  though  the  interpretation  of  certain 
data  is  open  to  question  because  of  their  character,  the 
method  of  investigation  or  measurement,  and  the  deductions 
made.  In  the  case  of  other  parts  and  organs  the  available 
data  point  toward  quite  a  different  condition,  so  that  it  is 
clear  that  not  all  parts  and  organs  manifest  sudden  matur- 
ing at  puberty  and,  therefore,  that  any  statement  of  salta- 
tory development  in  general  is  not  justified  and  probably 
not  true.  As  has  been  suggested  (e.g.,  in  the  quotation  from 
King  above),  some  misconceptions  are  involved  even  in 
interpreting  measurements  in  growth  and  height,  and  even 
in  the  case  of  the  development  of  physiological  traits  char- 
acteristic of  puberty  abrupt  development  is  not  to  be 
assumed  as  established.  Unless  more  tangible  connection 
between  the  physiological  organs  directly  indicative*  of 
puberty  and  other  physical  and  physiological  traits  can  be 
shown,  we  should  have  little  warrant  in  assuming  radical 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  63 

changes  in  those  other  traits  to  be  determined  by  or  to  be 
coincident  with  puberty,  even  if  it  could  be  shown  that  the 
latter  were  abrupt  and  sudden  in  development.  The  burden 
of  proof  is  positive,  not  negative. 

When  the  none  too  well  established  theory  of  saltatory 
development  of  physical  traits  is  made  the  basis  of  an  anal- 
ogy on  which  to  build  up  a  theory  of  saltatory  develop- 
ment of  mental  traits,  a  dangerous  step  is  taken.  Argument 
by  analogy  is  always  treacherous  and  always  requires  cor- 
roborative evidence.  Certainly  in  the  present  case,  if  it  is  to 
be  employed  at  all,  the  analogy  should  be  drawn  to  all  organs 
and  parts  of  the  body  or  to  the  body  as  a  whole,  rather  than 
to  certain  parts  only,  which  themselves  differ  from  other 
parts  in  the  nature  of  th^ir  development.  More  appropriate 
still  would  be  an  analogy  to  the  physiological  development 
of  the  nervous  system,  especially  to  the  development  of  the 
higher  centers  in  the  brain.  It  is,  however,  just  here  that  we 
have  the  least  reliable  data.  Such  as  the  data  are  they  are  in 
many  respects  unfavorable  to  a  theory  of  saltatory  develop- 
ment. Certainly  it  is  vicious  to  argue  in  a  circle  that  ob- 
served changes  in  physical  development  indicate  changes  in 
mental  traits,  and  then  to  argue  that  "  the  new  intellectual 
and  emotional  activities  of  this  period  must  be  accompanied 
by  the  functioning  of  cerebral  centers  that  have  lain  dor- 
mant before." 

Direct  evidence  of  the  development  of  mental  traits  with 
age  is  of  two  sorts:  (1)  that  obtained  by  careful  quantitative 
measurement,  and  (2)  that  obtained  from  psychological 
introspection  (analyzing  one  's  own  mental  processes)  and 
through  the  questionnaire  method.  Advocates  of  the  theory 
of  saltatory  development  have  depencled  largely  on  the  sec- 
ond of  the  two  sorts  of  data.  The  dangers  of  introspection 
on  the  part  of  untrained  persons  are.  readily  recognized. 
When  the  errors  incident  to  its  vise  are  combined  with  the 


pitfalls  of  the  questionnaire  method  such  results  as  are 
obtained  cannot  be  regarded  without  suspicion  and  doubt. 
Certainly  an  examination  of  some  of  the  studies  made  in  this 
field  and  by  those  methods  cannot  fail  to  leave  the  critic 

"';"*  , ' "  • 

wholly  skeptical  of  the  greater  part  of  such  investigations 
and  unwilling  to  accept  the  conclusions  reached.1 

Arguments  for  the  theory  of  gradual  development  rest 
largely  on  the  results  of  such  quantitative  measurements  as 
those  referred  to  above.  Advocates  of  the  theory  hold  that 
such  data  as  we  have,  inadequate  though  they  are  for  exact 
analysis,  are  indicative  of  continuous  and  gradual  develop- 
ment in  mental  traits.  This  is  shown  in  the  tables  presented 
in  the  first  sections  of  this  chapter. 

20.  Implications  for  secondary  4education.  The  entire 
a  -  ~~econojaiyvojF  secondary  education  is  seriously  affected  by  the 
problern  invbfyed  in  the  theories  above  outlined.  Questions 
of  vital  impei$ance  in  connection  with  the  organization  and 
administration  of  the  school,  subjects  of  study,  methods  of 
teaching,  and  the  treatment  of  secondary  school  pupils  de- 
pend for  then*  solution  on  the  adoption  of  either  of  the  two 
theories  discussed. 

(1)  Organization  and  administration :  When  one  examines 
the  literature  of  secondary  education  he  finds  it  replete  with 
references  to  it  as  the  institution  for  the  education  of  adoles- 
cent boys  and  girls,  which  is  in  general  a  fact  not  open  to 
question.  Secondary  education  is  indeed  largely  a  matter  of 
the  education  of  adolescents.  When,  however,  it  is  main- 
tained that  the  change  from  preadolescence  to  adolescence 
is  relatively  sudden  and  abrupt,  and  hence  that  a  relatively 
radical  differentiation  should  be  made  between  elementary 
education  and  secondary  education,  or  that  the  organization 
and  administration  of  the  school  system  should  be  based  on 

1  For  criticism  of  this  method  of  investigation  see  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The 
Original  Nature  of  Man,  pp.  27-42. 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  65 

the  assumption  that  homogeneity  is  characteristic  of  the 
children  before  and  after  puberty,  the  grounds  for  such  a 
theory  are  by  no  means  so  well  established.  For  many  years 
the  assumption  that  relatively  sudden  and  abrupt  changes 
take  place  in  the  individual  at  the  age  of  approximately 
fourteen  years  has  been  made  the  justification  of  our  pres- 
ent division  between  elementary  and  secondary  education. 
Thus  Monroe: 

It  is  now  known  that  during  the  adolescent  period  the  child 
undergoes  such  a  radical  change,  physically  and  psychically,  that 
education  can  find  in  these  changes  the  sufficient  basis  for  a  differ- 
entiation between  the  earlier  and  the  secondary  stages  of  educa- 
tion. .  .  .  Other  reasons  were  more  influential  in  setting  the  age 
limits  of  the  American  secondary  school,  but  the  general  recogni- 
tion of  the  peculiar  interests,  abilities,  and  characteristics  of  the 
adolescent  age  has  had  much  to  do  with  determining  these  limits. 
While  the  democratic  feature  of  elementary  education  is  no  doubt 
the  determining  factor  in  fixing  the  beginning  of  the  secondary 
school  period  at  about  the  fourteenth  year,  the  recognition  of  the 
importance  of  the  adolescent  period  has  grown  in  weight  through- 
out the  history  of  the  American  high  school.1 

More  recent  studies  of  the  phenomena  of  puberty  and 
adolescence  have  been  interpreted  to  indicate  that  the  adoles- 
cent period  usually  begins  at  an  earlier  stage  than  at  the  age 
of  fourteen,  probably  nearer  the  age  of  twelve,  and  as  a  result 
the  assertion  is  sometimes  made  that  on  that  basis  second- 
ary education  should  begin  at  about  that  age.  Thus  Davis: 

Again,  the  present  mode  of  organizing  and  administering  edu- 
cational work  in  America  is  ill  grounded.  The  adolescent  period 
usually  begins  at  about  the  age  of  twelve  years.  .  .  .  The  beginning 
of  adolescence  is  most  emphatically  the  beginning  of  the  period  of 
secondary  education.2 

1  Monroe,  P.,  The  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  pp.  9-10.  Quoted 
with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  The  Macmillan  Company. 

1  Davis,  C.  O.,  at  page  69  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High  School 
Education. 


66       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

In  complete  form  the  argument  may  be  stated  thus :  Ado- 
lescence begins  at  the  age  of  twelve  (thirteen  ?  fourteen?) ; 
marked,  sudden  and  abrupt  physical  and  psychical  changes 
take  place  in  children  at  the  onset  of  adolescence;  the  sepa- 
ration between  elementary  education  and  secondary  educa- 
tion should  be  determined  by  this  factor  of  adolescence.  It 
is  obvious  that  the  validity  of  the  conclusion  depends  on  the 
validity  of  the  premises.  It  is  also  obvious  that  the  theory  of 
continuous  and  gradual  development  would  lead  to  a  far 
different  conclusion.  The  argument  based  on  that  theory 
would  run  somewhat  as  follows:  Development  at  puberty 
and  adolescence  must  be  conceived  essentially  as  unitary, 
continuous,  and  gradual  process,  adolescence  itself  being  but 
a  period  of  change  extending  over  a  f  airly  long  period  of  time 
and  being  but  an  integral  part  of  a  larger  period  of  growth 
without  points  of  definite  demarcation  which  sharply  differ- 
entiate it  from  earlier  or  later  development.  Consequently  no 
definite  dates  can  be  set  for  puberty  and  adolescence  so  that 
any  sharp  separation  of  elementary  and  secondary  education 
is  without  justification. 

The  general  principles  affecting  the  validity  of  the  prem- 
ises of  the  two  fundamental  theories  involved  have  been  dis- 
cussed above.  There  remain,  however,  at  leakt  two  impor- 
tant factors  to  be  considered,  especially  as  affecting  the  prac- 
ticability of  adapting  the  organization  and  administration 
of  the  system  of  education  to  the  implications  of  the  theory 
of  saltatory  development  at  adolescence.  The  first  factor  to 
be  considered  involves  the  element  of  variability.  In  the 
data  which  were  presented  regarding  physical  and  mental 
traits  emphasis  was  centered  on  "  averages,"  etc.  It  is  al- 
ways important,  however,  in  dealing  with  groups  of  indi-* 
viduals  and  in  measuring  traits  which  vary  in  amount 
among  those  individuals,  to  take  account  of  the  amount  of' 
variability  as  well  as  the  central  tendency  as  measured  by 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  67 

the  average,  median,  mode,  etc.  It  is  recognized  that  at  all 
times  different  amounts  of  a  trait  will  be  found  for  different 
individuals.  It  is  recognized  that  the  time  of  the  onset  of 
pubescence  differs  for  boys  and  girls,  that  the  time  varies  for 
either  sex,  and  that  the  duration  of  the  process  of  change 
varies.  Since  we  are  dealing  with  a  variable  quantity  it  is 
important  to  know  not  only  the  central  tendency  of  the  age 
at  which  adolescence  begins  (e.g.,  the  average  age  for  the 
beginning  of  adolescence),  but  also  the  amount  of  the  varia- 
tion from  that  central  tendency.  If,  for  instance,  the  central 
tendency  of  the  age  for  the  ending  of  prepubescence  and  the 
beginning  of  pubescence  in  the  case  of  boys  is  found  to  be 
fourteen  years,  and  the  variation  of  individuals  from  that  age 
were  such  that  the  majority  of  boys  began  to  be  pubescent 
within  a  few  months  of  that  age,  a  working  scheme  allowing 
for  the  saltatory  theory  of  adolescence  would  be  possible. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  variation  were  such  that  a  range 
of  a  year  or  two  or  even  more  from  the  central  tendency 
would  be  found  necessary  in  order  to  include  even  a  majority 
of  boys,  organization  and  administration  on  the  basis  of  the 
saltatory  theory  of  development  would  be  impracticable 
unless  we  adopt  in  toto  a  scheme  of  promotion  based  solely 
on  physiological  age  as  suggested  by  Crampton  and  Foster. 
Fortunately  we  possess  certain  figures  for  variability  which 
may  be  considered  at  least  as  reliable  as  the  figures  for  aver- 
ages, etc.  Thus,  on  the  basis  of  his  examination  of  high- 
school  boys  of  New  York  City,  Crampton  found  that  for  the 
ending  of  prepubescence  and  the  beginning  of  pubescence 
the  middle  of  the  mean  years  was  fourteen  years,  the  aver- 
age age  13.44  years,  with  a  variability  of,  more  or  less,  1.55 
years,  or  more  than  a  year  and  a  half.  This  means  that  with 
an  average  date  marking  the  beginning  of  pubescence  of 
about  thirteen  and  one  half  years,  it  required  a  range  of 
more  than  three  years  to  include  two  thirds  of  the  boys 


68       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

measured.  The  importance  of  the  factor  of  variability  with 
reference  to  puberty  may  be  noted  from  the  tables  indicat- 
ing the  stages  of  puberty  in  high-school  boys  and  in  girls 
(Tables  XI  and  XIII).  On  the  basis  of  those  figures  if  we 
should  assume  that  all  boys  of  the  age  of  thirteen  could  be 
grouped  into  one  school  grade  we  should  find  approximately 
one  half  of  the  boys  (41-55  per  cent)  immature  (prepubes- 
cent),  approximately  one  quarter  (26-28  per  cent)  maturing 
(pubescent),  and  approximately  one  quarter  (18-31  percent) 
mature  (postpubescent).  If  we  apply  the  same  test  to  boys 
fourteen  the  proportions  would  be  about  one  fifth  (16-26  per 
cent)  immature,  about  one  quarter  (24-28  per  cent)  maturing, 
and  about  one  half  (46-60  per  cent)  mature.  For  fifteen-year- 
old  boys  the  proportions  are  about  twelve  per  cent  imma- 
ture, about  twenty -two  per  cent  maturing,  and  about  sixty- 
five  per  cent  mature.  The  writer  has  applied  the  estimates 
of  Crampton  to  the  age-grade  distribution  of  the  first  grade 
of  a  number  of  high  schools.  In  every  case  on  the  basis  of 
his  figures  we  should  find  approximately  one  quarter  of  the 
boys  immature,  about  one  fifth  in  the  maturing  stage,  and  a 
little  over  one  half  postpubescent.  In  the  seventh  grade 
about  one  half  of  the  boys  were  found,  on  the  basis  of  such 
figures,  to  be  in  the  prepubescent  stage,  one  quarter  each  in 
the  pubescent  and  postpubescent  stage.  In  the  eighth  grade 
about  thirty-five  per  cent  were  theoretically  in  the  pre- 
pubescent stage,  about  twenty-three  per  cent  in  the  pu- 
bescent stage,  and  about  forty-one  per  cent  hi  the  post- 
pubescent  stage. 

The  second  factor  which  affects  the  problem  is  directly 
related  to  that  just  considered  and  arises  out  of  the  age- 
grade  distribution  of  pupils  in  the  public  schools.  It  is  some- 
times argued  that  important  changes  calling  for  adjustment 
come  with  adolescence;  it  is  argued  that  adolescence  begins 
approximately  at  the  age  of  twelve  (thirteen?  fourteen?); 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  69 

it  is  argued  that  the  secondary  school  should  begin  with 
children  at  the  age  of  twelve.  The  obstinate  fact  is  that  we 
do  not  get  a  large  proportion  of  the  children  of  the  age  of 
twelve  or  even  thirteen  in  the  seventh  grade.  Proper  recog- 
nition of  physiological  age  would  justify  some  modification 
of  present  conditions.  It  can  never  entirely  eliminate  re- 
tardation or  acceleration  and  it  never  should. 

Briefly  to  summarize,  we  may  say  that  the  theory  of  salta- 
tory development  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  argument  for 
the  sharply  separated  division  of  elementary  and  secondary 
education  is  itself  open  to  question.  If,  however,  its  validity 
be  granted,  the  great  variability  of  the  age  at  which  puberty 
begins  precludes  any  attempt  to  organize  our  schools  defi- 
nitely on  the  basis  of  the  phenomena  of  adolescence.  Finally, 
even  if  we  grant  the  validity  of  the  theory  of  saltatory  de- 
velopment and  even  if  we  should  assume  that  the  variability 
in  the  date  and  duration  of  puberty  were  small  enough  to 
permit  fairly  homogeneous  groupings,  the  age-grade  dis- 
tribution of  pupils  in  the  schools  would  prevent  us  from  defi- 
nitely organizing  the  system  other  than  in  a  general  way  on 
the  basis  of  the  needs  of  adolescents. 

(2)  Subject-matter:  Theories  of  saltatory  development  or 
of  gradual  development  are  not  without  importance  in  con- 
nection with  the  character  of  the  subject-matter  considered 
appropriate  for  the  various  grades  of  the  school.  One  of  the 
most  noticeable  results  of  adherence  to  the  theory  of  salta- 
tory development  is  found  in  the  rather  abrupt  change  from 
relatively  concrete  and  familiar  subject-matter  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  to  the  relatively  abstract  and  unfamiliar 
subject-matter  of  the  secondary  school.  Thus  Monroe:1 

That  the  influence  of  the  adolescent  factor  has  been  stronger  than 
most  others  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  foreign  languages,  science, 

1  Monroe,  P.,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  p.  10. 


70       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

and  higher  mathematics  have  been  made  to  conform  to  this  dis- 
tinction, when  experience,  the  conditions  in  other  countries,  and 
the  interests  of  the  child  would  dictate  an  earlier  approach. 

Certainly  one  may  readily  observe  that  the  character  of 
the  secondary-school  studies,  even  in  the  first  year  of  the 
course,  as  a  whole  differ  markedly  from  the  character  of  the 
subject-matter  of  the  elementary  school,  even  in  the  last 
grade  of  that  school.  Only  a  thorough-going  acceptance  of 
a  theory  of  saltatory  development  could  justify  the  abrupt 
changes  in  studies  which  confront  the  pupil  on  passing  from 
the  last  grade  of  the  elementary  school  to  the  first  grade  of 
the  secondary  school.  The  theory  of  gradual  maturing 
would  permit  no  such  sharp  separation  of  subjects  of  study, 
but  would  postulate  that  the  transition  from  relatively 
concrete  subjects  to  relatively  abstract  subjects  should  be 
gradual. 

(3}  Methods  of  teaching:  A  number  of  factors  combine  to 
make  methods  of  teaching  in  the  secondary  school  at  present 
noticeably  different  from  those  employed  in  the  elementary 
school,  especially  the  fact  that  teachers  in  the  two  depart- 
ments ordinarily  receive  very  different  training.  Problems 
of  method  in  teaching  in  the  two  schools,  however,  are  af- 
fected in  no  small  degree  by  the  theoretical  considerations 
at  present  under  discussion.  It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to 
find  very  radical  differences  in  the  methods  of  teaching  justi- 
fied on  the  basis  of  the  theory  of  saltatory  development  at 
adolescence.  On  such  grounds  we  find  it  argued,  for  instance, 
that  methods  of  teaching  language,  especially  foreign  lan- 
guages, when  begun  in  the  earlier  grades,  should  be  taught 
in  those  grades  by  methods  which  may  be  abruptly  changed 
for  pupils  in  the  first  grade  of  the  high  school.  A  number 
of  factors  enter  to  determine  any  final  judgment  concerning 
the  place  of  the  study  of  foreign  language  and  the  methods 
by  which  it  should  be  taught.  It  must  be  recognized  also 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  71 

that  different  methods  of  teaching  are  appropriate  for  pupils 
of  different  stages  of  development.  Abrupt  changes  in 
methods  of  teaching,  however,  could  be  justified  only  on  the 
basis  of  a  theory  of  saltatory  development.  The  theory  of 
gradual  maturing,  while  recognizing  the  need  for  differences 
in  method  of  teaching  pupils  of  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment, insists  that  the  transition  in  methods  must  be  gradual. 
Hence  it  is  argued  by  advocates  of  that  theory  that  any 
abrupt  change  in  teaching  methods  when  the  pupil  passes 
into  the  secondary  school  involves  a  fundamental  error. 

(4)  Discipline  and  the  treatment  of  pupils:  Under  exist- 
ing circumstances  important  differences  are  found  between 
methods  of  discipline  and  of  treating  pupils  in  the  elementary 
school  and  in  the  secondary  school  so  that  difficult  adjust- 
ments face  the  pupils  on  passing  from  the  one  to  the  other. 
In  the  elementary  school,  even  in  the  last  grades,  pupils  are 
under  a  maternalistic  system  of  supervision  and  control, 
discipline  is  a  matter  of  rules,  and  little  if  any  freedom  is 
afforded  in  studies  or  in  conduct.  On  entering  the  secondary 
school  supervision  and  control  are  radically  changed,  reason 
tends  to  replace  petty  rules,  and  a  considerable  amount  of 
responsibility  is  thrown  on  the  pupil  for  his  own  conduct 
and  to  some  extent  for  his  own  education.  The  only  possible 
justification  for  such  a  condition  of  affairs  could  be  found  hi 
the  theory  that  the  pupil  becomes  a  radically  different  being, 
suddenly  endowed  with  powers  never  before  manifest,  be- 
tween June  and  September  of  the  same  year.  This  would  be 
an  extreme  form  of  the  theory  of  saltatory  development. 
Advocates  of  that  theory  have  much  to  answer  for  in  th^ 
present  situation.  A  theory  of  gradual  maturing  would  dic- 
tate that  changes  in  the  methods  of  discipline  and  of  the 
treatment  of  children  should  be  gradual.  Its  acceptance  in 
practice  would  do  much  to  reform  existing  conditions  in  the 
relation  of  elementary  and  secondary  education. 


72       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  Explain  how  the  fallacy  of  selection  may  affect  the  problem  of  measur- 
ing the  development  of  a  mental  trait  when  averages  for  different 
groups  at  different  ages  are  made  the  basis  for  determining  development. 

2.  Take  any  one  set  of  measurements  in  Table  XXI  or  Table  XXII.  Com- 
pare the  rates  of  change  year  by  year  in  terms  of  the  percentile  incre- 
ment. 

3.  From  the  data  given  in  Tables  XXI  and  XXII,  draw  graphs  of  the 
curve  of  development  of  some  of  the  mental  traits. 

4.  Indicate  as  many  phases  as  you  can  of  current  educational  theory  and 
practice  hi  the  late  elementary-  or  early  high-school  grades  which  show 
evidence  of  the  influence  of  a  theory  of  serial  or  periodic  development. 

5.  Show  how  those  phases  of  theory  and  practice  would  be  modified  to 
conform  to  the  theory  of  continuous  and  concomitant  development. 

6.  How  would  the  choice  of  material  and  methods  of  teaching  plane 
geometry  in  the  eighth  grade  differ  from  those  found  in  the  first  or 
second  year  of  the  high  school  on  the  basis  of  the  theory  of  serial  or 
periodic  development?    How  would  adherence  to  the  theory  of  contin- 
uous and  concomitant  development  affect  this  problem? 

7.  Why  is  the  questionnaire  method  of  doubtful  value  in  obtaining  data 
concerning  the  status  or  development  of  such  phenomena  as  the  rise  of 
altruism,  religious  convictions,  interests  in  literature,  in  the  opposite 
sex,  etc.? 

8.  Consider  differences  in  teaching  English  in  the  elementary  school  and 
in  the  secondary  school.    In  how  far  are  such  differences  due  possibly 
to  a  theory  of  saltatory  development? 

9.  Indicate  ways  in  which  changes  in  the  treatment  which  others  extend 
to  pupils  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school  may  itself  account  for  cer- 
tain somewhat  sudden  changes  in  pupils'  attitudes  and  reactions. 

10.  On  the  basis  of  a  theory  of  gradual  development  during  adolescence 
how  could  the  work  of  the  high  school  be  better  adapted  to  provide  for 
gradual  changes  in  methods  of  teaching,  etc.? 

11.  What  bearing  do  the  theories  of  development  considered  in  this  chapter 
have  on  plans  for  the  reorganization  of  education?    (Cf.  Chapter  VII). 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  The  Educative  Process,  chap,  xii,  pp.  184-202. 

Colvin,  S.  S.,  An  Introduction  to  High-School  Teaching,  chap.  n. 

Bonser,  F.  G.,  The  Reasoning  Abilities  of  Children  of  the  Fourth,  Fifth,  and 

Sixth  School  Grades. 
Burnham,  W.  H., "  The  Study  of  Adolescence,"  Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  I, 

pp.  184-95. 


MENTAL  TRAITS  OF  THE  PUPIL  73 

Douglass,  A.  A.,  "  The  Junior  High  School,"  Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Na~ 
tional  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  part  in,  chap.  n. 

Davis,  C.  O.,  "Principles  and  Plans  for  Reorganizing  Secondary  Educa- 
tion, chap,  rv  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High  School  Education,  pp. 
69-70. 

Dewey,  J.,  "Reasoning  in  Early  Childhood,"  Teachers  College  Record,  vol. 
xv,  pp.  9-15. 

Dewey,  J.,  How  We  Think,  pp.  65-66. 

Gilbert,  J.  A.,  "Researches  on  the  Mental  and  Physical  Development  of 
School  Children,"  Studies  from  the  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory,  vol.  n, 
pp.  40-100. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  Adolescence. 

Inglis,  A.  J.,  "  A  Fundamental  Problem  in  the  Reorganization  of  the  High 
School,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxni,  pp.  307-18. 

King,  I.,  The  High  School  Age,  chap,  v-vin,  pp.  66-124. 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  especially  chap,  rv,  pp. 
247-87. 

Parker,  S.  C.,  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,  chap,  xin,  pp.  314-35. 

Smedley,  F.  W.,  Report  of  the  Development  of  Child  Study  and  Pedagogical 
Investigation  of  the  Chicago  Public  Schools,  vol.  n,  pp.  10-48. 

Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Measure  of  Intelligence,  chaps,  i,  n,  v,  vi. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Original  Nature  of  Man,  chap,  xvi,  pp.  245-69. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  m,  chap,  xn,  pp.  270-80. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Notes  on  Child  Study,  especially  pp.  40-153. 

Wallin,  J.  E.  W.,  Psycho-Motor  Norms  for  Practical  Diagnosis,  Psycho- 
logical Monographs,  vol.  xxn,  no.  2,  especially  chap.  n. 

Whipple,  G.  M.,  Manual  of  Physical  and  Mental  Tests,  passim,  especially 
part  n  (revised  edition). 

Whipple,  G.  M.,  "  Psychology  and  Hygiene  of  Adolescence,"  chap,  vn, 
Monroe,  P.  (Editor),  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  pp.  246-312. 

Extended  bibliography  on  adolescence;  Baldwin,  B.  T.,  Physical  Growth 
and  School  Progress,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1914),  no.  10,  pp. 
189-212. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  PUPIL: 
INDIVIDUAL   DIFFERENCES 

21.  Importance  of  recognizing  individual  differences. 
Within  recent  years  two  factors  have  tended  to  emphasize 
the  importance  of  recognizing  individual  differences  among 
secondary-school  pupils:  (1)  the  increasing  heterogeneity  of 
the  secondary-school  population;  (2)  the  development  of 
the  psychology  of  individual  differences. 

(1)  Until  toward  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  pupils 
enrolled  in  the  secondary  schools  of  the  country  constituted 
a  roughly  homogeneous  group  in  the  sense  that  they  were 
boys  and  girls  from  relatively  well-to-do  American  families, 
who  for  the  most  part  looked  forward  to  a  cultural  educa- 
tion in  the  high  school  which  would  prepare  them  for  college 
and  for  the  higher  walks  of  life.  The  past  quarter  century, 
however,  has  marked  a  period  in  the  development  of  second- 
ary education  characterized  by  the  expansion  of  the  second- 
ary school  so  as  to  provide  education  for  classes  of  pupils 
never  before  represented  in  large  numbers  in  the  secondary 
school.  The  result  has  been  a  very  greatly  increased  hetero- 
geneity in  the  high-school  population,  and  consequently  a 
demand  for  increased  attention  to  the  varied  capacities,  in- 
terests, and  probable  future  activities  of  secondary-school 
pupils,  and  to  the  differentiated  needs  of  society. 

(2)  Within  the  past  decade  educational  psychology  has 
found  no  more  fruitful  field  than  that  of  the  psychology  of 
individual  differences,  and  in  no  other  field  have  the  results 
of  psychological  investigation  contributed  more  to  our  edu- 
cational theory  and  practice.  It  has,  of  course,  always  been 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  75 

recognized  that  individuals  differ  each  from  the  other  in 
physical  and  mental  traits.  Only  recently,  however,  have 
we  begun  to  realize  the  full  meaning  of  that  fact  and  the  im- 
plications for  secondary  education.  It  is  probably  no  exag- 
geration to  say  that  the  adaptation  of  secondary  education 
on  the  one  hand  to  meet  the  needs  of  different  capacities, 
interests,  and  probable  futures  among  pupils,  and  on  the 
other  hand  to  meet  the  differentiated  needs  of  society,  is  the 
most  important  problem  of  secondary  education  at  the 
present  time. 

Some  idea  of  the  great  range  of  abilities  among  secondary- 
school  pupils  may  be  gained  from  an  examination  of  the  con- 
ditions indicated  in  Tables  XXIII-XXIV. 

When  we  note  that  high-school  pupils  who  are  engaged  in 
the  study  of  algebra  may  differ  so  widely  in  their  abilities  to 
perform  the  ordinary  operations  of  arithmetic  that  some  are 
from  three  to  four  times  as  capable  as  others  in  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  and  division,  and  almost  immeasur- 
ably more  efficient  in  handling  abstract  examples  and  rea- 
soning as  measured  by  the  Courtis  Tests,  the  importance  of 
recognizing  individual  differences  in  capacities  is  impressed 
on  us. 

22.  The  distribution  of  individual  differences.  In  consid- 
ering differences  among  pupils  of  any  given  group  with  refer- 
ence to  the  amounts  of  a  trait  possessed,  there  is  always  an 
unconscious  tendency  to  separate  the  individuals  and  class- 
ify them  in  more  or  less  discrete  groups,  e.g.,  short,  medium- 
sized,  and  tall  boys;  young,  average-aged,  and  older  pupils 
—  with  an  assumption  (again  commonly  unconscious)  that 
those  groups  may  be  rather  sharply  differentiated.  Such 
procedure  is  usually  fallacious  and  is  as  objectionable  and 
productive  of  evil  results  in  practice  as  it  is  unsound  and  un- 
justified in  theory.  It  is  a  fact  of  importance  that  in  the 
case  of  most  if  not  all  traits  having  bearing  on  secondary  edu- 


76       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  XXIII.   INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  IN  SEVENTH  AND 
EIGHTH  GRADE  PUPILS  * 


Trait 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Range 

Maximum-r- 
Minimum 

Age  in  months  

140.5 

220 

79.5 

I  6 

Height  in  inches    

54 

67.5 

13.5 

1  3 

Grip  in  kilograms  

20 

45.5 

25.5 

2.3 

Cancellations,  number  of  A's.  .  .  . 
Addition,  number  of  problems..  . 
Spelling,  per  cent  right  

39 
0 
20 

95 
9 
94 

56 
9 

74 

2.4 
? 

4.7 

Associations,  number  right  

0 

21 

21 

? 

Auditory  memory,  per  cent  

38.3 

90 

51.7 

2.4 

Visual  memory,  per  cent  

46.6 

96.3 

51.7 

2.1 

*  Chambers,  W.  G.,  "Individual  Differences  in  Grammar    Grade  Children,"  Journal 
of  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  i,  pp.  61-76. 

TABLE  XXIV.   DIFFERENCES  IN  ARITHMETICAL  ABILITIES  IN 
FIRST-YEAR  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS  (COURTIS  TESTS)! 


Trait  and  Test 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Range 

Maximum  -T- 
Minimum 

1.  Addition  

35 

115 

80 

3.29 

2.  Subtraction  

25 

105 

80 

4.20 

3.  Multiplication  

25 

85 

60 

3.40 

4.  Division           

25 

105 

80 

4.20 

5    Copying  figures  

5 

205 

200 

41.00 

6.  Speed  reasoning,  attempted  .... 
Speed  reasoning,  right  

1 
0 

13 
10 

12 
10 

13.00 
? 

7.  Abstract  examples,  attempted.  . 
Abstract  examples,  right  

7 
0 

19 
19 

12 
19 

2.71 
? 

8.  Reasoning,  examples  attempted. 
Reasoning,  examples  right  

0 
0 

8 

7 

8 

7 

? 
? 

f  Compiled  and  arranged  from  Courtis,  S.  A.,  in  Report  of  the  Committee  on  School  Inquiry, 
Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  City  of  New  York,  vol.  I,  pp.  434,  440-44. 

cation,  sharply  differentiated  groupings  of  pupils  must  be 
considered  as  arbitrary  divisions  which  may  facilitate  or- 
ganization and  administration,  but  may  also  lead  to  bane- 
ful educational  results. 


77 


If  we  consider,  for  example,  the  age  of  pupils  in  any  grade 
of  the  secondary  school  we  find  that  the  term  "  average  age  " 
means  little,  and  that  the  classification  of  pupils  as  young, 
average-aged,  and  old  is  even  less  intelligible.  Thus  in  the 
following  table  classification  on  such  a  basis  would  mean 
little. 

TABLE  XXV.    AGE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  949  PUPILS  ENTERING  THE 
PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY  IN  1906* 


Boys 

Girls 

Both 

. 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Per  cent 

11.5-12.0 

2 

0.6 

0 

0.0 

2 

0.2 

12.0-12.5 

2 

0.6 

2 

0.4 

4 

0.4 

12.5-13.0 

13 

3.6 

13 

2.2 

26 

2.7 

13.0-13.5 

45 

12.4 

73 

12.4 

118 

12.4 

13.5-14.0 

55 

15.2 

85 

14.5 

140 

14.8 

14.0-14.5 

55 

15.2 

116 

19.8 

171 

18.0 

14.5-15.0 

74 

20.4 

105 

17.9 

179 

18.9 

15.0-15.5 

38 

10.5 

87 

14.8 

125 

13.2 

15.5-16.0 

35 

9.7 

53 

9.0 

88 

9.3 

16.0-16.5 

24 

6.6 

37 

6.3 

61 

6.4 

16.5-17.0 

12 

3.3 

12 

2.0 

24 

2.5 

17.0-17.5 

6 

1.6 

3 

0.5 

9 

1.0 

17.5-18.0 

1 

0.3 

1 

0.2 

2 

0.2 

Median 

14  yrs.,  6  mos. 

14  yrs.,  6  mos. 

14  yrs.,  6  mos. 

M.D. 

9  mos. 

8  mos. 

8  mos. 

*  Compiled  and  arranged  from  data  given  by  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  Causes  of  the  Elim- 
ination of  Students  in  Public  Secondary  Schools  of  New  York  City,  p.  23. 


The  distribution  of  various  amounts  of  any  trait  follows 
regular  laws  and  is  not  haphazard  and  hit-or-miss.  It  has 
been  found  that  in  the  case  of  variable  physical  and  mental 
traits,  where  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  individuals  is 
measured  and  no  selective  agency  is  involved,  the  numbers 
of  individuals  possessing  different  amounts  of  the  trait 


78       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


measured  tend  to  be  distributed  according  to  the  laws  of 
probability.  Such  laws  imply  that  between  the  lowest  amount 
of  the  trait  which  is  found  in  an  individual  at  one  extreme, 
and  the  highest  amount  which  is  found  in  an  individual  at 
the  other  extreme,  individuals  will  be  found  possessing  differ- 
ent intervening  amounts  of  the  trait;  that  the  greatest 
number  of  individuals  manifesting  any  given  amount  of  the 
trait  will  be  found  at  a  point  half-way  between  the  two  ex- 
tremes; that  the  number  of  individuals  possessing  various 
amounts  of  the  trait  increases  as  the  mid-point  is  approached 
from  either  extreme  according  to  a  fixed  mathematical  law. 
Such  a  distribution  is  illustrated  in  the  following  tables. 

TABLE  XXVI.  DISTKIBUTION  OF  VARIOUS  AMOUNTS  OF  HEIGHT 
IN  THE  CASE  OF  1171  AMERICAN  SIXTEEN- YEAR-OLD  GIRLS, 
COMPARED  WITH  AN  APPROXIMATE  THEORETIC  DISTRIBUTION* 


Actual  distribution  1171  cases 

Theoretic  distribution  1024  cases 

//  '  hi  '          t'      t 

Number 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Number 

136-139 

2 

0.2 

0.1 

1 

140-143 

12 

1.0 

1.0 

10 

144-147 

54 

4.6 

4.4 

45 

148-151 

159 

13.6 

11.7 

120 

152-155 

280 

23.9 

20.5 

210 

156-159 

310 

26.5 

24.6 

252 

160-163 

218 

18.6 

20.5 

210 

164-167 

102 

8.7 

11.7 

120 

168-171 

31 

2.6 

4.4 

45 

172-175 

2 

0.2 

1.0 

10 

176-179 

1 

0.1 

0.1 

1 

139-177 

1171 

100.0 

100.0 

1024 

*  Figures  for  the  actual  distribution  compiled  from  data  given  by  Burk,  F.  (after  Boas). 
"The  Growth  of  Children  in  Height  and  Weight,"  American  Journal  qf  Psychology,  vol.  IX 
(1897-98),  p.  268. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


79 


TABLE  XXVII.  DISTKIBUTION  OF  AEITHMETICAL  ABILITIES 
(ABSTRACT  EXAMPLES  —  COURTIS  TEST  No.  7)  nsr  THE  CASE 
OF  996  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY* 


Actual  Distribution  996  Cases 

Theoretic  Distribution  1021f  Cases 

Number  of  Examples 

Done  Correctly 

Number 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Number 

0-1 

4 

0.4 

0.1 

1 

2-3 

15 

1.5 

1.0 

10 

4-5 

54 

5.5 

4.4 

45 

6-7 

108 

10.9 

11.7 

120 

8-9 

206 

20.9 

20.5 

210 

10-11 

212 

21.5 

24.6 

252 

12-13 

203 

20.6 

20.5 

210 

14-15 

123 

12.5 

11.7 

120 

16-17 

.      58 

4.9 

4.4 

45 

18-19 

13 

1.3 

1.0 

10 

(20-51) 

(0) 

(0.0) 

0.1 

.1 

0-19 

996 

100.0 

100.0 

1024 

*  Actual  distribution  compiled  from  Courtis,  S.  A.,  in  Report  of  Committee  on  School  In- 
quiry, Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  City  of  New  York,  vol.  i,  p.  434. 

Such  tables  as  these  may  readily  be  plotted  and  expressed 
in  the  form  of  graphs  in  which  the  amounts  of  the  traits  are 
measured  along  the  base  line  from  the  lowest  amount  on  the 
left  to  the  highest  amount  on  the  right,  and  the  number  of 
cases  for  each  amount  are  measured  by  the  heights  of  the 
vertical  lines  or  columns.  (Figures  B  and  C.) 

The  same  general  law  of  distribution  is  found  more  or  less 
applicable  to  grades  in  the  subjects  of  study  in  the  secondary 
school,  although  a  number  of  factors  tend  to  make  such  dis- 
tributions complex.  Some  sample  distributions  of  high-school 
grades  will  illustrate  the  operation  of  the  law.  (Table 

xxvin.) 


80       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


Continuous  line  (  — 
Broken  line  I  -  -  - 


i.  i.  )  for  the  actual  distribution 
-  -)  for  the  theoretic  distribution 


,->  26 

«r 

•H 


10 


o 

-v  5 


Cm.      us     ftj     ^47    /-ff     'f*    IS~9     /63     i(,7     ni     nf    /?? 

FIGURE  B.    ILLUSTRATING  THE  DISTRIBUTION,  GIVEN  IN  TABLE  XXV!1 
OF  THE  HEIGHTS  OF  1171  SIXTEEN- YEAR-OLD  GIRLS 

Continuous  line     (-  ••••-•'  )  for  the  actual  distribution 
Broken  line     (  -----)     for  the  theoretic  distribution, 

i* 

\'' 
t 

,•• 

<-K  1C 

o  15 

S/0 
O 

Aa     o-i      j-J     4-f  '  6-7  '   *-)  {  lo-n  '/1-/31  >V-/r  tt-ll  'it'l?~ii-lT 

FIGURE  C.   ILLUSTRATING  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ARITHMETICAL 
ABILITIES,  GIVEN  IN  TABLE  XXVII,  OF  996  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


81 


TABLE  XXVffl.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  GBJU>ES* 


Percentile 

English  grades  344  pupils 
Madison   (Wit.)  High 
School 

Mathematics  grades  181 
pupils  Madison  (Wis.) 
High  School 

Average  grades  472 
pupils  eight  high  schools 

grade 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Per  cent 

70-71 

1 

0.4 

0 

0.0 

1 

0.2 

72-74 

4 

1.6 

4 

2.2 

0 

0.0 

75-77 

17 

7.0 

14 

7.7 

18 

3.8 

78-80 

42 

17.2 

25 

13.8 

80 

17.0 

81-83 

50 

20.5 

26 

14.4 

92 

19.5 

84-86 

51 

20.9 

34 

18.8 

101 

21.4 

87-89 

43 

17.6 

28 

15.5 

86 

18.2 

90-92 

24 

9.9 

25 

13.8 

64 

13.6 

93-95 

11 

4.5 

21 

11.6 

27 

5.7 

96-98 

1 

0.4 

4 

2.2 

3 

0.6 

99-100 

0 

0.0 

Total 

244 

100.0 

181 

100.0 

472 

100.0 

*  Tables  and  the  following  graphs  compiled  from  data  given  in  Dearborn,  W.  F.,  The 
Relative  Standing  of  Pupils  in  the  High  Schools  and  in  the  University,  Bulletin  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin,  no.  312,  Plates  V,  A,  C,  I,  A. 

These  figures  are  reduced  to  the  form  of  graphs  as  fol- 
lows. 


-20 


FIGURE  D.    ILLUSTRATING  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  GRADES  IN 
ENGLISH,  GIVEN  IN  TABLE  XXVIII 


82       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


7S-S-0' 


FIGURE  E.    ILLUSTRATING  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  GRADES  EN 
MATHEMATICS,  GIVEN  IN  TABLE  XXVIII 


20 


JS 


FIGURE  F.  ILLUSTRATING  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  AVERAGE  HIGH- 
SCHOOL  GRADES,  GIVEN  IN  TABLE  XXVIII 

In  stating  the  law  governing  the  normal  distribution  of 
various  amounts  of  a  given  trait,  two  conditions  were  made 
—  that  normal  distribution  wilj  not  appear  if  too  few  cases 
are  taken  to  permit  the  operation  of  the  law  of  chance  and 
that  the  distribution  will  not  be  "  normal  "  if  any  selective 
factor,  is  involved.  If  a  small  number  of  individuals  is 
measured  different  amounts  of  the  trait  will  be  scattered 
irregularly,  sometimes  with  gaps  where  no  individual's 
record  is  found.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  table 
and  figure. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


83 


TABLE  XXIX.   DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  GRADES  OF  26  PUPILS  IN 
HISTORY:   FIRST  YEAR  OF  HIGH  SCHOOL* 


Gradei 

70-74 
75-79 
80-84 


Number  oj  Case* 
6 
2 
0 


Grade* 
85-89 
90-94 
95-100 


Number  of  Cases 
5 
6 
7 


*  Compiled  from  Gray,  C.  T.,  Variations  in  the  Grades  oj  High-School  Pupils,  p.  12. 


la 

>           i 

£5 
t4 
vS 

2z 

1 

75-     80-     85-     90-     95- 
74       79       84      89       94       100 

FIGURE  G.  ILLUSTRATING  THE  DISTRIBUTION  GIVEN  IN 
TABLE  XXIX 

Such  is  the  usual  condition  in  any  recitation  group  in  the 
secondary  school,  and  an  irregular  distribution  must  be  ex- 
pected in  most  pupil  groups  where  less  than  one  hundred 
pupils  are  involved.  The  greater  the  number  of  pupils  con- 
sidered, other  things  being  equal,  the  greater  the  likelihood 
that  the  distribution  will  approximate  the  normal. 

The  second  factor  which  conditions  the  operation  of  the 
law  of  probability  distribution  is  the  factor  of  selection 
Whenever  any  group  of  pupils  is  selected  on  the  basis  of  the 
amount  of  a  given  trait  possessed  the  result  is  a  lop-sided  or 
"  skewed  "  form  of  distribution  in  which  one  or  both  ends  of 
the  distribution  are  lopped  off.  Thus,  if  the  pupils  whose 
records  are  represented  in  Table  XXVIII  and  Figure  F  were 
separated  into  three  groups  on  the  basis  of  their  average 
grades,  with  the  dividing  lines  at  80  per' cent  and  90  per 


84       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

cent  (assuming  that  the  grading  really  represented  abilities), 
we  should  then  have  three  groups  in  which  the  distributions 
would  appear  as  in  Table  XXX  and  Figure  H.  Theoreti- 
cally something  of  this  sort  takes  place  through  our  system 
of  promotion,  except  that  the  division  is  commonly  in  two 
divisions  only.  However,  owing  to  the  inadequacies  of  our 
grading  and  promotion  systems  the  separation  is  always  in- 
complete so  that  the  overlapping  of  distributions  is  always 
great.  This  is  clearly  seen  from  the  distributions  of  arith- 
metical abilities  in  the  various  grades  of  the  high  school  as 
measured  by  Courtis.1 


TABLE  XXX 

Ca«*a 

Grade     Wo.  °;o 

<  70-71          1  0.2 
(Gjtadea  70-60      C  _ 

I     (No.CuJea  99        £    72-74         0  0.0 

(  j>  Coaea  81.0    (--  —  --- 

(                                (    75-77       18  3.8 

<  73-80       80  17.0 

(Grades  81-89      \  _81-_83_  .  9.2.  _19.-°. 

Il(NoCa8ea  279       (   Q^.QQ     101  21.4 

/:]t  Cases  69.1      (  " 

(    87-89       96  18.2 

(Grades  90-93   (  90-92   64  13. C 

XII  <Ho'Ca*ea  94   {  "93-9"6   27  6.7 

(  fo  Cases  19.9  (----- 

/             (  96-98    3  0.0 


FIG.  H. 

Per  cent  of  group 


TABLE  XXX  AND    FIGURE    H.    ILLUSTRATING  THE    DISTRIBUTION 
ABILITIES  IN  GROUPS  WHERE  SELECTION  is  INVOLVED 


1  Courtis,  S.  A.,  loc.  cit. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  85 

23.  The  interpretation  of  measures.  In  measuring  the 
abilities  of  a  group  of  secondary-school  pupils  common  prac- 
tice utilizes  a  measure  for  the  central  tendency  only  —  for 
that  purpose  ordinarily  employing  the  average.1  From 
what  has  been  said  of  the  character  and  distribution  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  a  variable  trait  such  as  is  commonly  in- 
volved hi  school  work,  it  may  be  seen  that  a  measure  of  the 
central  tendency  alone  (e.g.,  the  average)  may  be  a  very  un- 
trustworthy guide  and  lead  us  to  leave  very  important  facts 
out  of  consideration.  How  unsatisfactory  a  measure  of  the 
central  tendency  alone  may  be  can  be  seen  from  the  three 
sample  distributions  given  in  Table  XXXI,  each  of  which 
has  the  same  average,  median,  and  mode,  but  differs  in  many 
other  important  respects. 

From  such  possible  forms  of  distribution  as  those  indi- 
cated in  this  table,  each  of  which  has  the  same  central  tend- 
ency as  the  others,  but  differs  radically  in  the  form  of  dis- 
tribution and  the  amount  of  variability,  it  may  be  seen  that 
the  only  real  method  of  indicating  the  character  of  the  group 
is  through  a  table  of  total  distribution.  Ordinarily,  however, 
it  is  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes  to  indicate  the  cen- 
tral tendency  by  means  of  the  average  or  median,  and  hi 
addition  to  indicate  some  measure  of  the  variability  by 
means  of  the  average  deviation,  median  deviation,  or 
standard  deviation.  Most  secondary-school  matters  are 
determined  erroneously  on  the  basis  of  group  averages  and 
fail  to  be  adapted  to  important  differences  in  the  pupil 
groups. 

1  Other  measures  of  the  central  tendency  are  the  median  =  the  record 
above  which  and  below  which  is  an  equal  number  of  all  the  cases,  and  the 
mode  =  the  measure  most  commonly  occurring  in  the  measurement  of  the 
group.  For  the  technical  terminology  and  the  technique  of  applying  these 
measures  consult  Whipple,  G.  M .,  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests, 
chap,  ii ;  or  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Mental  and  Social  Measurements;  or  Rugg, 
H.  O.,  Statistical  Methods  Applied  to  Education. 


86       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

TABLE  XXXI.  THREE  HYPOTHETICAL  DISTRIBUTIONS  ILLUSTRAT- 
ING THE  INADEQUACY  OF  THE  CENTRAL  TENDENCY  AS  THE  SOLE 

MEASURE  OF  A  VARIABLE  TRAIT 


Record 

Case  A 
Frequency 

Case  B 
Frequency 

Case  C 
Frequency 

0 

0 

8 

9 

10 

0 

12 

17 

20 

0 

20 

1 

SO 

0 

8 

10 

40 

32 

2 

1 

50 

36 

0 

20 

60 

32 

2 

2 

70 

0 

8 

8 

80 

0 

20 

13 

90 

0 

12 

15 

100 

0 

8 

4 

Total  number  

100 

100 

100 

Average  record  

50 

50 

50  )  r,     .     , 

Median  record  

50 

50 

Kn  (  Central 

OU  f  m        i 

Modal  records  

50 

20  and  80 

50  (  Tendency 

Average  deviation  .  .  . 
Median  deviation.  .  .  . 

0.64 

0.22 

3.32 
2.75 

2.74) 
2.64  ^Variability 

Standard  deviation  .  . 

0.08 

3.48 

3.22) 

24.  The  causes  of  individual  differences.  Many  causes 
combine  to  produce  the  individual  differences  found  among 
secondary-school  pupils  and  they  affect  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  secondary  education  in  several  important  ways.  A 
brief  analysis  of  the  major  factors  or  groups  of  factors  in- 
volved, together  with  their  implications  for  secondary  edu- 
cation, forms  the  basis  of  the  remaining  portion  of  this 
chapter.  The  factors  to  be  considered  are  as  follows:  (1) 
biological  heredity;  (2)  social  heredity;  (3)  maturity;  (4) 
environment  and  training;  (5)  sex.  The  classification  is  an 
arbitrary  one  designed  to  facilitate  analysis,  and  the  factors 
suggested  are  not  mutually  exclusive  in  all  cases,  e.g.,  social 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  87 

heredity  is  in  reality  a  part  of  environment  and  training  and 
is  separated  therefrom  merely  for  convenience  in  handling 
the  topic. 

A  glance  at  the  list  given  at  once  suggests  a  multitude 
of  important  problems  for  secondary  education.  Some  of 
the  problems  connected  with  maturity  have  already  been 
considered  in  the  previous  chapters.  Biological  heredity 
(parental  and  racial)  involves  problems  arising  out  of  the 
racially  heterogeneous  character  of  our  population  as  well  as 
including  those  arising  out  of  the  fact  that  each  pupil  repre- 
sents a  distinct  problem.  Closely  connected  with  problems 
arising  out  of  racial  heredity  and  parental  heredity  in  the 
biological  sense  are  problems  arising  out  of  the  factor  of  so- 
cial heredity,  particularly  important  in  our  miscegeneous 
and  heterogeneous  population.  The  problems  arising  out  of 
differences  in  other  environmental  factors  cover  the  entire 
economy  of  the  secondary  school.  Finally,  it  will  be  recog- 
nized that  individual  differences  due  to  sex  introduce  all  the 
problems  involved  in  questions  of  segregation,  coeducation, 
etc. 

25.  Common  errors  in  interpreting  differences.  Certain 
errors  are  so  common  in  the  interpretation  of  individual 
differences  among  secondary-school  pupils  that  they  deserve 
mention  here. 

(1)  Analogies  between  individual  differences  in  physical 
traits  and  individual  differences  in  mental  traits  are  danger- 
ous unless  supported  by  more  direct  evidence.   The  error  is 
common  of  assuming  important  differences  in  mental  traits 
because  of  easily  observed  differences  in  physical  traits 
among  pupils  of  different  races,  sex,  or  degrees  of  physical 
maturity. 

(2)  Care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  between  differ- 
ences which  are  due  to  inborn  tendencies  and  those  which 
are  due  to  environment  and  training.   The  former  may  be 


88       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

accepted  as  relatively  fixed  factors  to  which  education  must 
conform.  The  latter  must  be  considered  as  acquired  and, 
therefore,  subject  to  modification  through  education.  Na- 
ture must  be  accepted:  the  environment  and  training  may 
be  controlled.  This  point  is  important  in  connection  with 
differences  due  to  biological  heredity  and  social  heredity  and 
in  connection  with  sex  differences. 

(3)  The  existence  of  differences  among  pupils  does  not 
necessarily  imply  the  necessity  or  desirability  of  adapting 
secondary  education  to  them.  In  many  cases  the  demands  of 
highly  artificial  conditions  of  life  may  demand  like  educa- 
tion for  the  very  purpose  of  diminishing  those  differences. 
In  other  cases  differentiated  education  is  both  necessary  and 
desirable. 

(4)  Lack  of  differences  does  not  necessarily  justify  the 
same  form  of  secondary  education  for  all.    Differences  in 
future  needs  will  commonly  justify  differences  in  secondary 
education  for  different  groups  of  pupils. 

(5)  The  indirect  and  contingent  results  of  certain  original 
differences  must  not  be  confused  with  those  directly  and 
necessarily  involved.   Sex  differences  in  physical  traits,  for 
example,  frequently  cause  differences  in  the  social  treatment 
of  boys  and  girls,  which  in  turn  cause  differences  in  mental 
attitudes  which  create  actual  differences  in  mental  traits  be- 
tween the  sexes.  Such  differences  must  be  considered  as  con- 
tingent and  not  necessary  results.   Like  treatment  of  boys 
and  girls  might  well  eliminate  many  sex  differences  now 
found  which  are  the  results  of  unlike  treatment.  This  may 
or  may  not  be  desirable.  The  same  principle  also  applies  to 
many  so-called  racial  differences.   Doubtless  many  observ- 
able traits  which  we  note  in  certain  races  in  America  are  due 
solely  or  primarily  to  the  social  treatment  to  which  they  are 
subjected.   Many  of  these  secondary  education  should  aim 
to  eradicate. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  89 

(6)  The  fallacy  of  unfair  selection  always  lurks  in  the 
path  of  the  investigator  of  individual  differences  among 
pupils.  A  comparison,  for  instance,  of  the  school  records  of 
pupils  of  different  nationalities  almost  always  involves  a 
difference  in  selection. 

26.  Individual  differences  due  to  biological  heredity. 
That  individual  differences  in  physical  traits  are  determined 
primarily  by  heredity  is  readily  recognized.  That  mental 
traits  also  are  largely  determined  by  heredity  is  not  so  readily 
recognized,  though  probably  no  less  true.  In  the  case  both 
of  physical  and  of  mental  traits  it  must  be  conceived  that  the 
limit  which  a  trait  may  reach  in  any  given  individual  is  de- 
termined by  heredity.  Within  the  range  from  zero  to  that 
limit  what  status  the  individual  may  reach  is  more  or  less  de- 
termined by  the  environment  and  by  training,  which  is, 
however,  within  limits,  more  potent  in  the  case  of  mental 
traits  than  in  the  case  of  physical  traits. 

Among  secondary-school  pupils  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  great  amount  of  variability  found  is  due  primarily 
to  differences  in  the  parentage  and  ancestry  of  those  pupils. 
Since  each  individual  pupil  represents  an  independent  prob- 
lem the  importance  of  individual  differences  is  emphasized. 
The  impossibility  of  definite  analysis  of  individual  differ- 
ences due  to  differences  in  immediate  or  parental  heredity 
(where  each  individual  or  family  group  of  individuals  must, 
from  the  nature  of  the  case,  constitute  a  separate  problem 
and  therefore  defy  generalization)  tends  to  influence  us  to 
generalize  on  the  basis  of  remote  or  racial  inheritance.  Such 
procedure  is  likely  to  lead  either  to  an  overemphasis  or  an 
underemphasis  of  the  importance  of  racial  differences  with 
reference  to  the  treatment  of  secondary-school  pupils.  This 
is  likely  to  happen  for  one  or  both  of  two  reasons.  In  the 
first  place,  any  attempt  to  analyze  racial  groups  for  the  pur- 
pose of  discovering  racial  differences  meets  with  an  initial 


90       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

difficulty  in  the  fact  that  intermarriage  has  so  extensively 
affected  population  in  all  countries,  but  particularly  in 
America,  that  careful  distinction  is  in  most  cases  totally  im- 
possible even  where  differences  in  nationality  would  appear 
to  indicate  differences  in  race.  In  the  second  place,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  in  all  probability  differences  found 
among  individuals  of  the  same  racial  ancestry  are  commonly 
so  great  as  to  swallow  up  the  differences  between  any  two 
racial  groups  of  importance  in  our  secondary  schools  as  far 
as  differences  due  to  biological  heredity  alone  are  concerned,  and 
except  in  so  far  as  differences  due  to  natural  heredity  may  in- 
directly lead  to  important  differences  in  social  heredity  and 
environment.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  grades  in  Eng- 
lish received  by  149  white  and  149  negro  pupils  in  the  high 
schools  of  New  York  City. 


TABLE  XXXH  * 


Grades  received 

White  Pupils 

Negroes 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Per  cent 

0-29 

1 

0.7 

0 

0.0 

30-39 

2 

1.3 

2 

1.3 

40-49 

4 

2.7 

13 

8.7 

50-59 

14 

9.4 

44 

29.5 

60-69 

73 

49.0 

67 

45.0 

70-79 

39 

26.2 

16 

10.8 

80-89 

13 

8.7 

7 

4.7 

90-100 
Total 

3 

2.2 

0 

0.0 

149 

100.0 

149 

100.0 

Average  grade 
A.D. 

66.8  % 
7.45 

61.3  % 

7.25 

*  Compiled  from  Mayo,  M.  J.,  The  Mental  Capacity  of  the  American  Negro,  p.  30. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


91 


C  on^  »v\v».ov>.  \ 


so 

45 



*40 

i 

j* 

•30 

^ 

•H 

»u 

Jf 
*M 

w 

0 

*«• 

o- 

10 

• 

s 

• 
• 

i 

C  F  r  

i        1 

C-t-aAe    o-;i9  1  3  0-33  -fo-f^   fo-rs 

**•    "      |I°                 ^              ">               T 

fe'  5.  *T              '      * 

«-       «   '.  *-       °J^ 
*               •  ^» 

J^lj-     -    -     r 

1        *               i 

en       •      <yt      ',      •*>      '     ff)  \<n 
1-       •      rr,      ,      -      '      '       hr 
•                i               •            I  — 

FIGUBE  I.  ILLUSTRATING  TABLE  XXXII 


92        PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

This  table  and  the  accompanying  graph  are  presented 
here,  not  as  indicating  the  relative  status  of  white  and  negro 
pupils  in  the  secondary  school,  but  to  illustrate  the  fact  that 
where  differences  in  the  average  attainment  of  two  different 
groups  are  as  wide  as  66.8  (for whites)  and  61.3  (for  negroes), 
and  the  variability  much  the  same,  the  overlapping  is  so 
great  that  the  differences  between  whites  and  negroes  is 
swallowed  up  by  the  differences  between  the  whites  them- 
selves or  between  the  negroes  themselves.  In  general  the 
statement  made  by  Thorndike  is  in  point: 

My  own  estimate  is  that  greater  differences  will  be  found  in  the 
case  of  the  so-called  "higher"  traits,  such  as  the  capacity  to  asso- 
ciate and  to  analyze,  thinking  with  parts  or  elements,  and  origi- 
nality, than  in  the  case  of  sensory  and  sensori-motor  traits,  but  that 
there  will  still  be  very  great  overlapping.  Calling  the  difference 
between  the  original  capacity  of  the  lowest  congenital  idiot  and 
that  of  the  average  modern  European  100,  I  should  expect  the 
average  deviation  of  one  pure  race  from  another  in  original  capacity 
to  be  below  10  and  above  1,  and  the  difference  between  the  central 
tendency  of  the  most  and  the  least  gifted  races  to  be  below  50  and 
above  10.  I  should  consider  3  and  25  as  reasonable  guesses  for 
the  two  differences. 

Even  if  the  differences  were  far  larger  than  these,  the  practical 
precept  for  education  would  remain  unchanged.  It  is,  of  course, 
that  selection  by  race  of  original  natures  to  be  educated  is  nowhere 
nearly  as  effective  as  selection  of  the  superior  individuals  regard- 
less of  race.  There  is  much  overlapping  and  the  differences  in 
original  nature  within  the  same  race  are,  except  in  extreme  cases, 
many  times  as  great  as  the  differences  between  races  as  wholes.1 

The  fact  is,  of  course,  that  the  secondary  school,  in  so  far 
as  its  selective  function  operates,  selects  individuals  on  a 
basis  which  is  roughly  the  same  for  all  who  enter  or  attempt 
to  enter,  with  the  result  that  if  races  differ  essentially  their 
representatives  in  the  secondary  school  indicate  different 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  in,  p.  224.  Quoted  with 
the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Teachers  College  Bureau  of  Publications. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  93 

forms  of  selection  with  reference  to  race.  This  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  hypothetical  diagram: 

Scale  Inferiority  Superiority 

a  • 
Race  A  


Race  B 


RaceC  — 


Thus  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  negroes  in  the  secondary 
school  represent  a  much  more  select  portion  of  that  race 
than  the  selection  of  whites  represented  by  white  children  in 
the  school.  Hence  it  follows  that  secondary-school  pupils  of 
a  race,  which  as  a  whole  may  be  considered  of  inferior  mental 
capacity,  are  not  necessarily  themselves  inferior  to  secondary- 
school  pupils  belonging  to  a  race  which  as  a  whole  may  be 
considered  of  superior  mental  capacity.  Certainly  it  is  most 
unsafe  to  assume  certain  characteristics  of  a  race  and  to  as- 
sume that  those  characteristics  will  be  found  in  all  repre- 
sentatives of  that  race  in  the  secondary  school. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  whatever 
importance  for  secondary  education  is  to  be  attached  to  in- 
dividual differences  due  to  race  considered  from  the  stand- 
point of  biological  heredity,  far  greater  importance  is  to  be 
attached  to  race  influence  as  conditioning  the  social  heredity 
and  differences  in  the  environment  —  indirect  rather  than 
direct  results.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  extremely  difficult, 
if  not  quite  impossible,  to  separate  these  factors,  just  as  it  is 
extremely  difficult  always  to  separate  the  results  of  heredity 
and  environment  and  training. 

Perhaps  the  nearest  approach  to  exceptional  differences 
due  to  racial  heredity  for  any  large  group  of  secondary  school 
pupils  may  be  found  in  the  cases  of  negroes  and  whites. 
Mayo  has  measured  the  accomplishment  of  150  negroes  in 


94       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


the  high  schools  of  New  York  City  and  compared  it  with 
that  of  a  like  number  of  white  pupils  chosen  at  random.  The 
results  of  his  study  are  given  in  Table  XXXIII.  It  must  be 
remembered  in  interpreting  the  table  that  the  negroes  repre- 
sent a  relatively  high  selection  of  their  race  and  that  inter- 
marriage with  whites  has  more  or  less  modified  the  racial 
stock. 

TABLE  XXXIII* 


Grades 

English 

Foreign 
Lan- 
guages 

Mathe- 
matics 

Science 

History 

Ancient 
Lan- 
guages 

Com- 
mercial 
Subjects 

All 

Subjects 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

Below  20 

1 

0 

3 

2 

1 

6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

20-  24 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

8 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

25-  29 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

o 

0 

0 

0 

30-  34 

1 

1 

2 

2 

5 

4 

0 

4 

0 

2 

2 

2 

0 

0 

l 

0 

35-  39 

1 

1 

5 

2 

3 

0 

0 

3 

1 

0 

4 

0 

2 

2 

1 

0 

40-  44 

3 

4 

4 

5 

3 

9 

4 

5 

3 

4 

1 

3 

0 

2 

3 

5 

45-  49 

1 

9 

5 

18 

8 

7 

3 

8 

1 

7 

1 

5 

2 

1 

0 

50-  54 

9 

19 

15 

15 

10 

18 

5 

13 

3 

14 

2 

7 

3 

3 

8 

10 

55-  59 

5 

25 

16 

21 

17 

23 

16 

14 

8 

15 

4 

9 

1 

13 

0 

23 

60-  64 

36 

39 

36 

31 

26 

27 

27 

35 

22 

15 

16 

14 

6 

9 

40 

49 

65-  69 

37 

28 

23 

19 

22 

17 

23 

18 

20 

12 

13 

5 

4 

9 

29 

34 

70-  74 

28 

10 

19 

10 

11 

11 

28 

Ifl 

16 

11 

9 

6 

7 

6 

29 

4 

75-  79 

11 

6 

12 

6 

17 

7 

17 

0 

6 

3 

6 

2 

7 

1 

7 

6 

80-  84 

10 

4 

4 

5 

11 

9 

5 

4 

4 

4 

1 

2 

6 

1 

8 

4 

85-  89 

3 

3 

4 

2 

6 

3 

1 

0 

3 

S 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

90-100 

3 

0 

2 

0 

2 

4 

1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

2 

1 

3 

1 

Cases 

149 

149 

150 

140 

143 

147 

131 

130 

87 

92 

62 

59 

43 

50 

150 

150 

Median 

67 

61 

63 

60 

64 

59 

67 

fil 

66 

60 

65 

60 

70 

62 

60 

62 

M.D. 

4.5 

5.4 

6.0 

7.8 

7.4 

7.4 

3.0 

5.8 

4.5 

7.3 

3.9 

7.3 

7.7 

3.6 

4.0 

2.6 

Per  cent  of  C.    ) 

surpassing        > 
Median  of  W.) 

24 

33 

46 

29 

31 

27 

22 

29 

!  Compiled  and  arranged  from  Mayo,  M.  J.,  The  Menial  Capacity  oj  the  American  Negro, 
especially  pp.  26-45.  W.  =  white  pupils:  C.  =  negroes. 

From  this  table  it  may  be  noted  that  while  the  white 
pupils  invariably  show  a  higher  average  standing  than  the 
negro,  the  difference  in  the  medians  ranges  only  from  4  to  8, 
and  that  for  all  subjects  the  averages  indicate  a  difference 
of  four  points.  It  is  further  to  be  noted  that  about  thirty 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


95 


per  cent  of  the  negroes  reach  or  surpass  the  median  record  for 
the  white  pupils.  In  view  of  these  facts  it  cannot  be  said  that 
the  white  pupils  in  the  high  school  excel  the  selected  negroes 
found  there  to  an  extent  to  justify  any  appreciable  differ- 
ences in  accomplishment  or  expectation  in  high-school  work. 

If  this  is  true  when  comparing  whites  and  negroes,  it  is, 
of  course,  probably  even  more  in  point  when  the  comparison 
is  made  between  the  various  white  stocks. 

27.  Individual  differences  due  to  social  heredity.  One 
important  group  of  environmental  forces  includes  all  those 
social  customs,  conventions,  institutions,  modes  of  thought, 
action,  and  feeling  to  which  the  individual  falls  heir  by  virtue 
of  being  born  into  any  given  society  or  social  grouping.  This 
set  of  forces  we  may  well  differentiate  from  other  environ- 
mental forces  under  the  term  social  heredity.  An  impor- 
tant factor  causing  individual  differences  in  any  society,  so- 
cial heredity  is  especially  important  in  such  a  country  as  the 
United  States  where  large  groups  of  individuals  of  widely 
differing  forms  of  social  heredity  form  constituent  elements 
of  one  larger  social  group. 

According  to  the  census  of  1910  the  distribution  of  popu- 
lation in  the  United  States  was  as  follows: 

TABLE  XXXIV* 


1 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Per  cent 

Native  white  

68  389  104 

744 

Native  parentage  

49,488,441 

53.8 

Foreign-born  parentage..  . 

18,900,663 

20.6 

Foreign-born  white  

13  343  583 

14  5 

Negro  

9  828  294 

10  7 

All  others  —  Indians,  etc  .  .  . 

411,285 

0.4 

Total  

91  972  266 

100.0 

*  Thirteenth  Centus  (1910),  vol.  i,  p.  132. 


96       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


It  is  a  fact  not  without  significance  for  secondary  educa- 
tion that  only  a  little  more  than  one  half  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States  is  of  native  white  parentage  and  that 
the  proportion  has  constantly  decreased  for  a  number  of 
decades.  This  may  be  noted  from  the  following  table. 

TABLE  XXXV* 


I860 
(per 
cent) 

1860 
(per 
cent) 

1870 
(per 
cent) 

1880 
(per 
cent) 

1890 
(per 
cent) 

1900 
(per 
cent) 

1910 

(per 
cent) 

Foreign-born  

9.7 

12.0 

14.2 
13.8 

13.1 
16.5 

14.5 
18.3 

13.4 
20.6 

14.5 
20.6 

Native:  foreign-born 
parentage  

Total  foreign  par- 
entage   

28.0 

29.6 

32.8 

34.0 

35.1 

*  Thirteenth  Census  (1910),  vol.  i,  p.  132. 

This  condition  apparently  more  or  less  affects  the  number 
of  children  of  various  ages  who  continue  their  education  into 
the  secondary  school. 

TABLE  XXXVI.  SHOWING  THE  PEBCENTAGES  OF  CHILDREN 
OF  VARIOUS  AGE  GROUPS  ATTENDING  SCHOOL  —  NATIVE 
AND  FOREIGN  STOCKS:  1909-10* 


Native  White 

Yean  of  Age 

Total 

Native 
Parentage 

Foreign  or 
Mixed 
Parentage 

Foreign-born 
whites 

Negro 

12 

93.1 

92.0 

95.6 

90.2 

70.1 

13 

91.9 

90.9 

94.2 

87.7 

68.4 

14 

84.7 

85.3 

83.1 

71.6 

62.3 

15 

71.5 

75.0 

63.5 

46.2 

53.9 

16 

53.7 

58.9 

41.8 

23.7 

41.5 

17 

38.0 

42.9 

26.7 

12.2 

29.0 

18 

25.1 

28.6 

16.9 

6.8 

17.9 

*  Thirteenth  Census  (1910),  vol.  I,  p.  1000. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  97 

It  is,  of  course,  in  the  field  of  derived  and  acquired  in- 
terests, attitudes,  ideals,  customs,  standards,  modes  of 
thought,  action,  and  feeling,  that  we  may  expect  to  find  the 
greatest  differences  among  secondary-school  pupils  due  to 
differences  in  social  heredity.  It  is  probable  that  English, 
American,  Russian,  Italian,  French,  Hebrew,  and  other 
races  do  not  differ  materially  in  original  tendencies  and  ca- 
pacities. It  is  obvious,  however,  that  they  do  differ  materi- 
ally in  acquired  interests,  attitudes,  and  the  like.  In  general 
we  may  say  that  individual  differences  among  secondary- 
school  pupils  due  to  biological  heredity  are  relatively  unim- 
portant, but  that  individual  differences  due  to  social  heredity 
are  great  and  important.  The  greater  the  number  of  groups 
of  differing  social  heredity  combined  in  any  one  society  and 
the  greater  the  differences  in  the  customs,  ideals,  standards, 
modes  of  thought,  action,  and  feeling  of  the  various  groups 
thus  combined,  the  greater  the  individual  differences  we 
may  expect  to  find  due  to  the  factor  of  social  heredity  and 
the  more  important  they  become.  In  1850  the  population 
of  the  United  States,  while  by  no  means  homogeneous, 
nevertheless  comprised  a  relatively  small  number  of  differ- 
ent nationalities,  and  those  nationalities  were  for  the  most 
part  such  as  could  be  classified  as  "  English-speaking  "  or, 
at  least,  as  in  general  represented  the  social  ideals,  etc., 
of  Northern  Europe.  Within  the  past  half-century  or  less 
that  condition  has  been  modified  rapidly,  as  may  be  seen 
from  Table  XXXVII. 

Division  of  the  foreign-born  population  into  English- 
speaking  and  non-English-speaking  groups  is  here  made  not 
merely  to  emphasize  the  language  factor,  important  though 
it  is,  but  also  because  such  groupings  indicate  in  the  case  of 
the  English-speaking  population  social  heredity  which  is 
roughly  homogeneous  and  similar  to  the  basic  American 
stock,  and  in  the  case  of  the  non-English-speaking  popula- 


98        PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  XXXVII.   DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  FOREIGN-BORN 

POPULATION  * 


18SO 

1870 

1890 

1910 

United  States:  English-speaking..  . 
Non-English  speaking  

66.3 
33.7 

56.0 
44.0 

42.4 
57.6 

28.1 
71.9 

Massachusetts:  English-speaking.  . 
Non-English  speaking  

95.2 
4.8 

93.4 
6.6 

71.7 
28.3 

47.5 
52.5 

*  Compiled  and  arranged  from  data  given  in  the  Thirteenth  Census  (1910). 

tion,  forms  of  social  heredity  which  differ  from  that  of  the 
basic  American  stock  and  are  decidedly  heterogeneous.  In 
the  one  case  the  integration  of  American  society  is  relatively 
easy:  in  the  other  it  is  very  difficult.  In  the  case  of  the 
English-speaking  population  the  general  stimulus  of  life  hi 
American  society  may,  perhaps,  be  relied  upon  to  contribute 
extensively  to  the  development  of  that  degree  of  homogene- 
ity, of  unity  and  unanimity,  necessary  for  the  permanence 
of  American  institutions.  In  the  case  of  widely  differenti- 
ated foreign  stocks  such  as  are  represented  by  the  non- 
English-speaking  groups,  it  is  probable  that  the  school  must 
be  relied  on  to  a  much  greater  extent,  involving  a  longer 
period  of  education  and  an  education  which  should  aim 
definitely  toward  the  integration  of  large  groups  of  different 
forms  of  social  heredity. 

It  has  frequently  been  thought  that  the  problems  arising 
out  of  immigration  are  concerned  largely  with  elementary 
education.  Important  as  those  problems  are  for  elementary 
education  they  are  by  no  means  confined  to  it.  Numerous 
important  problems  are  also  involved  for  secondary  edu- 
cation. It  has  long  been  recognized  that  some  of  the  grav- 
est problems  arising  out  of  immigration  center  around  the 
second  generation  of  aliens.  The  first  generations  of  aliens 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


bring  with  them  from  their  native  lands  ideals,  standards, 
habits  of  thought,  feeling,  and  action,  which,  to  be  sure, 
differ  from  our  own  and  from  each  other,  but  which  are, 
nevertheless,  good  ideals,  standards,  and  habits  for  the  most 
part.  Good  or  bad  they  are  controlling  forces  in  the  lives  of 
immigrants.  The-second  generation  abandon  the  standards, 
ideals,  and  habits  of  their  parents  and  frequently  fail  to 
replace  them  with  American  traits.  This  is  the  group  which 
tends  in  increasing  numbers  to  reach  the  secondary  school 
and  it  forms  a  larger  group  than  is  generally  recognized. 
Thus  in  1908  it  was  found  that  55.7  per  cent  of  the  pupils  in 
the  high  schools  of  New  York  City  were  of  foreign  parentage, 
and  that  more  than  fifty  different  countries  were  represented 
by  high-school  pupils.1 

In  the  following  table  are  presented  figures  showing  the 
parentage  of  school  children  in  Worcester,  Massachusetts, 
for  two  decades. 

TABLE  XXXVTH* 


Parentt  born  in 

1895 

1900 

1905 

1910 

1915 

United  States  

7,183 

8,576 

8,703 

8,424 

9,486 

Canada  

1  230 

1,752 

1,356 

1  268 

1  440 

Ireland  

3  136 

3339 

2952 

2502 

2490 

England  

815 

923 

825 

760 

833 

Sweden  

1  684 

2555 

2837 

2647 

2  716 

Russia  

321 

713 

1,237 

2031 

3  526 

Italy  

156 

258 

569 

1  150 

Finland  

117 

170 

335 

527 

All  others  

886 

1,002 

1,090 

1  254 

1  617 

Totals  

15,255 

19,133 

19,428 

19790 

23  785 

United  States  

47.1% 

44.8% 

448% 

426% 

399% 

All  others  

52.9% 

55.2% 

55.2% 

57.4% 

60.1% 

*  Sixty-eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Worcester,  Massachusetts  (1916), 
p.  555. 

1  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  Causes  of  Elimination  of  Students  in  Public 
Secondary  Schools  of  New  York  City,  pp.  32-38. 


100      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Such  figures  as  those  given  in  this  table  (and  the  situation 
is  by  no  means  extreme  in  Worcester)  suggest  the  impor- 
tance of  recognizing  differences  among  school  children  in 
social  heredity.  They  emphasize  the  importance  of  some 
phases  of  the  work  of  the  secondary  school  which  are  de- 
signed to  operate  as  integrating  forces. 

28.  Individual  differences  due  to  environment.  It  is  un- 
fortunately true  that  pupils  receiving  the  benefits  of  sec- 
ondary education  are  selected  on  the  basis  of  economic  and 
social  status  as  well  as,  if  not  more  than,  on  the  basis  of  in- 
tellectual fitness.  It  is  also  unfortunately  true  that  for  many 
pupils  who  do  attend  the  secondary  school,  conditions  of  the 
home  and  community  environment  are  such  as  to  handicap 
them  seriously  in  their  studies.  The  complexity  of  environ- 
mental conditions  precludes  any  satisfactory  analysis  other 
than  for  special  localities.  Here  we  have  three  studies  which 
afford  us  more  or  less  knowledge. 

Holley  1  made  a  study  of  the  pupils  in  the  Decatur,  Illi- 
nois, High  School,  dividing  198  families  investigated  into 
three  groups  as  follows:  Group  I:  those  from  which  all  the 
older  children  had  completed  the  high-school  course  (78 
families,  72  per  cent  of  334  children  who  had  secured  a  high- 
school  education);  Group  II:  those  from  which  none  of  the 
older  children  had  completed  the  high-school  course  (59 
families,  57  per  cent  of  the  308  children  who  had  not  finished 
high  school);  Group  III:  those  in  which  some  of  the  older 
children  had  graduated  from  the  high  school,  while  some 
had  not  graduated.  By  the  questionnaire  method  Groups 
I  and  II  were  compared  with  the  following  results: 

1  Holley,  C.  E.,  The  Influence  of  Family  Income  and  Other  Factors  on 
High-School  Attendance.  (Pamphlet  published  by  the  University  of  Illinois, 
School  of  Education,  Seminary  in  Educational  Administration.)  Cf.  Holley, 
C.  E.,  "The  Relationship  between  Persistence  in  School  and  Home  Condi- 
tions," Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
port  n. 


101 


Environmental  Circumstance  Group  I  Group  II 

a.  Oration  of  father  |  j 


}  | 


fc  Median  years  edn»- 
lion  of  parents 


c.  Yearly  income  (me- 

dian) $2,000  $1,350 

Monthly  rental  (me- 

dian) 27.50  20.00 

d.  Good  magazines  Frequently  Infrequently 
Books  in  library  (me-                     271  83 

dian) 

While  it  is  clear  that  economic  status  is  an  important  factor  in 
determining  whether,  in  the  community  that  we  studied,  a  child 
shall  or  shall  not  receive  a  high  school  education,  it  does  not  follow 
that  economic  status  is  directly  correlated  with  intellectual  ability. 
In  so  far  as  mental  ability  is  measured  by  standing  in  high  school 
subjects,  the  differences  in  ability  between  children  of  the  two 
groups  are  insignificant.  The  average  semester's  grade  for  children 
of  Group  I  was  85.1  per  cent;  for  children  of  Group  H,  84  per  cent. 
A  difference  so  slight  as  this  could  justify  only  the  conclusion  that, 
measured  by  this  standard,  the  two  groups  are  of  approximately 
equal  ability. 

On  this  last  point  raised  by  Holley  we  must  remember 
that  if  economic  and  other  environmental  conditions  operate 
to  exclude  poorer  children  from  the  secondary  school,  then 
those  poorer  children  who  do  go  to  the  secondary  school 
probably  represent  a  somewhat  higher  selection  of  poorer 
children. 

Van  Denburg's  study  of  conditions  found  in  the  case  of 
high-school  pupils  in  New  York  City  indicate  conditions 
somewhat  different  from  those  found  in  Decatur  by  Holley. 
The  monthly  rentals  paid  by  the  families  of  420  children 
entering  the  high  schools  in  1908  were  distributed  as  given 
in  Table  XXXIX. 


102      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 
TABLE  XXXIX* 


Monthly  rental 

Per  cent  of  pupils 

Monthly  rental 

Per  cent  of  pupils 

$10-$15 

45 

$40-$45 

6 

20-  25 

26 

50-  55 

2 

30-  35 

12 

60-  65 

2 

70-150 

7 

*  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  Causes  of  the  Elimination  of  Students  in  Public  Secondary  Schoolf 
of  New  York  City,  pp.  79-83. 

On  the  whole  the  economic  status  of  these  pupils  (so  far  as  is 
shown  by  the  monthly  rental)  seems  to  be  only  a  slight  factor  in  the 
determination  of  length  of  stay  in  the  high  school.  .  .  .  We  saw  in 
an  earlier  section  that  children  remain  through  the  elementary 
school  and  enter  high  school  from  homes  of  the  most  meager  finan- 
cial resources.  We  now  find  that  such  children  remain  in  high 
school  as  long  or  nearly  as  long  as  do  children  whose  parents  pay 
$40  or  more  a  month  for  rent.1 

Van  Denburg  also  found  that  827  fathers  of  high  school 
pupils  were  engaged  in  126  different  occupations,  an  average 
of  about  seven  to  each  occupation  listed  and  seven  occupa- 
tions listed  enrolling  twenty-five  or  more  fathers.2  Of  older 
brothers  and  sisters  556  were  engaged  in  164  listed  occupa- 
tions other  than  study  in  school  or  college.  Of  those,  two 
occupations  only  engaged  twenty-five  or  more  brothers  or 
sisters.3  The  occupations  of  fathers  are  summarized  by  Van 
Denburg.  (Table  XL.) 

The  figures  shown  in  Table  XL  may  be  compared  with 
the  figures  obtained  by  King  for  1123  high-school  pupils  in 
three  cities  in  Iowa.  (Table  XLI.) 

With  references  to  most  categories  the  likenesses  for  the 

1  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  113-14.  2  Ibid.,  pp.  39-48. 

8  Ibid.,  pp.  69-68.  These  and  other  quotations  from  Van  Denburg  are 
made  with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Teachers  College  Bureau  of 
Publications. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  103 

TABLE  XL.    OCCUPATIONS  OF  FATHERS  (NEW  YORK  CITY)* 


Occupations 

Total  number 

High  School  1906 
(per  cent) 

Population 
1900  (per  cent) 

Professional  

36 

4.4 

2.3 

Semi-professional  

36 

4.4 

3.7 

Artisans  —  contractors  

150 

18.1 

16.4 

Federal  and  city  employees  .  .  . 
Clerical  helpers  

61 
52 

7.4 
6.3 

3.6 
11.2 

Office  workers,  agents  

106 

12.8 

7.9 

Manufacturer  and  trade  

227 

27.5 

28.1 

Printing  trades     

35 

4  2 

2  5 

Personal  service  

41 

4.9 

7.7 

Transportation  

46 

5.5 

6  6 

Factory  —  labor  

36 

4.4 

10.0 

Total  

826 

100  0 

100  0 

*  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  44, 128. 

two  types  of  communities  are  greater  than  one  would  ex- 
pect. The  greatest  difference,  of  course,  is  found  in  the  case 
of  agriculture  in  the  lowan  cities.  (Table  XLI.) 

29.  Individual  differences  in  interests,  etc.  Individual 
differences  among  secondary-school  pupils  due  to  differ- 
ences in  interests,  life  aims,  school  motives,  and  the  like,  are 
obviously  important  factors  in  the  work  of  the  secondary 
school.  They  are,  to  be  sure,  the  resultants  of  differences  in 
heredity  and  environment,  but  deserve  special  attention  here 
as  important  elements  determining  both  theory  and  prac- 
tice in  the  secondary  school.  The  multiplexity  and  com- 
plexity of  those  differences  preclude  any  extensive  analysis. 
However,  the  occupational  preferences  of  secondary-school 
pupils  and  their  attitudes  toward  school  work  are  important 
enough  to  justify  brief  consideration.1 


1  For  some  excellent  studies  see  King,  I.f  The  High-School  Age,  chaps. 
x-xn. 


104      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  XLL    FATHERS'  OCCUPATIONS  OF  1123  PUPILS  IN  IOWA, 
1913,  AND  OF  1004  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY,  1906* 


Occupations 

Iowa 

New  York  City 

Number 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Number 

Agriculture  

151 

268 
156 
912 
75 
93 
19 
30 
40 
18 
10 
51 
63 
17 
40 

13.46 

23.88 
13.80 
8.20 
6.69 
8.29 
1.70 
2.68 
3.57 
1.60 
.89 
4.54 
5.62 
1.51 
3.57 

0.00 
22.62 
14.80 
10.57 
4.59 
3.60 
3.60 
5.19 
6.09 
4.09 
3.50 
3.60 
8.86 
1.30 
7.57 

0 
227 
150 
106 
46 
36 
36 
52 
61 
41 
35 
36 
89 
13 
76 

Trade  and  Manufacturing  .... 
Artisans  

Middlemen  and  office  workers. 
Transportation  

Professional  

Semi-professional  

Clerical  

City  and  federal  employees  .  .  . 
Personal  service  

Printing  trades        

Unclassified  

Blank  

Retired  

Dead  

Total  

1,123 

100.00 

100.00 

1,004 

_  *  King,  I.,  The  High-School  Age,  p.  159.   Quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  author  and 
his  publishers,  The  Bobbs-Merrill  Company. 

Van  Denburg  secured  data  from  382  boys  and  620  girls 
entering  the  high  schools  of  New  York  City  in  answer  to  the 
question:  "  What  do  you  expect  to  do  for  a  living?  "  Of  the 
boys  156  (41  per  cent)  made  no  choice,  15  (4  per  cent)  made 
a  partial  choice,  211  (55  per  cent)  made  a  somewhat  definite 
choice.  Of  the  girls  316  (51  per  cent)  made  no  choice,  26 
(about  4  per  cent)  expected  to  go  to  college,  and  278  (45  per 
cent)  made  a  somewhat  definite  choice.1  The  distribution 
of  occupations  was  very  wide  and  scattering.  Occupations 
chosen  by  two  or  more  per  cent  of  those  who  expressed  a 
choice  are  shown  in  Table  XLII. 

1  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  49-57. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 
TABLE  XTJT* 


105 


Boys 

Girh 

i 

Occupations 

No. 

Per  cent 

Occupations 

No. 

Per  cent 

Architect     

7 

3.3 

Bookkeeper.  .  . 

9 

3  2 

Business  

36 

17  0 

Designer  

6 

2  1 

Electrician  

9 

4.2 

Dressmaker.  .  .  . 

7 

2.5 

Engineer  

5 

2.3 

Musician  

7 

2  5 

Engineer,  civil  

39 

18.4 

Stenographer  .  .  . 

46 

16  9 

Engineer,  electrical   

27 

12  7 

Teacher,  school. 

167 

60  0 

Engineer,  mechanical  

5 

2.3 

Teacher,  music. 

12 

4.3 

Law  

24 

11  4 

Scattering.  . 

24 

8  6 

Medicine         

7 

3  3 

Teacher  

11 

5  2 

Miscellaneous  trade  

8 

3  7 

Miscellaneous  construction. 
Scattering  

14 
19 

6.6 
9.0 

Total   

211 

100  0 

Total  . 

278 

100  0 

*  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  51,  55.  Slight  percentage  inaccuracies  in  original  tables 
tin  corrected. 

King  compares  the  figures  for  the  pupils  in  the  high  schools 
of  New  York  City  with  those  for  three  fairly  large  high 
schools  in  Iowa  and  also  gives  figures  for  three  small  high 
schools  in  Iowa.  (Table  XLIII.) 

The  fact  that  approximately  one  half  of  the  pupils  enter- 
ing the  New  York  City  high  schools  were  as  yet  undecided 
as  to  their  future  vocations  is  indicative  of  the  fact  that  the 
work  of  the  elementary  school  has  not  been  able  to  develop 
life  interests,  and  that  in  most  of  those  cases  such  dominant 
interests  will  be  formed  during  attendance  at  the  secondary 
school.  Hence  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  work  of  the  first 
years  of  the  secondary-school  course  as  affording  opportu- 
nity for  the  discovery  of  interests  and  their  cultivation.  King 
found  that  more  than  three  quarters  of  pupils  in  all  grades 
of  three  Iowa  high  schools  had  decided  on  definite  vocations.1 
1  King,  I.,  The  High-School  Age,  p.  162. 


106       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  XLIH.  VOCATIONS  CHOSEN  BY  PUPILS  IN  THE  HIGH 
SCHOOLS  OF  IOWA  AND  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY* 


Occupations  chosen 

Three  large 
high  schools  in 
Iowa 

Three  small 
high  schools  in 
Iowa 

New  York  City 
high  schools 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

Teaching  

13 
94 
16 

32 
34 

261 

'85 

-24 
3 
4 
23 

1 
17 
1 

35 

69 
10 

6 

11 

78 
4 
24 
1 

168 

55 

2 

Engineering  

Stenography  and  bookkeeping  

Law  

Farming  

Nursing  

Medicine  

30 
33 

7 
36 
1 

2 
3 

2 

3 

1 

4 
19 

i 

Business  

3 

Music  

Dentistry  

8 
8 
16 
8 
8 
5 

'4 

Pharmacy  

Salesman  

Mechanic  

Army  and  navy  

Labor  

Domestic  science  

22 
8 
11 
6 
1 
5 

"e 

Housekeeping  

... 

'  i 

2 
3 
1 

Librarian  

Physical  training  

1 
5 
6 
6 

Civil  service  

Office  work  

•  •  • 

"7 

2 
"2 

Architecture  

Millinery  

Totals  

323 

459 

62 

85 

180 

260 

*  King,  I.,  The  High-School  Age,  pp.  163-64. 

Van  Denburg  and  King  have  collected  valuable  data  con- 
cerning the  attitudes  assumed  by  high  school  pupils  toward 
the  work  of  the  secondary  school.  Their  figures  are-  pre- 
sented hi  the  following  tables : 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


107 


TABLE  XLIV.    PUPILS'  ESTIMATES  OF  THE  VALUE  OF  A  HIGH- 
SCHOOL  COURSE* 

a.  New  York  City:  "Do  you  consider  a  high-school  education  necessary 
for  the  realization  of  your  plans  for  the  future?" 


Numbers 

Per  cents 

Total 

Yes 

Doubtful 

No 

Yes 

Doubtful 

No 

Boys  

382 
620 
1,002 

215 
255 
470 

66 
135 
201 

101 

230 
331 

56 
41 

47 

17 

22 
20 

27 
37 
33 

Girls       

Both  

b.  lowan  Cities : "  Are  four  years  in  high  school  necessary  for  your  purpose? ' 


Numbers 

Per  cents 

Total 

Yes 

Uncertain 

No 

Yes 

Uncertain 

No 

Boys  

534 

533 
1,067 

354 
336 
690 

87 
84 
171 

93 
113 
206 

66 
63 
66 

16 
16 
16 

18 
21 
18 

Girls  

Both  

*  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  69-72;  King,  I.,  op.  cit.,  p.  166. 

TABLE  XLV.    PUPILS'  INTENTIONS  OF  STAYING  FOUB  YEABS  IN 
HIGH  SCHOOL f 

a.  New  York  City:  "Do  you  intend  to  complete  your  high-school  course?" 


Numbers 

Per  cents 

Total 

Yes 

Doubtful 

No 

Yes 

Doubtful 

No 

Boys  

382 
620 
1,002 

207 
316 
523 

115 
179 
294 

60 
125 
185 

54 
51 
52 

30 
29 
29 

16 
20 
19 

Girls   

Both  

t  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  loc.  cit.;  King,  I.,  loc.  cit. 


108      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

b.  lowan  Cities:  "Do  you  intend  to  spend  four  years  in  high  school?" 


Numbers 

Per  cents 

Total 

Yes 

Uncertain 

No 

Yes 

Uncertain 

No 

Boys  

548 
614 
1,162 

470 
534 
1,004 

34 
33 

67 

44 

47 
91 

85 
87 
87 

7 
5 
5 

8 
8 
8 

Girls  

Both  

TABLE  XLVL* 
lowan  Cities:  "Is  a  college  education  necessary  for  your  purpose?" 


Numbers 

Per  cents 

Total 

Yes 

Uncertain 

No 

Yes 

Uncertain 

No 

Boys  

537 
617 
1,154 

337 
297 
634 

87 
114 
201 

113 
206 
319 

63 
48 
55 

16 
19 
17 

21 
33 

28 

Girls  

Both  

*  King,  I.,  loc.  cit. 

30.  Individual  differences  due  to  sex.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  the  general  practice  to  group  boys  and  girls  to- 
gether for  purposes  of  administration  and  instruction,  excep- 
tions to  this  practice  being  common  only  in  private  second- 
ary schools  and  in  certain  large  cities.  In  most  foreign  coun- 
tries the  segregation  of  boys  and  girls  is  the  general  rule  in 
the  secondary  schools.  Whether  coeducation  or  segregation 
be  the  practice  important  problems  for  secondary  education 
arise  out  of  the  differences  due  to  sex.  In  the  case  of  segrega- 
tion such  problems  are  somewhat  less  complex  than  in  the 
case  of  coeducation  and  less  concern  the  individual  teacher. 
In  the  case  of  coeducation  those  problems  affect  every  phase 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  109 

of  the  work  of  the  secondary  school.  It  is,  therefore,  neces- 
sary to  consider  briefly  certain  individual  differences  in 
physical,  mental,  and  social  traits  among  secondary  school 
pupils  due  to  difference  in  sex. 

Differences  in  physical  traits  between  men  and  women  or 
boys  and  girls,  due  to  the  sex  factor,  are  too  obvious  to  re- 
quire extended  discussion.  It  suffices  to  note  a  few  of  the 
more  important  phenomena.  Thus  we  may  note  from  Tables 
IV,  V,  XI,  and  XIII  that  girls  apparently  approach  the  max- 
imum of  growth  in  many  physical  traits  from  a  year  to  two 
years  before  boys.  From  Tables  IV  and  V  we  may  note  that 
from  about  11.5  to  about  14.5  years  of  age  girls  apparently 
exceed  boys  in  height  and  weight,  although  boys  excel  girls  in 
height  and  weight  at  all  other  ages.  Likewise  we  may  note 
that  with  reference  to  pubescence  and  adolescence  girls  begin 
to  mature  a  year  or  two  before  boys  with  resultant  character- 
istic differences.  One  should  not  fail  to  recognize  that  differ- 
ences due  to  such  physical  phenomena  are  of  especial  im- 
portance in  connection  with  secondary  education,  however 
much  or  however  little  they  may  affect  elementary  or  higher 
education.  Likewise  one  should  not  fail  to  note  that  these 
physical  traits  are  but  slightly  amenable  to  education  and 
that  as  far  as  their  direct  effects  are  concerned  secondary  ed- 
ucation must  be  guided  rather  than  guide.  This  is  not  so 
true,  however,  of  the  indirect  effects  of  physical  traits  which 
may,  and  probably  should  be,  modified  by  education. 

Differences  in  mental  traits  due  to  sex  may  best  be  con- 
sidered under  two  separate  heads:  (1)  mental  processes,  such 
as  association,  memory,  etc.;  (2)  interests,  attitudes,  etc. 
Data  dealing  with  mental  processes  have  already  been  pre- 
sented in  Tables  XIX,  XX,  XXI,  and  XXII.  In  Table  XIX 
data  indicate  that  there  is  apparently  little  if  any  difference 
between  boys  and  girls  in  their  ability  to  discriminate  weights. 
In  Table  XX  data  apparently  indicate  that  boys  excel  girls 


110      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

in  their  ability  to  react  quickly  to  a  given  stimulus.  In 
Tables  XXI  and  XXII  the  data  indicate  a  practical  identity 
of  ability  on  the  part  of  boys  and  girls  in  association,  mem- 
ory, etc.  Such  differences  as  are  found  in  any  case  are  negli- 
gible and  probably  less  than  differences  due  to  the  imper- 
fection of  the  measurements.  Essentially  the  same  result* 
(inappreciable  differences)  have  been  found  in  the  great 
majority  of  investigations  of  mental  processes.  Thus  Thomp- 
son measured  men  and  women  students  in  the  University  of 
Chicago  in  forty-five  mental  traits.  In  twenty-one  of  those 
traits  the  men  excelled  the  women  by  greater  or  less  amounts. 
In  twenty-one  traits  the  women  excelled  and  in  four  traits 
they  were  approximately  equal  in  ability.  In  the  few  cases 
where  the  superiority  was  marked  on  either  side  previous 
general  training  was  quite  probable.  On  the  average  the  per 
cent  of  men  reaching  or  exceeding  the  median  for  the  women 
was  fifty,  thus  indicating  a  general  equality.1 

Courtis  measured  1235  boys  and  1168  girls  in  the  seventh 
grade  of  the  schools  of  New  York  City  in  speed  multiplica- 
tion and  in  speed  reasoning  with  the  results  indicated  in 
Table  XLVII. 

Such  differences  justify  the  statement  made  by  Courtis:2 

In  view  of  the  extent  to  which  the  sex  groups  overlap,  the  fact 
of  a  small  difference  in  the  average  scores  of  the  groups  need  not 
be  considered  in  planning  the  course  of  study. 

The  same  opinion  is  expressed  by  Thorndike:3 

The  most  important  characteristic  of  these  differences  is  their 
small  amount.  The  individual  differences  within  one  sex  so  enor- 

1  Thompson,  Helen  B.,  Psychological  Norms  in  Men  and  Women,  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  Contributions  to  Philosophy,  vol.  4,  no.  1.  Data  here  taken 
from  the  resume  by  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  in,  pp. 
178-79. 

8  Courtis,  S.  A.,  loc.  cit. 

3  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  in,  p.  184.  Quoted  with 
permission. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 


111 


TABLE  XL VII.  ARITHMETICAL  ABILITIES  OF  BOYS  AND  GIRLS 
COMPARED  * 


(A) 

(B) 

Test  3  (Courtis) 

Test  6  (Courtis) 

Per  cent  making 

Per  cent  making  the  score 

the  score 

Score 

Score 

Attempts 

Rights 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girl* 

5 

.1 

.0 

0 

.1 

.1 

2.7 

4.1 

15 

.9 

.5 

1 

.5 

.5 

9.2 

15.0 

25 

11.7 

6.7 

2 

4.5 

5.6 

16.3 

23.4 

85 

36.6 

31.0 

3 

13.1 

14.7 

19.8 

20.2 

45 

32.4 

36.9 

4 

19.3 

19.7 

19.8 

16.9 

55 

10.5 

15  a 

5 

23.2 

23.4 

15.9 

11.3 

65 

6.2 

7.0 

6 

19.3 

18.5 

8.9 

5.2 

75 

1.1 

1.0 

7 

9.6 

7.5 

4.0 

2.1 

85 

.4 

1.0 

8 

4.8 

4.5 

1.9 

.9 

95 

.0 

.3 

9 

2.7 

1.8 

.8 

.3 

105 

.1 

.3 

10 

1.2 

1.5 

.5 

.3 

115 

.0 

.0 

11 

.6 

.9 

.0 

.2 

125 

.0 

.2 

12 

.6 

.5 

.1 

.1 

13 

.3 

3 

.0 

o 

100.0 

100.0 

14 

!l 

!o 

!o 

!o 

15 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

Average  score 

40.1 
1  235 

42.9 
•  1  168 

16 

.1 

.5 

.1 

.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Average  score 

5.7 

5.6 

4.2 

3.6 

Total  cases 

1,235 

1,168 

1,235 

1,168 

*  Compiled  from  Courtis,  S.  A.,  Report  of  Committee  on  School  Inquiry,  Board  of  Estimate 
and  Apportionment,  City  of  New  York,  vol.  I,  p.  526. 

mously  outweigh  the  differences  between  the  sexes  in  these  intel- 
lectual and  semi-intellectual  traits  that  for  practical  purposes  the 
sex  difference  may  be  disregarded.  So  far  as  ability  goes,  there 
could  hardly  be  a  stupider  way  to  get  two  groups  alike  within  each 
group,  but  differing  between  the  groups,  than  to  take  the  two  sexes. 
As  is  well  known,  the  experiments  of  the  past  generation  in  educat- 
ing women  have  shown  their  equal  competence  in  school  work  of 
elementary,  secondary  and  collegiate  grade.  The  present  genera- 
tion's experience  is  showing  the  same  fact  for  professional  and  busi- 
ness service.  The  psychologists'  measurements  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  this  equality  of  achievement  comes  from  an  equality 
of  natural  gifts,  not  from  an  overstraining  of  the  lesser  talents  of 
women. 


112     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


S.IS 


Continuous  line  ( )  for  boys , 

Broken  line  ( )  for  girls. 


Hare.        j-        lf-      tf       }s-       ff-       fs-      ^f       7  f       &s       gs-       laf.      „ 

FIGURE  J.  ILLUSTRATING  TABLE  XLVII  (A) 


•)  foif  boys. 


Broken  Una  (- )  for  girls. 


2.      3      -f      4       f       7       a       3      AA     //     vi    *J     y.« 

FIGURE  K.  ILLUSTRATING  TABLE  XLVII  (B) 


V6 


The  practical  equality  of  capacity  in  such  mental  processes 
as  are  involved  in  the  studies  of  the  secondary  school  has 
been  sufficiently  well  established  by  the  experience  of  the 
past  half  -century*  and  more  of  coeducational  practice  in  this 
country.  Such  differences  as  are  found  in  the  achievements 
of  boys  and  girls  in  the  various  secondary-school  subjects 
are  probably  to  be  ascribed  to  differences  in  interests  rather 
than  to  inherent  differences  in  capacity. 

While  the  differences  between  the  central  tendencies 
for  boys  and  girls  in  the  case  of  most  mental  traits  are  ap- 
parently negligible  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  varia- 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  118 

bility  of  boys  is  greater  than  that  of  girls.  Thus  Thorn- 
dike:1 

These  facts  make  it  extremely  probable  that,  except  in  the  two 
years  nearest  the  age  of  puberty  for  girls,  the  male  sex  is  slightly 
more  variable.  From  the  time  of  puberty  for  boys  to  maturity  this 
difference  seems  to  increase  rapidly,  though  the  records  of  marks 
which  support  this  conclusion  are  not  the  best  of  evidence.  The 
variability  of  girls  with  respect  to  the  age  at  which  any  given  school 
grade  is  reached  is  less  than  that  of  boys.  The  difference  is  not  nec- 
essarily attributable  in  its  entirety  to  an  original  difference  between 
the  natures  of  boys  and  girls. 

The  evidence  for  this  opinion  is  by  no  means  satisfactory. 
If,  however,  further  investigation  should  establish  it,  the 
greater  variability  of  boys  would  mean  that  more  boys  than 
girls  would  be  found  both  among  the  least  capable  and 
among  the  most  capable  pupils  of  any  large  group.  Ter- 
man's  studies  of  general  intelligence  lead  him  to  the  fol- 
lowing conclusion: 

Apart  from  the  small  superiority  of  girls,  the  distribution  of 
intelligence  in  the  two  sexes  is  not  different.  The  supposed  wider 
variation  of  boys  is  not  found.  Girls  do  not  group  themselves 
about  the  median  more  closely  than  do  boys.  The  range  of  I  Q 
(Intelligence  Quotient)  including  the  middle  fifty  per  cent  is  ap- 
proximately the  same  for  the  two  sexes.2 

Differences  between  boys  and  girls  in  interests  and  atti- 
tudes are  probably  of  far  greater  extent  and  importance  for 
secondary  education  than  are  differences  in  mental  abilities. 
The  latter  are  in  all  probability  very  small  and  their  char- 
acter is  largely  determined  by  original  nature,  plus  inner 
growth,  plus  exercise  through  training.  The  mental  processes 
may  be  increased  through  growth  and  exercise  or,  perhaps,- 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  m,  pp.  194-95. 

2  Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence,  p.  70. 


114      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

decreased  through  injury  or  disuse.  They  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  radically  modified  in  character.  Interests  and  atti- 
tudes are  in  part  determined  by  inner  nature.  For  the  most 
part,  however,  they  may  be  radically  modified  and  changed 
through  the  influence  of  the  social  environment  and  through 
training.  Hence  it  is  that,  even  though  we  assume  the  es- 
sential equality  of  the  sexes  in  all  mental  capacities  at  birth, 
the  marked  differences  in  the  treatment  and  training  ac- 
corded boys  and  girls  before  they  enter  the  secondary 
school  result  in  very  important  differences  in  the  interests 
and  attitudes  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  secondary  school.  To 
this  consideration  must  be  added  two  further  facts  of  im- 
portance. Interests  and  attitudes  are  determined  as  well  by 
the  probable  character  of  the  lives  which  boys  and  girls  will 
follow  after  leaving  the  secondary  school  as  by  the  training 
which  they  receive  before  and  in  the  secondary  school.  That 
those  interests  are  in  part  quite  different  for  boys  and  girls  is 
too  obvious  to  require  comment.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
their  needs  in  life  after  the  secondary  school.  The  second 
fact  of  importance  is  that  interests  are  for  the  most  part 
somewhat  general  until  exercised  along  special  lines  and 
therefore  highly  modifiable  so  that  they  are  more  amenable 
to  the  force  of  education  than  are  the  mental  processes. 

Differences  in  mental  abilities  between  boys  and  girls  in 
the  secondary  school  are  probably  quite  negligible.  Differ- 
ences in  interests  and  attitudes  are  great  and  important. 
Whether  or  not  boys  and  girls  in  the  secondary  school  should 
be  taught  and  trained  alike  or  differently  will  depend  on  the 
degree  to  which  we  wish  them  to  be  kept  alike  or  be  made 
more  alike  and  the  degree  to  which  we  wish  them  to  be  kept 
or  made  more  unlike.  Here  Thorndike's  comment  is  in 
point: 

By  way  of  preface  to  an  account  of  sex  differences  it  is  well  to 
note  that  their  existence  does  not  necessarily  imply  in  any  case  the 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  115 

advisability  of  differences  in  school  and  home  training,  and  on  the 
other  hand,  that  even  if  the  mental  make-up  of  the  sexes  were 
identical  it  might  still  be  wisest  to  educate  them  differently.  It  is 
true  that  a  difference  of  two  groups  in  a  mental  trait  will  theoreti- 
cally involve  differences  in  treatment,  but  practical  considerations 
apart  from  that  of  developing  the  highest  efficiency  in  that  trait 
may  outweigh  the  advantages  of  the  different  treatment.  .  .  .  LeJ 
us  note  in  the  second  place  that  the  existence  of  differences  need  not 
imply  the  need  of  different  training,  because  those  very  differences 
may  have  been  due  to  the  different  training  actually  received  and 
might  never  have  appeared  had  training  been  alike  in  the  two- 
classes.  It  is  folly  to  argue  from  any  mental  condition  in  an  indi- 
vidual or  class  without  ascertaining  whether  it  is  due  to  original 
nature  or  to  training.1 

In  certain  phases  of  secondary  education  we  may  be  sure 
that  the  aim  should  be  to  recognize  differences  between  boys 
and  girls  in  interests  and  attitudes  by  dealing  with  them  in 
different  ways  with  the  intention  of  preserving  such  differ- 
ences and  fostering  them.  Such  would  be  the  case  in  con- 
nection with  vocational  interests.  In  other  phases  of  second- 
ary-school work  we  may  be  sure  that  differences  already  in 
evidence  should  be  lessened,  if  possible,  through  secondary 
education.  In  any  event  individual  differences  among  sec- 
ondary school  pupils  in  interests  and  attitudes  which  are 
due  to  sex  must  be  recognized  in  almost  every  phase  of 
secondary-school  work. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  Take  the  table  of  age-grade  distribution  of  any  secondary  school.  Find 
the  per  cent  each  age  group  in  the  first  year  of  the  school  is  of  the  total 
number  of  pupils  in  that  grade.  Compare  the  data  with  those  of  Table 
XXY.  Do  the  same  for  pupils  in  the  fourth  grade  of  the  school  and  com- 
pare results  with  those  found  for  the  first  grade. 

2.  Make  a  table  of  distribution  of  the  grades  received  by  150  or  more  high- 
school  boys  in  any  one  subject  of  study.  Do  the  same  for  150  or  more 
girls  and  compare  with  the  first  table. 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  in,  p.  169. 


116      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

3.  Test  the  efficacy  of  promotion  in  the  secondary  school  as  selecting  pupils 
by  measuring  the  results  of  any  general  test,  e.g.,  an  "opposites  test." 
(Cf.  Whipple,  G.  M.,  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  pp.  44S--46.) 
—  4.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  differences  in  mental  traits  you  believe  exist  be- 
tween secondary-school  pupils  of  different  races  or  nationalities.  Indi- 
cate which  of  those  you  believe  are  due  to  biological  heredity  and  which 
are  due  to  social  heredity  or  other  environmental  influence. 

'-sS.  What  important  problems  arise  for  secondary  education  out  of  differ- 
ences in  social  heredity  among  the  pupils? 

6.  What  important  problems  for  secondary  education  arise  out  of  other 
phases  of  environmental  influence? 

r-  7.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  differences  in  mental  traits  you  believe  exist  be- 
tween boys  and  girls  of  secondary-school  age.  Indicate  which  of  them 
you  believe  are  due  to  original  nature  and  which  to  environment  and 
training. 

8.  In  what  ways  does  the  factor  of  individual  differences  affect  the 
general  organization  and  administration  of  the  public  secondary  school? 

9.  In  what  ways  does  the  factor  of  individual  differences  affect  the  sub- 
ject-matter, teaching  methods,  and  discipline  of  the  secondary  school? 

10.  Compare  the  relative  standing  of  the  same  pupils  in  three  different 
subjects  of  study  by  giving  each  pupil  a  ranking  according  to  his  posi- 
tion in  the  class  (1st,  2d,  etc.).    How  many  pupils  maintain  the  same 
relative  position  in  all  three  subjects?  How  many  fall  in  the  same  fifth 
of  each  class? 

11.  Make  a  study  of  the  occupational  interests  of  pupils  hi  each  grade  of 
any  secondary  school. 

12.  Make  a  study  of  the  subject  interests  of  secondary-school  pupils. 

13.  How  may  the  problem  of  adapting  instruction  to  individual  differences 
be  attacked  in  the  secondary  school? 


SELECTED   REFERENCES 

Courtis,  S.  A.,  in  Report  of  the  Committee  on  School  Inquiry,  Board  of  Esti- 
mate and  Apportionment,  New  York  City,  vol.  i,  pp.  433-527. 

Gray,  C.  T.,  Variations  in  the  Grades  of  High-School  Pupils. 

Holley,  C.  E.,  "The  Relationship  between  Persistence  in  School  and 
Home  Conditions,"  Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education,  part  u. 

King,  I.,  The  High-School  Age,  pp.  154-205. 

Mayo,  M.  J.,  The  Mental  Capacity  of  the  American  Negro,  Archives  of  Psy- 
chology, no.  28,  especially  pp.  12jf. 

Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence,  chaps,  v-vi. 

Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States  (1910),  vol.  i,  especially  pp.  125-2461 
781-1016,  1097-1127. 


INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  117 

Thompson,  H.  B.,  Psychological  Norms  in  Men  and  Women,  University  of 
Chicago  Contributions  to  Philosophy,  Pychology,  and  Education,  vol.  rv, 
no.  1. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  m,  part  H. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Principles  of  Teaching,  pp.  68-109. 

Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  Causes  of  the  Elimination  of  Students  in  Public  Second- 
ary Schools  of  New  York  City,  pp.  22-83. 

Whipple,  G.  M.,  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  passim. 

Woodworth,  R.  S.,  "Racial  Differences  in  Mental  Traits,"  Science,  vol. 
xxxi,  pp.  171-86. 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION:  ITS  CHARACTER 
AND    CLASSIFICATION 

I.    THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PUPILS:  RETARDATION  AND 
ELIMINATION 

31.  Some  illustrative  figures.  About  a  million  and  a  half 
children  in  the  United  States  are  receiving  some  form  of 
secondary  education  at  the  present  time.  Of  that  number 
about  a  million  and  a  third  are  enrolled  in  the  public  second- 
ary schools.  Of  the  total  population  one  individual  in  about 
every  sixty-nine  is  attending  a  secondary  school  and  one  in- 
dividual in  about  every  seventy-seven  is  attending  a  public 
secondary  school.  More  than  one  half  of  the  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  fourteen  and  eighteen  are  attending  school. 
These  figures  indicate  a  marked  development  of  secondary 
education  within  the  past  two  or  three  decades. 

In  so  far  as  the  figures  in  Table  XL VIII  may  be  accepted 
as  correctly  representing  the  facts  of  the  case  they  indicate 
that  within  a  period  of  twenty-five  years  the  number  of  public 
secondary  schools  more  than  quadrupled,  the  number  of  pu- 
pils enrolled  in  the  public  secondary  schools  increased  more 
than  sixfold,  and  the  number  of  teachers  engaged  therein 
increased  more  than  sevenfold.  From  these  facts  certain  con- 
clusions may  be  drawn:  (a)  The  figures  indicate  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  pupils  receiving  the  benefit  of  secondary 
education  unparalleled  in  any  other  country.  Critics  of  the 
American  secondary  school  should  bear  in  mind  the  tremen- 
dous adjustments  in  organization  and  administration  re- 
quired by  the  influx  of  great  numbers  of  pupils  into  the 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION         119 
TABLE  XLVHI* 


1890-91 

1900-01 

1910-11 

1914-15 

Public  secondary  schools 
Number  of  schools  

2,771 

6,318 

10,234 

11,674 

Number  of  pupils  

211,596 

541,730 

984,677 

1,328,984 

Number  of  teachers  

8,270 

21,778 

45,167 

62,519 

Pupils  per  1,000  population. 

Private  secondary  schools 
Number  of  schools  

3.4 
1,714 

7.1 
1,892 

10.9 
1,979 

12.9 

2,248 

Number  of  pupils  

98,400 

108,221 

130,649 

155,044 

Number  of  teachers  

6,231 

9,775 

12,073 

14,026 

Pupils  per  1,000  population. 

All  secondary  schools 
Number  of  schools  

1.6 
4,485 

1.4 
8,210 

1.4 
12,213 

1.5 

13,922 

Number  of  pupils  

309,996 

649,953 

1,115,326 

1,484,028 

Number  of  teachers  . 

14,501 

31,553 

57,240 

76,545 

Pupils  per  1,000  population. 

5.0 

8.5 

12.3 

14.4 

*  Compiled  from  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  n, 
p.  449.  The  figures  given  in  the  Commissioner's  Reports  are  to  some  extent  faulty,  especially 
for  the  earlier  dates,  because  of  incomplete  returns. 


secondary  school  within  a  comparatively  short  time.  Those 
adjustments  have  by  no  means  yet  been  completed.  (6)  A 
specific  instance  of  the  difficulties  arising  in  this  connection 
may  be  found  in  the  difficulty  of  providing  teachers  and 
accommodations  to  meet  the  developed  needs,  (c)  The  great 
increase  in  the  number  of  secondary-school  pupils  is  in  part 
the  result  and  in  part  the  cause  of  the  extension  of  the  cur- 
ricula to  meet  the  diversified  needs  of  different  groups  of 
pupils,  (d)  It  is  indicative  of  the  need  for  further  adjust- 
ments. Pupils  of  types  not  attending  the  secondary  school 
before  1890  now  are  enrolled  in  large  numbers,  (e)  In  1890 
more  than  one  third  of  the  secondary  schools  in  the  country 
were  private  schools  and  they  enrolled  nearly  one  third  of 
all  secondary-school  pupils.  In  1915  the  per  cent  of  private 


120       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

secondary  schools  had  fallen  to  about  sixteen  per  cent  of  all 
secondary  schools  and  the  per  cent  of  pupils  attending  those 
schools  had  fallen  to  about  ten.  The  increasing  dominance 
of  the  public  secondary  school  over  the  private  school  is 
gratifying  to  believers  in  a  democratic  school  system. 

32.  The  distribution  of  pupils  by  schools.  In  discussing 
problems  of  secondary  education  in  terms  of  the  public 
schools  one  is  apt  to  err  in  estimating  the  size  of  the  "aver- 
age" secondary  school.  It  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  the  con- 
ditions illustrated  by  the  data  presented  in  the  following 
table: 

TABLE  XLIX.     PUBLIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  AND  PUPILS  nsr 
1914-15  * 


In  cities  of 

In  other 

In  all 

communities 

communities 

Number  of  schools  

990 

10,684 

11,674 

Number  of  pupils  

662,004 

666,980 

1,328,984 

Number  of  teachers  

25,509 

37,010 

62,519 

Average  number  teachers  per  school.  . 

25.8 

3.5 

5.4 

Average  number  pupils  per  teacher.  .  . 

26.0 

18.0 

21.3 

Average  number  of  pupils  per  school. 

668.7 

62.4 

113.9 

*  Compiled  from  data  given  in  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
(1916),  vol.  ii,  pp.  449,  456,  457. 


Of  all  pupils  hi  the  public  secondary  schools  of  the  coun- 
try about  one  half  are  in  schools  the  average  enrollment  of 
which  is  sixty-two  pupils  with  three  or  four  teachers,  one 
for  every  eighteen  pupils.  The  other  half  attend  schools  the 
average  enrollment  of  which  is  six  hundred  and  sixty-nine 
pupils  with 'twenty-six  teachers,  one  for  every  twenty-six 
pupils.  It  is  obvious  that  the  secondary  education  which  can 
be  provided  for  the  first  group  is  necessarily  limited  by  the 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        121 

small  number  of  pupils  attending  any  single  school  and  by 
the  correspondingly  small  teaching  force.  This  factor  of  size 
of  school  is  of  particular  importance  in  connection  with 
problems  connected  with  the  differentiation  of  curricula, 
vocational  education,  and  effective  supervision  of  teaching. 
One  of  the  most  important,  if  not  the  most  important, 
problems  of  secondary  education  in  this  country  is  that  of 
providing  anything  like  equality  of  educational  opportunity 
in  the  small  high  school. 

33.  The  distribution  of  pupils  by  grades.  By  grades  the 
total  secondary-school  population  is  distributed  as  indicated 
hi  the  following  table. 

TABLE  L.  PERCENTAGES  OF  ALL  PTTPILS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SECONDARY 
SCHOOLS  IN  THE  VARIOUS  GRADES* 


Grades 

1907-08 

1908-09 

1909-10 

1910-11 

1911-12 

1912-13 

1913-14 

1914-15 

I.. 

43.26 

43.28 

42.89 

42.79 

41.73 

40.94 

40.79 

40.86 

II.  .. 

27.16 

26.88 

27.10 

26.73 

27.08 

26.94 

26.74 

26.69 

III... 

17.85 

17.83 

17.83 

17.97 

18.21 

18.63 

18.63 

18.46 

IV... 

11.73 

12.01 

12.18 

12.51 

12.98 

13.49 

13.84 

13.99 

*  Compiled  from  data  given  in  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
(1916),  vol.  u.  p.  448. 


It  should  be  noted  that  a  slight  but  favorable  change  has 
taken  place  within  recent  years  in  that  larger  proportions  of 
the  pupils  are  found  in  the  third  and  fourth  grades.  This 
probably  means  that  the  retention  of  pupils  through  the 
high-school  course  has  improved  somewhat  within  the  past 
few  years. 

In  terms  of  the  number  of  pupils  found  in  the  first  grade 
of  the  high  school  the  proportions  are  as  indicated  in  the 
following  table: 


122      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

TABLE  LI.    PERCENTAGES  THE  NUMBER  OF  PUPILS  FOUND  IN 
EACH  GRADE  is  OF  THE  FIRST- YEAR  ENROLLMENT* 


Grades 

1907-08 

1908-09 

1909-10 

1910-11 

1911-12 

1912-13 

1913-H 

19H-15 

I... 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

II... 

62.8 

62.1 

63.2 

62.5 

64.9 

65.8 

65.6 

65.3 

III... 

41.3 

41.2 

41.6 

42.0 

43.6 

45.5 

45.6 

45.2 

IV... 

27.1 

27.8 

28.4 

29.2 

31.1 

33.0 

33.9 

34.2 

*  Compiled  from  the  same  source. 

Here  again  the  improvement  in  conditions  after  1908 
should  be  noted. 

The  relatively  small  numbers  of  pupils  in  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  grades  of  the  public  secondary  school  at 
once  attract  attention  and  call  for  explanation.  Three  fac- 
tors are  involved.  Larger  numbers  of  pupils  begin  their 
secondary  education  each  successive  year  both  as  a  result  of 
the  actual  increase  in  population  and  because  of  the  increas*. 
ing  appeal  of  the  secondary  school.  Some  pupils  fail  of  pro- 
motion, remaining  to  swell  the  size  of  the  lower  class  and  to 
decrease  the  size  of  the  upper  class.  In  the  third  place,  pupils 
leave  school  before  the  secondary-school  course  is  finished, 
thus  decreasing  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  successive 
grade.  The  last  two  factors  will  be  considered  below.  The 
first  factor  of  increased  secondary-school  population  may  be 
determined  in  part 1  by  comparing  the  per  cents  that  pupils 
in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  grades  were  of  the  number 
of  pupils  respectively  in  the  first  grade  one,  two,  and  three 
years  before,  with  proper  correction  for  the  differing  num- 
bers of  schools  reporting  in  the  various  years.  This  is  illus- 
trated in  the  following  table:  . 


Retardation  being  assumed  fairly  constant  for  the  period  considered. 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION       123 
TABLE  LIE* 


7 

77 

777 

IV 

Graduated 

'Class"  of  1910.  . 

100.0% 

61.1% 

42.5% 

28.8% 

28.7% 

'Class"  of  1911.. 

100.0 

65.3 

42.9 

32.3 

31.4 

'Class"  of  1912.. 

100.0 

62.2 

41.4 

32.8 

31.4 

'Class"  of  1913.. 

100.0 

67.0 

46.6 

35.4 

34.1 

'Class  "of  1914.. 

100.0 

64.7 

45.5 

35.6 

33.2 

*  Compiled,  with  allowance  for  the  increased  number  of  schools  reporting,  from  Report 
of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1914),  vol.  n,  p.  408.  The  table  should  be 
interpreted  thus:  In  1906-07  there  were  288,748  pupils  in  the  first  grades  of  7624  schools 
reporting.  In  1907-08  from  8960  schools  209,265  pupils  were  reported  to  be  in  the  second 
grades,  an  average  per  school  of  23.4  pupils.  At  that  rate  7624  schools  would  have  had 
178,402  pupils  in  the  second  grade  in  1907-08,  which  is  61 . 1  per  cent  of  the  288,748  pupils 
enrolled  in  the  first  grades  of  7624  high  schools. 


Even  were  exact  data  available  concerning  the  factor  of 
increased  population  annually  it  is  probable  that  the  figures 
given  would  not  be  changed  materially.  Hence  the  explana- 
tion of  the  small  proportions  of  pupils  in  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  grades  of  the  public  secondary  school  is  likely  to 
be  found  in  the  factors  of  retardation  and  elimination. 

34.  Retardation  and  acceleration.  Pupils  are  said  to  be 
retarded  when  they  are  over  age  for  the  grade  in  which  they 
are  enrolled.  The  cause  may  be  late  entry  into  the  school  or 
failure  to  be  promoted  at  any  stage  of  the  elementary  school 
or  of  the  secondary  school.  Pupils  are  said  to  be  accelerated 
when  they  are  under  age  for  the  grade  in  which  they  are 
found.  The  cause  may  be  early  entry  into  school  or  rapid 
promotion  at  any  stage.  Whether  a  pupil  is  to  be  considered 
over  age,  of  normal  age,  or  under  age  obviously  depends  on 
the  standard  which  is  taken  as  the  "normal  age."  Com- 
monly a  two-year  span  is  taken,  assuming  ages  6-7  for  the 
first  grade  of  the  elementary  school,  14-15  for  the  first  grade 
of  the  four-year  high  school,  15-16  for  the  second,  16-17  for 
the  third,  and  17-18  for  the  fourth. 


124      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


Figures  for  the  amount  of  retardation  and  acceleration  in 
the  public  secondary  schools  of  the  country  at  large  are 
lacking.  However,  in  as  much  as  retardation  at  any  one 
point  in  the  school  system  affects  the  work  of  all  successive 
grades  the  data  presented  hi  the  following  table  for  schools 
in  general  (elementary  and  secondary)  are  important. 

TABLE  LUL  MEDIAN  PERCENTAGES  OF  THE  WHOLE  NUMBER 
OF  BOYS  OR  GIRLS  WHO  WERE  OF  NORMAL  AGE,  OVER  AGE,  OR 
UNDER  AGE  (1908)  * 


1SS  cities  0/85,000 
population  or  over 

186  cities  of  les»  than 
25,000  population 

Boys 

Girl* 

Boys 

Girls 

Of  normal  age  

56 

20 
10 
5 

2 
38 

4 

60 
18 
9 
3 
1 
32 
4 

54 
20 
11 

4 
2 
38 

4 

58 
18 
8 
3 
1 
36 
5 

1  vear  over  age  

2  years  over  age  

3  years  over  age  

4  years  over  age  

Total  over  age  

Total  under  age  

*  Strayer,  G.  D.,  Age  and  Grade  Census  of  Schools  and  Colleges,  Bureau  of  Education 
Bulletin  (1911),  no.  6,  p.  103.  Normal  age  defined  as  6-7  for  first  grade,  etc.  For  an  excellent 
later  study  see  Berry,  C.  S.,  A  Study  of  Retardation,  Acceleration,  Elimination,  and  Repetition 
in  Two  Hundred  Twenty-five  Towns  and  Cities  of  Michigan. 

As  indicated  by  the  figures  in  this  table  Strayer's  investi- 
gation showed  clearly  that  between  fifty-five  and  sixty  per 
cent  of  the  pupils  in  the  public  schools  (elementary  and 
secondary)  are  of  normal  age,  about  one  third  or  a  little  over 
are  below  the  age  where  they  might  be  expected  to  be  accord- 
ing to  their  age,  and  less  than  five  per  cent  are  in  classes 
beyond  those  of  children  of  their  age.  The  majority  of  those 
reported  accelerated  were  so  because  of  early  entrance  into 
school.  That  a  considerable  proportion  of  children  retarded 
was  so  retarded  because  of  late  entry  into  the  schools  is  indi- 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION       125 


cated  by  the  fact  that  a  relatively  large  per  cent  of  children 
of  ages  6-9  do  not  attend  school.  They  will  enter  school  late 
and  be  retarded  from  the  start. 

TABLE  LIV.  PERCENTAGES  OF  CHILDREN  OF  CERTAIN  AGE 

GROUPS    ATTENDING   SCHOOL   (1910)  * 


1-year  span 

2-year  span 

3-year  span 

Age 

Per  cent 

Age 

Per  cent 

Age 

Per  cent 

6 

52.1 

6-  7 

63.3 

6-  8 

69.6 

7 

75.0 

7-  8 

78.8 

7-  9 

81.2 

8 

82.7 

8-  9 

84.4 

8-10 

86.3 

9 

86.2 

9-10 

88.1 

9-11 

89.1 

10 

90.0 

10-11 

90.6 

10-12 

90.5 

11 

91.2 

11-12 

90.5 

11-13 

89.9 

12 

89.8 

12-13 

89.3 

12-14 

86.6 

IS 

88.8 

13-14 

85.0 

13-15 

79.6 

14 

81.2 

14-15 

75.0 

14-16 

66.6 

15 

68  3 

15-16 

59.1 

15-17 

51.2 

16 

50.6 

16-17 

44.0 

16-18 

36.0 

17 

35.3 

17-18 

28.7 

17-19 

24.1 

18 

22.6 

18-19 

18.7 

19 

14.4 

*  Table  compiled  from  the  data  given  in  Report  of  the  Thirteenth  Census  (1910),  pp.  310-11, 
1128. 

These  figures  indicate  that  from  one  quarter  to  one  third 
of  the  children  enter  school  later  than  the  age  of  six.  Too 
great  emphasis  should  not  be  placed  on  the  fact  that  only  a 
little  over  one  half  of  the  six-year-old  children  in  the  country 
were  in  school  at  the  time  of  the  census.  Many  of  those  who 
were  six  years  old  at  the  time  the  census  was  taken  (as  of 
April  15, 1910)  undoubtedly  were  waiting  to  enter  school  the 
following  September.  The  figures  for  age  7,  however,  show 
that  that  fact  does  not  entirely  explain  the  discrepancy 
between  the  number  of  children  six  years  old  and  the  school 
enrollment  for  that  age. 


126        PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  factor  of  retardation  raises  many 
problems  for  secondary  education  as  it  does  for  education  in 
general.  Among  the  most  important  of  those  problems  may 
be  noted  the  following,  (a)  Retardation,  when  due  to  late 
entry  into  the  school,  increases  the  diversity  of  age  in  any 
grade,  thus  increasing  the  heterogeneity  of  the  pupil  group 
to  be  taught.  When  due  to  failure  of  promotion,  especially 
failure  of  promotion  in  the  secondary  school,  it  means  that 
in  many  classes  pupils  are  found  repeating  work  in  the  same 
groups  with  pupils  beginning  it.  Special  classes  for  repeaters 
are  exceptional  and  possible  in  large  systems  only.  One 
feature  of  secondary-school  work  helps  out  here,  the  fact 
that  in  the  secondary  school  promotion  is  more  commonly  by 
subjects  and  a  change  of  election  is  possible.  The  problem 
of  the  "repeater"  is  far  different  from  the  problem  of  the 
beginner,  even  when  the  latter  is  retarded.  (&)  Retardation 
fosters  the  withdrawal  of  pupils  from  the  school.  When  due 
to  late  entry  the  age  factor  tends  to  lessen  the  amount  of 
education  which  many  pupils  can  receive,  since  economic 
factors  and  other  factors  affect  the  amount  of  time  which 
many  can  devote  to  education,  especially  after  the  end  of  the 
compulsory  age  period.  When  retardation  is  due  to  failure 
of  promotion  there  is  added  to  other  factors  the  discourage- 
ment attendant  on  failure,  (c)  Retardation  means  greater 
expense  in  the  maintenance  of  the  schools.  Ayres1  in  a  study 
of  sixty-five  cities  estimated  the  cost  of  repeaters  to  be  from 
6.5  to  30.3  per  cent  of  all  money  expended  for  schools  in 
those  cities.  The  cost  of  repeaters  in  the  secondary  school  is 
particularly  heavy,  since  the  cost  of  education  per  pupil  in 
the  secondary  school  is  considerably  higher  than  in  the  ele- 
mentary school,  (d)  Perhaps  most  important  of  all  is  the 
fact  that  retarded  pupils,  whatever  be  the  cause  of  their 
retardation,  represent  a  large  economic  and  social  loss. 
1  Ayres,  L.  P.,  Laggards  in  Our  Schools,  pp.  96-97. 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION       127 

Pupils  entering  school  late  and  proceeding  through  the  school 
at  the  normal  rate  must  enter  on  their  life's  work  late  with 
resulting  loss  to  themselves  and  to  society.  Pupils  retarded 
by  non-promotion  likewise  must  enter  on  their  life's  work 
with  the  same  economic  and  social  loss  unless  that  delay  is 
caused  by  native  incapacity  and  the  added  time  in  the  school 
increases  their  abilities  proportionately.  It  must,  of  course, 
be  recognized  that  a  certain  proportion  of  retarded  pupils  is 
to  be  expected  and  must  arise  out  of  the  legitimate  selective 
function  of  the  secondary  school  and  other  divisions  of  the 
school  system. 

The  comparatively  small  number  of  pupils  who  complete 
their  secondary  education  in  less  than  the  normal  time  also 
raises  some  important  problems.  Assuming  a  chance  distri- 
bution of  abilities  among  secondary  school  children  in  gen- 
eral it  is  to  be  expected  that  there  are  almost  as  large  pro- 
portions of  relatively  bright  pupils  as  relatively  dull  pupils, 
and  hence  that1  the  number  of  accelerates  would  more  nearly 
equal  the  number  of  repeaters  (though  not  of  retarded 
pupils).  Since  a  number  of  factors  tend  to  lessen  ability  and 
achievement  (illness,  etc.)  without  corresponding  factors 
which  may  tend  to  raise  ability  and  achievement,  the  propor- 
tion of  accelerates  cannot  be  expected  to  equal  the  propor- 
tion of  repeaters.  Such  factors  cannot,  however,  explain  the 
large  discrepancy  at  present  found.  The  cause  is  probably 
to  be  found  in  the  inflexible  machinery  of  administration. 

As  retardation  represents  a  large  positive  loss  so  the  small 
amount  of  acceleration  represents  a  negative  loss  —  a  failure 
to  develop  large  potential  values.  It  would  appear  that  the 
public  secondary  school  is  ill-adapted  both  to  the  needs  of 
the  duller  pupil  and  to  the  needs  of  the  brighter  pupil.  All 
our  knowledge  of  individual  differences  justifies  the  belief 
that  a  larger  proportion  of  secondary  school  pupils  should 
complete  their  secondary  education  in  less  time  than  that 
allotted  to  the  "  average  "  pupil. 


128      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


35.  The  elimination  of  pupils  by  grades.  By  elimination 
of  pupils  is  meant  their  withdrawal  before  they  have  com- 
pleted the  school  course.  In  any  school  system  a  certain 
amount  of  elimination  is  always  to  be  expected  as  the  result 
of  death,  transfer,  economic  conditions,  and  the  progres- 
sively selective  function  of  the  educational  system.  Such  fac- 
tors cannot,  however,  explain  the  great  amount  of  elimina- 
tion commonly  found  in  the  American  public  schools.  The 
amount  of  elimination  for  any  particular  school  system  is 
determined  with  relative  ease,  but  the  amount  varies  very 
greatly.  For  school  systems  in  general  three  somewhat 
extensive  investigations  have  been  made.  Thorndike  studied 
conditions  in  23  cities  of  25,000  population  or  over  in  1906. 

TABLE  LV.  PERCENTAGES  IN  THE  DIFFERENT  GRADES  OF  THOSE 
BEGINNING  THE  FIRST  GRADE  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


f^ffj/Ja 

Per  cent  remaining 

Per  cent  eliminated 

\jruftf/ 

Thorn- 
dike* 

Ayres  t 

Strayer  t 

Average 

Thorn- 
dike* 

Ayres  f 

Strayerj. 

Average 

I... 

(100) 

(100) 

(100) 

(100) 

(0) 

(0) 

(0) 

(0) 

2... 

(100) 

(100) 

(100) 

(100) 

(0) 

(0) 

(0) 

(0) 

3... 

(100) 

(100) 

(100) 

(100) 

(0) 

(0) 

(0) 

(0) 

4... 

90 

(100) 

(100) 

(97) 

10 

(0) 

(0) 

(3) 

5... 

81 

(100) 

95 

(93) 

19 

(0) 

5 

(7) 

6... 

68 

90 

74 

77 

32 

10 

26 

23 

7... 

54 

70 

63 

62 

46 

30 

37 

38 

8... 

40 

50 

51 

47 

60 

50 

49 

53 

I.. 

27 

40 

39 

35 

73 

60 

61 

65 

II... 

17 

20 

22 

20 

83 

80 

78 

80 

III... 

12 

12 

18 

14 

88 

88 

82 

86 

IV... 

8 

10 

14 

11 

92 

90 

86 

89 

*  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin 
(1907),  no.  4,  pp.  11,  47. 

5  Ayres,  L.  P.,  Laggards  in  Our  Schools,  p.  71.  Estimates  from  graph. 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  Age  and  Grade  Census  of  Schools  and  Colleges,  Bureau  of  Education  Bul- 
letin (1911),  no.  5,  pp.  6,  135-36.  The  writer  is  responsible  for  the  interpretation  of  the  data 
there  given.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  inconsistency  between  the  graph  and  the  figures 
given.'  Likewise  there  is  inconsistency  between  the  data  given,  loc.  cit.,  and  that  in  the  Report 
of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1910),  vol.  it,  p.  xxiii. 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        129 

Ayres  studied  conditions  in  58  cities  in  1908.  Strayer  stud- 
ied conditions  in  133  cities  of  25,000  population  or  over  and 
186  cities  of  less  than  25,000  population  —  in  all  319  cities. 
The  figures  given  in  the  Table  LV  indicate  the  general 
tendency  discovered  by  those  investigators.  Those  figures 
must  not  be  interpreted  with  exactness  since  many  factors 
render  them  at  best  only  approximate. 

These  figures  can  be  considered  as  approximate  only  since 
they  are  based  on  data  necessarily  incomplete  and  valid 
for  the  time  of  the  investigation  only.  However,  the  general 
tendency,  with  some  allowance  for  improvement  since  those 
investigations  were  made,  would  indicate  that  little  more 
than  one  third  of  the  pupils  who  enter  school  reach  the  first 
grade  of  the  four-year  high  school  and  that  about  one  tenth 
only  complete  the  course. 

Since  the  particular  problem  here  is  that  of  the  secondary 
school  we  may  interpret  the  figures  already  given  hi  terms  of 
those  who  enter  the  first  grade  of  the  four-year  high  school. 


TABLE  LVI.  PERCENTAGES  EST  DIFFERENT  GRADES  OF  THOSE  WHO 

ENTER  THE  FlRST  GRADE  OF  THE  FOUR-YEAR  HlGH  SCHOOL  * 


Per  cent  remaining 

Per  cent  eliminated 

Proportionate  per  cent 
eliminated  between  grades 

Grade 

3 

. 

3 

iS 

^ 

g 

1 

3 

"S 

§ 

fe 

.5 

'i 

. 

K 

=5 

.3 

0 

g 

£ 

0 

g 

£ 

0 

'g 

4i 

£ 

s> 

•« 

*" 

^ 

S3 

^ 

^ 

8 

•3 

"" 

o5 

i5 

I... 

100 

100 

100 

100 

0 

•  0 

0 

0  ) 

37 

50 

44 

37-50 

II... 

63 

50 

56 

50-63 

37 

50 

44 

37-50 

30 

40 

18 

18-40 

III... 

44 

30 

46 

30-46 

56 

70 

54 

54-70 

32 

17 

28 

17-32 

IV... 

30 

25 

33 

25-33 

70 

75 

67 

67-75  ' 

*  Derived  from  the  data  given  in  Table  LV. 


130     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

On  the  basis  of  such  figures  and  those  presented  in  Tables 
L-LV  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  of  pupils  entering  the 
four-year  high  school  from  one  half  to  two  thirds  reach  the 
second  grade,  from  one  third  to  one  half  reach  the  third 
grade,  and  from  one  quarter  to  one  third  reach  the  fourth 
grade.  Of  all  pupils  eliminated  during  the  four-year  high- 
school  course  it  is  probable  that  about  one  half  are  elimi- 
nated during  or  at  the  close  of  the  first  year.1  There  is  evi- 
dence that  conditions  have  improved  within  the  past  five 
years  or  so  and  that  present  figures  are  somewhat  higher  for 
retention  than  those  indicated  in  the  tables  above  for  the 
secondary  school. 

Since  the  work  of  the  secondary  school  is  intimately 
affected  by  the  work  of  the  later  grades  of  the  elementary 

TABLE  LVII.    PERCENTAGES  IN  DIFFERENT  GRADES  OF  THOSE 

ENTERING  THE  SEVENTH  GRADE  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL* 


Per  cent  remaining 

Per  cent  eliminated 

Proportionate  per  cent 
eliminated  between  grades 

Grade 

£ 

3 

J 

1 

8 

§> 

5 

1  !    8 

§> 

••§ 

1 

« 

k 

s> 

.2 

o 

E 

2 

•1 

0      I       C 

1 

1 

1 

a> 

,S 

^ 

•"5 

55 

45 

S  i  -^ 

3$ 

ti 

"^1 

GQ 

^ 

7... 

100 

100 

100 

100 

0 

0 

0 

1 

22 

29 

19 

19-29 

8... 

78 

71 

81 

71-81 

22 

29 

19 

19-29 

34 

20 

23 

20-34 

I... 

50 

57 

62 

50-62 

50 

43 

38 

38-50 

37 

50 

u 

37-50 

II... 

31 

29 

35 

29-35 

69 

71 

65 

65-71 

30 

40 

18 

18-40 

III... 

22 

17 

29 

17-29 

78 

'83 

71 

71-83 

32 

17 

28 

17-32 

IV... 

15 

14 

22 

14-22 

85 

86 

78 

78-86  ' 

*  Derived  from  the  data  given  in  Table  LV. 


1  Counts,  G.  S.,  A  Study  of  the  Colleges  and  High  Schools  of  the  North 
Central  Association.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1915),  no.  6,  p.  46. 


THE  SECONDAKY-SCHOOL  POPULATION       131 

school  and  since  a  closer  relation  between  those  grades  and 
the  upper  grades  appears  probable  in  the  near  future  it  is 
well  to  consider  this  factor  in  connection  with  elimination 
in  grades  seven  and  eight  of  the  elementary  school.  (Table 
LVII.) 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  largest  proportionate  elimination 
is  found  between  the  first  and  second  grades  of  the  high 
school.  School  conditions  foster  a  relatively  high  amount  of 
elimination  between  the  last  grade  of  the  elementary  school 
and  the  first  grade  of  the  high  school.  Nevertheless  the 
amount  of  elimination  at  that  point  is  smaller  proportion- 
ately than  the  amount  between  the  first  and  second  grades 
of  the  secondary  school.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  large 
amount  of  elimination  found  at  that  point  is  largely  due  to 
the  difficulty  of  transition  from  the  elementary  school  to 
the  secondary  school,  the  inability  of  the  pupil  to  readjust 
himself  to  the  markedly  different  conditions  in  the  high 
school  leading  to  failure  hi  work  and  ultimate  withdrawal. 
A  glance  at  such  figures  as  are  presented  in  Table  II,  will 
show  that  compulsory  attendance  laws  affect  grades  7  and 
8  even  more  than  grade  I. 

36.  The  elimination  of  pupils  by  age.  Nothing  is  more 
certain  than  that  the  older  the  school  pupil  becomes  the 
stronger  is  the  force  of  those  economic  and  social  influences 
which  ultimately  will  remove  him  from  the  school.  Up  to 
the  age  of  fourteen  the  public  schools  hold  their  pupils  well, 
aided  by  compulsory  attendance  laws.  After  that  age  is 
reached  pupils  leave  school  in  great  numbers.  In  1910, 
according  to  the  Thirteenth  Census  returns  90.9  per  cent 
of  all  thirteen-year-old  children  were  attending  school,  85.3 
per  cent  of  the  fourteen-year-olds,  75  per  cent  of  the  fifteen- 
year-olds,  58.9  per  cent  of  the  sixteen-year-olds,  and  42.9  per 
cent  of  the  seventeen-year-olds.  These  facts  suggest  one  of 
two  things :  (1)  that  the  compulsory  attendance  laws  be  raised 
without  the  privilege  of  employment  certificates  to  the  age 


132      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


100 
90 
80 

?70 
. 
«   60 

i 

«  50 

1 

&*° 

a. 
30 

SO 
10 
0 

5 

*"" 

'\ 
N.A 

5 

A 

\ 

5 

V 

% 

V 

\ 

\.\ 

s 

\» 
M 

\      > 

\ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

H^ 
X 

\ 

\N 

s 

i^ 

^ 

In  grade    188        4667        8        I       II      mi? 
FIGURE  L.  ILLUSTRATING  TABLE  LV 


100 
90 

I80 

3  7° 

& 

«.    60 

3 

0 

*" 

40 
80 
80 

10 
n 

v 

\ 

• 

t 

^ 

y 

'^ 

*v 

A 
% 
i 

^S 

s, 

\ 

% 
\ 
\ 

I 

#* 

^ 

^ 

*•$ 

^ 

"-.. 

1 

In  grade 


FIGURE  M.  ILLUSTRATIKG  TABLE  LVI 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION       133 


LUU 

90 
80 
70 
00 
SO 
40 
30 
20 
10 
0 

\ 

\ 

^N 

\  ^ 

\ 

"X 

V 

_5 

"\ 

\ 

A 

*  \ 

\N 

\ 

X 

-3 

^r 

^ 

^ 

L^ 

-^ 

*"• 



^ 

lagrada     7  8  I  II  IK 

FIGURE  N.  ILLUSTRATING  TABLE  LVII 

of  sixteen;  or  (2)  that  opportunity  to  receive  some  of  the 
benefits  of  secondary  education  be  provided  for  pupils  below 
the  age  of  fourteen.  The  latter  plan  is  a  part  of  the  scheme 
for  the  reorganization  of  secondary  education  recommended 
in  later  chapters. 

When  elimination  by  age  is  brought  into  comparison  with 
elimination  by  grade  in  the  secondary  school  it  is  found  that 
the  older  pupils  are  on  entrance  to  the  school  the  earlier  and 
more  rapidly  they  are  eliminated.  This  is  seen  from  the 
results  of  studies  by  Van  Denburg  (Table  LV1II)  and 
by  others.  The  meaning  of  the  figures  hi  Table  LVIII  is 
obvious. 

The  amount  of  elimination  at  different  ages  in  New  York 
City  was  found  by  Van  Denburg  to  be  as  indicated  in 
Table  LIX.  The  figures  indicate  percentages  of  the  total 
number  eliminated. 


134      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  LVlII.  ELIMINATION  BY  AGE  AND  GRADE  IN  NEW  YORK 
CITY  HIGH  SCHOOL* 


Age  at 
entrance 

Per  cent  eliminated  during  the 

Retarded 
(per  cent) 

Graduated 
(per  cent) 

Staying  4 
years 
(per  cent) 

Total 
eliminated 
(per  cent) 

1st  year 

&d  year 

3d  year 

4th  year 

Below  13 
13  

19 
31 

36 

44 
47 

31 
17 
20 
21 
30 

3 
10 
13 

5 
9 

6 
8 
6 
9 
4 

19 
14 
15 
14 
6 

22 
20 
10 

7 
4 

41 
34 
25 
21 
10 

59 
66 
75 
79 
90 

14  

15  

16.  

*  Compiled  and  arranged  from  data  given  by  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  Causes  of  the  Elimina- 
tion of  Students  in  Public  Secondary  Schools  of  New  York  City,  p.  91.  In  the  table  13  years 
means  13  years,  0  months,  to  13  years,  11  months,  etc. 

TABLE  MX  f 


Per  cent  eliminated  at  the  age  of 

Median  age  on  leaving 

11 

12 

IS 

U 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

Boys.. 
Girls.. 

0.4 
0.0 

1.1 

0.5 

13.6 
12.0 

21.3 

27.4 

26.9 
26.4 

20.3 
21.4 

11.2 

7.8 

4.5 
3.8 

0.7 
0.5 

0.0 
0.2 

14  years,  7.3  months 
14      "      5.4       " 

Both.. 

0.1 

0.7 

12.7 

24.9 

26.6 

21.0 

9.2 

4.1 

0.6 

0.1 

14             6.3       " 

|  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  p.  91.  Per  cents  calculated  and  table  arranged  by  the 
writer. 

37.  Elimination  and  home  conditions.  The  relation  be- 
tween home  conditions  and  elimination  is  very  close  in  all 
probability.  Such  conditions  are,  of  course,  too  complex 
and  variable  to  permit  anything  like  complete  analysis. 
Certain  features  have  been  measured  by  Van  Denburg, 
King,1  Holley,  and  others.  Some  of  their  findings  are  sug- 
gestive here. 

1  King,  I.,  The  High-School  Age,  pp.  154-84. 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        135 

(1)  Financial  conditions  and  elimination:  Van  Denburg 
investigated  the  amount  of  elimination  found  in  various 
groups  of  pupils  selected  and  classified  on  the  basis  of  family 
income  as  measured  by  the  monthly  rental  paid. 


TABLE  LX* 


Monthly 
rented 

Per  cent  eliminated  during  the 

Retarded 
(per  cent) 

Graduated 
(per  cent) 

Staying  4 
years 
(per  cent) 

Total 
eliminated 
(percent) 

1ft  year 

Zdyear 

3d  year 

4th  year 

$10.    . 

41 
41 
39 
31 

19 
21 
17 
28 

3 
8 
11 

7 

9 
10 
8 
4 

9 
8 
3 
15 

19 
12 

22 
15 

28 
20 
25 
30 

72 
80 
75 
70 

$15  

$20  

Over  $20. 

*  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  p.  111. 

Van  Denburg  states:  "On  the  whole  the  economic  status  of 
these  pupils  (so  far  as  it  is  shown  by  the  monthly  rental) 
seems  to  be  only  a  slight  factor  in  the  determination  of 
length  of  stay  in  the  high  school."  l  Holley,  basing  his  con- 
clusions on  a  study  of  rental  value  of  home,  personal  prop- 
erty assessment,  and  real  assessment,  for  parents  of  high- 
school  children  in  Urbana,  Illinois,  claims  that  there  is  a 
fairly  high  correlation  between  the  economic  status  of  the 
family  and  persistence  in  the  school.2 

(2)  Size  of  family:  According  to  Van  Denburg  a  pupil 
having  no  younger  brother  or  sister  stands  a  somewhat  bet- 
ter chance  of  staying  in  school  longer.  His  figures,  however, 
are  by  no  means  conclusive  evidence. 

1  Van  Denburg.  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  p.  113. 

2  Holley,  C.  E.,  "The  Relationship  Between  Persistence  in  School  and 
Home  Conditions,"  Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  part  n,  especially  pp.  55-62. 


136     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

TABLE  LXI  * 


Having  or 

Per  cent  eliminated  during  the 

without 
younger 
brother  or 
sister 

Retarded 
(per  cent) 

Graduated 
(per  cent) 

Staying  4 
years 
(per  cent) 

Total 
eliminated 
(per  cent) 

1st  year 

Sd  year 

3d  year 

4th  year 

Having.  .  . 

44 

20 

10 

6 

10 

10 

20 

80 

Without..  . 

34 

20 

9 

8 

16 

13 

29 

71 

*  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  p.  93.  Calculated  and  arranged  by  the  writer. 

(3)  Nationality  of  father:  Apparently  little  can  be  inferred 
from  the  data  presented  by  Van  Denburg  concerning  the 
nationality  of  the  father. 

TABLE  LXIIf 


Nationality 
of  father 


American.. 
German. . . 
Russian. . . 

Irish 

All.. 


t  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  p.  96.  Calculated  and  arranged  by  the  writer. 

Such  data  are  quite  inadequate  as  a  basis  for  conclusions. 
(4)  Occupation  of  father:  Holley's  investigation  indicates 
that  expectancy  of  stay  in  the  high  school  is  greater  for 
pupils  whose  fathers  are  engaged  in  professional  and  com- 
mercial occupations  and  less  for  those  pupils  whose  fathers 
are  engaged  in  artisan  trades,  in  semi-skilled,  and  in  un- 
skilled occupations.1 

1  Holley,  C.  E.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  19,  75-78. 


Per  cent  eliminated  during  the 

Retarded 
(per  cent) 

Graduated 
(per  cent) 

Staying  4 
years 
(per  cent) 

Total 
eliminated 
(per  cent) 

1st  year 

Zd  year 

3d  year 

$h  year 

34 

18 

11 

9 

18 

10 

28 

72 

39 

24  ' 

9 

4 

8 

16 

24 

76 

33 

16 

9 

13 

11 

16 

29 

71 

58 

18 

11 

4 

8 

1 

9 

91 

37 

20 

10 

7 

14 

12 

26 

74 

THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        137 


(5)  Education  of  parents:  Holley's  investigation  also  indi- 
cates that  there  is  a  close  correlation  between  the  amount  of 
education  received  by  parents  and  the  stay  of  children  in 
the  high  school.1 

38.  Elimination,  early  intention,  and  early  promise. 
Many  boy3  and  girls  (together  with  their  parents)  have  little 
faith  that  a  secondary-school  course  will  much  benefit  them 
in  the  life  to  which  they  look  forward.  This  is  clearly  seen 
from  the  data  presented  in  the  two  tables  following. 

TABLE  LXHI.    "Do  YOU  BEGAKD  A  HIGH-SCHOOL  COURSE  AS 

NECESSARY    FOR    THE    REALIZATION    OF   YOUR    PLANS    FOR    THE 
FUTURE?"* 


Answer  to  the 
question 

Per  cent  eliminated  during  the 

Retarded 
(per 
cent) 

Gradu- 
ated (per 
cent) 

Staying 
4  years 
(per 
cent) 

Total 
elimi- 
nated 
(per 
cent) 

1st  year 

Sd  year 

3d  year 

4th  year 

"Yes": 
Boys  

30 

22 
26 

53 
48 
49 

38 

42 
41 

19 
18 

18 

23 
20 
21 

29 
18 

22 

11 
12 
12 

11 

7 
8 

8 
11 
10 

14 
9 
11 

2 
5 
4 

5 

2 
3 

9 
26 
18 

9 
10 
10 

9 
17 
14 

17 
13 
15 

2 
10 

8 

11 
10 

10 

26 
39 
33 

11 

20 
18 

20 

27 

24 

74 
61 
67 

89 
80 
82 

80 
73 

76 

Girls  

Both  

"No": 
Boys  

Girls  

Both  

"Undecided": 
Boys  

Girls  

Both  

*  Calculated  and  arranged  from  Van  Denburg,  op.  cit.,  pp.  104-05. 

If,  at  the  beginning  of  his  high-school  course,  a  boy  ex- 
pects to  complete  the  course,  on  the  basis  of  Van  Denburg's 
finding  for  New  York  City,  the  chances  are  approximately 
even  that  he  will  be  eliminated  in  the  first  year,  in  the  second 

1  Holley,  C.  E.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  28-32,  39-53. 


138      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 
TABLE  LXIV.  "Do  YOU  EXPECT  TO  COMPLETE  YOUR  COUBSE?"  * 


Answer  to  the 
question 

Per  cent  eliminated  during  the 

Retarded 
(per 
cent) 

Gradu- 
ated (-per 
cent) 

Staying 
4  years 
(per 
cent) 

Total 
elimi- 
nated 
(per 
cent) 

1st  year 

Sd  year 

3d  year 

4th  year 

"Yes": 
Bo  vs.  . 

25 
18 
21 

72 
71 

72 

49 
44 
46 

20 
17 
18 

16 
15 
15 

26 
25 
25 

12 
12 
12 

6 
3 

4 

9 
11 
10 

13 
7 
10 

2 
2 
2 

3 
6 
5 

14 

28 

22 

2 
5 
3 

4 
8 
7 

16 
18 
17 

2 
4 
3 

9 
5 

7 

30 
46 
39 

4 
9 
6 

'13 
13 
14 

70 
54 
61 

96 
91 
94 

87 
87 
86 

Girls  

Both  

"No" 
Boys  

Girls  

Both  

"Undecided": 
Bovs  

Girls  

Both  

*  Calculated  and  arranged  from  Van  Denburg,  op.  cii.,  p.  108. 

year,  or  that  he  will  remain  four  years.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  does  not  expect  to  complete  the  course,  the  chances  are 
nearly  three  to  one  that  he  will  leave  school  during  the  first 
year,  are  nearly  nine  to  one  that  he  will  leave  during  the 
first  or  second  year,  and  are  only  one  in  twenty-five  that  he 
will  stay  four  years.  If  he  is  undecided  whether  he  will 
remain  four  years  or  not  the  chances  are  even  that  he 
will  leave  during  the  first  year,  are  three  to  one  that  he  will 
leave  during  the  first  or  second  year,  and  are  about  one  hi 
eight  that  he  will  remain  four  years. 

Early  promise  as  indicated  by  records  made  during  the 
first  half  year  of  school  work  affords  a  fairly  good  measure  of 
the  length  of  time  pupils  will  remain  in  the  secondary  school. 
This  has  been  measured  by  Van  Denburg  with  the  results 
indicated  in  the  following  table. 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        139 


TABLE  LXV* 


Average 
mark  1st 
half  year 

Per  cent  eliminated  during  the 

Retarded 
(per  cent) 

Graduated 
(per  cent) 

Staying  4 
years  (per 
cent) 

Total 
eliminated 
(per  cent) 

1st  year 

2d  year 

3d  year 

4th  year 

90-100.  .  . 

6 

12 

12 

6 

11 

53 

64 

36 

80-  89.  .  . 

17 

20 

2 

10 

14 

37 

51 

49 

70-  79.  .  . 

20 

23 

11 

10 

18 

18 

36 

64 

60-  69.  .  . 

39 

20 

14 

6 

18 

3 

21 

79 

51-  59.  .  . 

48 

18 

11 

7 

11 

5 

16 

84 

0-  49.  .  . 

61 

22 

8 

4 

5 

0 

5 

95 

*  Calculated  and  arranged  from  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  p.  175. 

Much  the  same  situation  is  found  when  "early  promise" 
is  measured  by  the  teachers'  estimates  of  pupils'  ability, 
industry,  and  results.  Van  Denburg  found  the  following 
figures. 

TABLE  LXVIf 


Per  cent  eliminated  during  the 

Retarded 

Gradu- 

Staying 

Total 
elimi- 

Division of  class  group 

(per 

ated  (per 

It  years 

nation 

Istyr. 

Sdyr. 

Sdyr. 

4th  yr. 

cent) 

cent) 

(per 
cent) 

(per 
cent) 

Estimated  ability: 

Highest  third  .  .  . 

22 

18 

9 

6 

15 

30 

45 

55 

Middle  third.  .  .  . 

39 

20 

11 

8 

14 

8 

22 

78 

Lowest  third.  .  .  . 

48 

18 

10 

4 

16 

4 

20 

80 

Estimated  industry: 

Highest  third  .  .  . 

27 

19 

7 

6 

17 

24 

41 

59 

Middle  third  

37 

18 

12 

8 

15 

10 

25 

75 

Lowest  third.  .  .  . 

49 

19 

11 

4 

13 

4 

17 

83 

Estimated  resulte:.  . 

Highest  third  .  .  . 

21 

16 

11 

7 

17 

28 

45 

55 

Middle  third.  .  .  . 

34 

22 

9 

8 

18 

9 

27 

73 

Lowest  third.  .  .  . 

49 

17 

12 

6 

13 

3 

16 

84 

t  Calculated  and  arranged  from  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  op.  cit.,  p.  149. 


140      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


Dynes  secured  data  concerning  the  grades  received  by 
graduates  and  non-graduates  which  indicate  much  the  same 
condition  as  that  shown  by  the  preceding  tables. 

TABLE  LXVII.  GRADES  RECEIVED  BY  PUPILS* 


Grades 

Graduates 

Non-graduates 

Total  per  cent 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Per  cent 

Graduates 

Nan-graduates 

Excellent  
Good  

2121 
8464 
4540 

1272 
1037 

85 
81 
72 
64 
'40 

370 
1961 
1726 
720 
1564 

15 
19 

28 
36 
60 

12 
49 
26 

7 
6 

6 
81 

27 
11 
25 

Medium  
Poor  

Failure  

*  Dynes,  J.  J.,  "The  Relation  of  Retardation  to  Elimination  of  Students  from  the  High 
School,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxii,  p.  404. 

39.  The  lure  of  the  out-of-school  world.  Closely  related 
to  the  factors  considered  above  is  a  large  number  of  factors 
which  seriously  affect  the  stay  of  pupils  in  school.  In  the 
upper  grades  of  the  system  the  school  must  constantly  wage 
an  uphill  fight  against  the  increasing  power  of  the  "outside" 
world  to  draw  boys  and  girls  out  of  the  school  into  occupa- 
tional life.  One  of  the  most  powerful  factors  producing  early 
elimination  in  the  school  arises  from  the  world-old  unwilling- 
ness of  the  individual  to  forego  a  present  lesser  good  for  the 
sake  of  a  later  greater  good.  The  error  is  frequently  made  of 
assuming  that  it  is  primarily  the  desire  to  engage  in  active 
life  which  draws  boys  and  girls  out  of  school.  That  element 
is  undoubtedly  present  in  many  cases.  The  real  element  in- 
volved in  most  cases,  however,  is  not  work  but  the  advan- 
tages which  come  from  engaging  in  an  occupation  and  be- 
coming a  wage  earner  —  the  securing  and  spending  of  money 
and  the  increased  freedom  and  privileges  which  come  when 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        141 


the  boy  or  girl  becomes  a  somewhat  financially  independent 
individual.  The  boy  or  girl  in  school  sees  his  former  school 
fellow  able  to  enjoy  many  privileges  and  to  attain  a  degree 
of  independence  not  granted  to  himself.  The  stimulus  to  go 
and  do  likewise  is  in  many,  many  cases  irresistible. 

When  the  influence  of  the  world  without  the  school  is 
rapidly  growing,  the  character  of  the  education  provided  in 
the  school  (especially  in  grades  seven  and  eight)  does  not 
afford  a  very  strong  counteracting  influence.  The  theory 
may,  perhaps,  be  justified  that  the  character  of  much  of  the 
work  of  the  middle  grades  of  the  school  system  itself  in  many 
cases  becomes  a  very  effective  eliminating  factor. 
St 

70 


Yes 

Undecided 
No 


1st  year 

Sd  year 

Sd  year 

4th  year 

Graduated 

74% 

56% 

44% 

33% 

15% 

59 

37 

27 

24 

10 

51 

SO 

22 

18 

8 

FIGURE  O"  ILLUSTRATING  THE  EXPECTANCY  OF  STAY  IN  THE 
HIGH  SCHOOL 


142      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


40.  Expectancy  of  stay  in  the  secondary  school.  The 
length  of  time  different  groups  of  pupils  can  be  expected  to 
remain  in  the  public  high  school  may  be  estimated  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  by  the  figures  for  elimination  which  have  beer 
presented  in  the  preceding  tables.  On  the  basis  of  similai 
figures  procured  for  any  individual  secondary  school  it  is 
possible  to  undertake  some  diagnosis  of  the  probable  condi- 
tions to  be  found  in  that  school  one,  two,  or  three  years 
later.1  This  is  clearly  true  with  respect  to  groups  of  pupils. 


80. 


Un4eti<U<L 


0  i- 


Yes 

Undecided 
No 


1st  year  2d  year 
79%  61% 

51  29 

28  13 


Sd  year  Ifli  year 

49%  39% 

19  14 

9  7 


Graduated 
17% 
7 
3 


FIGURE  P.  ILLUSTRATING  THE  EXPECTANCY  OF  STAY  IN  THE 
HIGH  SCHOOL 

Measured  by  answers  to  the  question:  "Do  you  expect  to  complete  the  high-school 
course?"  Read  as  follows:  Of  those  pupils  who  answered  'Yes"  to  this  question  79  per  cent 
remained  through  the  first  year,  61  per  cent  through  the  second  year,  49  per  cent  through 
the  third  year,  89  per  cent  through  the  fourth  year,  and  17  per  cent  were  graduated.  (Cf. 
Table  LXIV  and  Van  Denburg,  op.  cit.,  p.  108.) 

1  Cf.  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  "Educational  Diagnosis,"  Science,  vol.  xxxvu, 
pp.  133-12,  258:  Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Admin- 
istration, pp.  46-53. 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION 


143 


It  is  also  to  some  extent  true  of  the  diagnosis  of  individual 
school  careers.  The  fact  that  a  boy  or  girl  belongs  to  any 
one  group  whose  school  course  may  be  prophesied  with 
considerable  confidence  does  not,  of  course,  necessarily  imply 
that  the  school  history  of  that  individual  boy  or  girl  will  be 
that  of  the  group.  When,  however,  an  individual  boy  or  girl 
is  found  to  belong  to  a  number  of  groups  all  of  which  indi- 
cate the  same  general  expectancy,  the  chances  must  be  con- 
sidered great  that  his  probable  stay  in  the  school  will  be 
thereby  approximately  determined. 


so 
70 

u 

£ 
£  10 
A. 

a* 

L 

/O 
Oi 

'*Je»"-s 

/  1  3  ears 

• 

"?;;;; 

/6  fta.™ 

"J 
re 

1 

c 
C 

I 

£. 

cx. 

TeKi 

1 

- 

years 
years 
years 
years 
years 

1st  year          2d  year           3d  year          Ijth  year         Graduated 
81%                50%                47%                41%                22% 
69                    52                    42                    34                    20 
64                    44                    31                    25                    10 
56                    35                    30                    21                      7 
53                    23                    14                    10                      4 

FIGURE  Q.  ILLUSTRATING  THE  EXPECTANCY  OF  STAY  IN  THE 
HIGH  SCHOOL 

Measured  by  the  age  of  entrance  into  the  high  school.  Read  as  follows:  Of  pupils  under 
13  years  of  age  at  entrance  81  per  cent  remained  through  the  first  year,  50  per  cent  through 
the  second  year,  47  per  cent  through  the  third  year,  41  per  cent  through  the  fourth  year, 
and  22  per  cent  were  graduated.  (C'f.  Table  LVII  and  Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,op.  cit.,  p.  91.) 


144      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


In  Figures  O  to  S  are  indicated  the  expectancies  of  stay 
as  determined  in  New  York  City  schools  as  derived  from 
data  secured  by  Van  Denburg.1  Such  figures  and  graphs 
suggest  a  valuable  method  of  diagnosing  the  probable  school 
careers  of  groups  of  pupils  and  to  a  less  extent  of  individual 
pupils. 

/Off 


1st  year 

Sd  year 

Sd  year 

4th  year 

Graduated 

94% 

82% 

70% 

64% 

53% 

83 

63 

61 

61 

37 

80 

67 

46 

36 

18 

61 

41 

27 

21 

3 

52 

34 

23 

16 

5 

39 

17 

9 

5 

0 

90-100% 
80-  89 
70-  79 
60-  69 
60-  59 
0-  49 


FIGURE  R.  ILLUSTRATING  THE  EXPECTANCY  OF  STAY  IN  THE 
HIGH  SCHOOL 

Measured  by  grades  received  during  the  first  half-year.  Read  as  follows:  Of  pupils  receiv- 
ing an  average  grade  of  90-100  per  cent  during  the  first  half-year,  94  per  cent  remained 
through  the  first  year,  84  per  cent  through  the  second  year,  70  per  cent  through  the  third 
year,  64  per  cent  through  the  fourth  year,  and  53  per  cent  were  graduated.  (Cf.  Table  LXV 
and  Van  Denburg,  3.  K.,  op.  ••/,'..  p.  175.) 

1  The  writer  is  responsible  for  the  graphs. 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        145 


Age 
at 

Entran 

:hool  f 
mrse  1   T, 
>rted  \  Ul 
jsart  ( 

mcy    f 

.tin.      U 
>uree  ^ 

i£ 

f    W 

14 

•U 

Yes 
idecided 
No. 

Yes 

ndecided 
No. 

1st  Third 
2d  Third 
3d  Third 

1st  Third 
2d  Third 
3d  Third 

1st  Third 
2d  Third 
3d  Third 

90-100? 
80-89 
70-79 
60-69 
50-59 
0-49 

Chances  are 
even  that 

Half  yean,                                 fSS£? 
12S4ES7S   half  years 

Median 
Expectancy 

8.8 
3.0 
.2.2 
1.9 

4.3 
2.4 

1.6 

4.9 
1.9 
0.8 

6.9 
2.7 
2.7 

4.4 
3.1. 
1.9 

4.9 
3.6 
1.6 

8.0 
7.0 
.4.5 
2.8 
1.8 
1.2 



Expectancy  on  the  basi 
Expectancy  on  of  teachers'  estimates 

basis  of  grades  Results  Industry  Abi 

12345678 
.Half  years 

FIGURE  S.  ILLUSTRATING  MEDIAN  EXPECTANCY  OF  STAY  EN  THE 
HIGH  SCHOOL 

Measured  by  various  factors.  Each  vertical  line  represents  the  end  of  one  half-year  term. 
Read  as  follows:  Of  pupils  who  entered  high  school  at  the  age  of  13,  one  half  remained  less 
than  3.8  half-years  and  one  half  remained  more  than  3.8  half-years.  The  chances  are  there- 
fore one  to  one  that  any  pupil  entering  at  that  age  would  remain  3.8  half  years.  (Cf.  Tables 
LVII,  LXI1I,  LXIV,  LXV,  LXVI.) 


146      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

II.    THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PUPILS 

41.  The  classification  of  secondary-school  pupils.     For 
purposes  of  organization  and  administration  pupils  in  the 
public  secondary  schools  are  best  classified  on  the  basis  of 
their  expectancy  of  stay  in  the  school  and  their  probable 
future  activities  after  leaving.      Two  general  groups  for 
initial  consideration  are  (i)  those  who  are  destined  to  com- 
plete the  course,  and  (ii)  those  who  are  destined  to  leave  the 
secondary  school  before  the  completion  of  the  course.  Those 
who  are  destined  to  complete  the  course  may  further  be 
divided  into  (1)  those  whose  education  is  to  continue  beyond 
the  secondary  school,  consisting  of  (a)  those  who  will  go  to 
college,  and  (6)  those  who  will  attend  some  other  institution 
of  higher  education;  and  (2)  those  whose  formal  education 
is  to  end  at  the  close  of  the  secondary-school  course.  Those 
who   will  not  complete  the  secondary-school  course   may 
be  divided  into  groups  of  (1)  those  who  will  remain  not  more 
than  one  year,  (2)  those  who  will  remain  one  year  but  not 
more  than  two  years,  and  (3)  those  who  will  remain  two 
years  but  not  more  than  three  years.   It  is  obvious  that  the 
needs  of  these  various  groups  differ  noticeably  and  that  their 
different  needs  call  for  forms  of  education  differing  in  some 
respects.    The  composition  of  the  several  groups  and  their 
proportionate  importance  are  considered  in  the  following 
sections. 

42.  Pupils  completing  the  course.    The  secondary  school 
was  largely  a  school  preparing  its  pupils  for  higher  education 
until  toward  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century.  During  the 
last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century  there  has  been  a  marked  increase  in  the 
attendance  in  the  public  secondary  school  of  pupils  who 
were  not  destined  for  higher  education.  As  a  result  there  has 
been  a  distinct  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  secondary-school 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        147 

pupils  destined  for  higher  education,  although  the  gross 
number  has  increased  absolutely  and  in  relation  to  growth  in 
population.  Realization  of  that  fact  has  led  to  an  under- 
estimate by  many  of  the  proportion  of  pupils  going  to  col- 
lege or  other  institutions  of  higher  education  from  the  public 
secondary  schools.  Thus,  in  1893  the  Committee  of  Ten 
stated  that  "only  an  insignificant  percentage  of  the  gradu- 
ates of  these  [high]  schools  go  to  colleges  or  scientific 
schools,"  and  that  statement  has  been  accepted  generally 
since  that  time.  It  is,  however,  quite  false.  In  1915,  of  the 
graduates  of  the  public  high  schools  of  the  country,  35.85 
per  cent  were  prepared  for  college  and  16.27  per  cent  were 
prepared  for  other  higher  institutions,  making  a  total  of 
approximately  one  half  of  the  graduates  of  our  public  high 
schools  prepared  for  higher  education  in  that  year.1  For 
several  years  the  proportion  has  been  approximately  the 
same. 

If  we  assume  that  approximately  one  third  of  pupils 
entering  the  first  grade  of  the  high  school  are  graduated, 
the  figures  above  given  would  indicate  that  about  one  sixth 
of  the  pupils  who  enter  the  secondary  school  are  destined  to 
enter  some  higher  institution  and  that  about  one  sixth  are 
destined  to  close  then-  education  at  the  end  of  the  second- 
ary-school course.  Since  about  one  third  of  the  graduates 
of  the  public  secondary  schools  go  to  college,  approximately 
one  ninth  of  those  who  enter  the  secondary  school  must  be 
destined  to  go  to  college.  On  the  same  basis  approximately 
one  eighteenth  of  those  who  enter  the  secondary  school 
must  be  considered  as  destined  to  enter  some  higher  in- 
stitution other  than  the  college  —  for  the  most  part  the 
normal  schools. 

Since  about  two  thirds  of  those  who  enter  the  first  grade 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  u, 
pp.  454-55. 


148      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


of  the  four-year  high  school  reach  the  second  grade,  and  since 
about  one  third  of  those  who  enter  the  first  grade  of  the  high 
school  are  destined  to  graduate,  it  follows  that  about  one  half 
of  all  pupils  in  the  second  grade  of  the  high  school  are  des- 
tined to  graduate.  From  these  figures  we  find  that  of  all 
pupils  in  the  second  grade  of  the  high  school  approximately 
one  quarter  will  enter  higher  institutions,  about  one  sixth 
entering  college  and  about  one  twelfth  going  to  other  insti- 
tutions. By  a  similar  line  of  reasoning  we  may  estimate 
figures  for  the  third  grade  of  the  high  school.  Figures  for  the 
fourth  grade  for  all  practical  purposes  may  be  assumed  to 

TABLE  LXVIII.  PERCENTAGES  OF  DIFFERENT  GROUPS  OF  PUPILS 
IN  THE  VARIOUS  GRADES  OF  THE  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL  * 


Groups 

Grades 

I 

11 

III 

IV 

I    Destined  to  be  graduated  

33.3 
16.6 
11.1 
5.5 
16.7 
66.6 
33  3 

50.0 
25.0 
16.6 
8.4 
25.0 
50.0 

66.6 
33.3 
22.2 
11.1 
33.3 
33.4 

100.0 
50.0 
33.3 
16.7 
50.0 

II.  Pupils  destined  not  to  be  graduated  

2.  Staying  more  than  1  year,  not  more  than  two  .  .  . 
3.  Staying  more  than  2  years,  not  more  than  three. 

20.0 
10.0 

35.0 
14.0 

33.4 

*  The  reader  is  warned  against  interpreting  the  figures  as  anything  more  than  a  reason- 
able estimate  true  for  the  whole  country.  Conditions  in  any  particular  community  may  differ 
widely  from  that  indicated  by  the  figures  given.  An  actual  study  of  the  figures  presented  in 
the  report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  period  1909-13  gave  the 
following  figures: 


Groups 

Grades 

I 

11 

111 

IV 

T 
£• 

n. 

p 
i. 

0. 

r 

34 
17 
12 
5 
16 
65 

2 
5 

0 

S 
1 
8 

51.1 
26.1 
17.9 
8.2 
24.9 
48.9 

73 
37 
25 
11 
35 
26 

4 
7 
7 
8 
8 
6 

96.7 
49.5 
33.9 
15.6 

47.2 
3.3 

THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION       149 


approximate  those  for  graduates.  Summarizing  we  may 
suggest  Table  LXVIII  as  indicating  the  approximate  pro- 
portions of  pupil-groups  in  the  different  grades  of  the  four' 
year  public  high  school  for  the  country  at  present. 


*•*• 


Criie 


SO           CO 
— *-: 1— 


£_3< 


A  

-&- 

6  

2. 

3-1 

FIGURE  T.  ILLUSTRATING  THE  PROPORTION  EACH  GROUP  is  OF  THE 
TOTAL  NUMBER  IN  THE  HIGH-SCHOOL  CLASSES  — 1913-14 

Shaded  portion  for  those  completing  the  course: 

A.  Going  to  college. 

B.  Going  to  some  higher  institution. 

C.  Closing  their  education  at  the  end  of  the  high  school. 
Unshaded  portion  for  those  not  completing  the  course: 

1.  Those  staying  one  year  or  less. 

2.  Those  staying  more  than  one  year,  not  more  than  two  years. 
S.  Those  staying  more  than  two  years,  not  more  than  three  years. 
4.  Those  staying  more  than  three  years,  but  not  staying  four. 

It  is  probable  that  the  large  proportion  of  pupils  prepar- 
ing for  admission  to  higher  education  in  many  high  schools 
is  indicative  of  the  fact  that  that  function  of  secondary 
education  is  receiving  too  great  attention  and  that  insuffi- 
cient attention  is  being  paid  to  groups  of  pupils  who  are 


150      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


destined  to  leave  school  early  or  to  end  their  formal  educa- 
tion with  the  close  of  the  secondary-school  course.  This 
fact  is  clearly  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  those  States  where 
the  percentage  of  high-school  graduates  going  to  higher 
institutions  is  unusually  large  the  per  cent  which  the  gradu- 
ates are  of  all  pupils  in  the  high  schools  is  relatively  small, 
the  number  of  high-school  pupils  in  each  million  of  total 
population  is  relatively  small,  and  the  number  of  graduates 
to  each  million  of  total  population  is  relatively  small.  This 
is  shown  in  the  following  table. 

TABLE  LXIX.  STATES  ARRANGED  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  THE  LOWEST 
TO  THE  HIGHEST  PERCENTAGES  OF  GRADUATES  OF  THE  HIGH 
SCHOOLS  GOING  TO  COLLEGE  IN  1911* 


Lowest 
quarter 

Second 
quarter 

Third 
quarter 

Highest 
quarter 

Lower 
half 

Higher 
half 

Median    per    cent    of 
graduates    going   to 
college  

26.00 

35.00 

42.00 

53  00 

31  00 

47.00 

Per     cent     graduates 
were  of  all  pupils  in 
the  high  schools  
High  school  pupils  to 
each  million  of  total 
population  

13.94 
11,548 

11.99 
12,873 

11.18 
9,408 

10.01 
5,977 

12.79 
12,291 

10.74 

7,737 

Graduates  to  each  mil- 
lion of  total  popula- 
tion    

1,609 

1,543 

1,052 

598 

1,572 

830 

*  Compiled  from  data  given  on  pages  18-18  of  Bulletin  (1912)  no.  22,  of  the  Bureau  of 
Education  and  the  Report  of  the  Thirteenth  Census  (1910).  Cf.  Inglis,  A.  J.,  "High  School 
Graduates  and  Preparation  for  Higher  Institutions,"  School  and  Society,  vol.  I,  no.  26  (June 
26,  1915),  p.  933. 

43.  The  distribution  of  secondary-school  graduates.  At 
least  two  studies  have  been  made  of  the  distribution  of  high- 
school  graduates  which  are  suggestive  for  our  present  pur- 
pose. The  results  of  those  studies  are  presented  in  the  two 
tables  following. 


THE  SECONDAEY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        151 


TABLE  LXX.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  20,389  GRADUATES  FROM  596 
HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  INDIANA,  ILLINOIS,  IOWA,  KANSAS,  MICHIGAN, 
MINNESOTA,  MISSOURI,  MONTANA,  NEBRASKA,  NORTH  DAKOTA, 
SOUTH  DAKOTA,  OHIO,  OKLAHOMA,  WISCONSIN,  1913  * 


Occupations 

In  cities  of  less  than 
7500  population- 

In  cities  of  more  than 
7500  population 

I  nail  cities 
considered 

Number 

Percent 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Percent 

College  

2,636 
437 
310 
462 
743 
970 
1,775 
331 

332 

689 
1,832 
583 

23.75 
3.94 
2.79 
4.16 
6.69 
8.74 
15.99 
2.99 

2.99 
6.21 
16.50 
5.25 

2,854 
325 
381 
138 
741 
1,087 
1,316 
342 

143 

182 
1,076 
704 

30.72 
3.49 
4.10 
1.49 
7.98 
11.70 
14.17 
3.68 

1.54 
1.96 
11.59 

7.58 

5,490 
762 
691 
600 
1,484 
2,057 
3,091 
673 

475 
871 
2,908 
1,287 

26.9 
3.7 
3.4 
2.9 
7.3 
10.1 
15.1 
3.3 

2.4 
4.3 
14.3 
6.3 

Commercial  school  .  .  . 
Trades  

Farming.  . 

Normal  school  

Business  

At  home  

Professions  

Domestic    Economy, 
Agriculture  

Teaching  

Other  occupations.  .  .  . 
Unknown        

Total  

11,000 

100.00 

9,289 

100.00 

20,389 

100.0 

*  Arranged  from  data  given  by  Counts,  G.  S.,  A  Study  of  the  Colleges  and  High  Schools  in 
the  North  Central  Association,  Bulletin  (1915)  no.  6  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  p.  91. 

Of  the  graduates  going  to  college  from  239  out  of  333 
school  reporting,  fifty  or  more  per  cent  were  from  the  high- 
est third  of  the  graduating  classes. 

Noteworthy  are  the  different  proportions  of  those  of  the 
highest  standing  for  the  several  groups.  (Table  LXXII.) 

Apparently  those  who  went  to  college  and  those  who 
stayed  at  home  after  graduation  came  from  the  most  schol- 
arly portion  of  the  class  in  relatively  large  proportion. 
Apparently  those  who  went  to  normal  school  or  directly 
into  teaching  came  from  the  average  or  below  average  group 
of  pupils.  Apparently  also  those  who  went  directly  into 


152      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

TABLE  LXXI.  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  GRADU- 
ATES BT  DESTINATION  AND  HIGH-SCHOOL.  STANDING  NEW  YORK 
STATE,  1908* 


High-school  standing 
average 

Total 
cages 

Went  to 
college 

Went  to 
normal 
school 

Went  to 
profes- 
sional 
school 

Went 
directly 
into 
teaching 

Went 
into 
business 

Went 
into 
trade 

Stayed 
at 
home 

67            

1 

1 

68      

3 

1 

1 

0 

1 

69  

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

70          

10 

3 

2 

0 

1 

1 

3 

71  

5 

2 

1 

0 

0 

1 

1 

72  

13 

2 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

73  

15 

4 

1 

4 

3 

0 

2 

0 

74    

26 

5 

5 

2 

4 

5 

2 

2 

75  

25 

7 

4 

1 

6 

5 

2 

0 

76  

40 

2 

16 

4 

7 

4 

4 

2 

77  

45 

19 

4 

3 

10 

5 

3 

1 

78  

49 

10 

9 

2 

9 

8 

7 

1 

79  

55 

15 

9 

5 

6 

10 

6 

1 

80  

48 

18 

9 

4 

5 

3 

4 

3 

81  

49 

20 

6 

2 

3 

8 

7 

2 

82  

64 

18 

13 

2 

10 

7 

5 

7 

83  

62 

26 

5 

5 

8 

6 

5 

4 

84  

54 

15 

13 

0 

6 

8 

4 

6 

85                   

39 

16 

5 

1 

11 

2 

1 

2 

86    

34 

11 

5 

1 

10 

4 

0 

&, 

87  

29 

14 

7 

0 

5 

1 

1 

1 

88    

24 

11 

3 

0 

5 

1 

0 

4 

89  

26 

14 

2 

0 

4 

2 

1 

2 

90    

6 

3 

0 

2 

1 

0 

0 

91  

3 

2 

0 

0 

1 

0 

92  

4 

4 

0 

0 

0 

93  

4 

1 

1 

1 

1 

94  

1 

1 

0 

95  

1 

1 

0 

96  

1 

0 

1 

87  

1 

1 

Totals  

738 

246 

122 

40 

117 

86 

61 

42 

Per  cent     . 

100.00 

33.61 

16.60 

6.43 

15.63 

11.70 

8  30 

5  58 

Median  rank   

81.3 

82.8 

81.7 

78.5 

81.7 

80.6 

79  5 

82  3 

*  Table  arranged  from  data  given  by  Shallies,  G.  W.,  "The  Distribution  of  High-School 
Graduates  after  leaving  School,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxi,  no.  2  (February,  1913),  pp.  86-S7. 
Some  slight  errors  of  computation  in  Shallies's  tables  are  corrected  here.  Apparently  about 
twenty-four  graduates  are  unaccounted  for  in  his  figures. 


professional  school,  into  business,  and  into  trade  came  from 
the  poorer  group  in  relatively  large  proportion.  This  is 
shown  even  more  clearly  perhaps  from  the  figures  given  in 
Table  LXXIH. 


THE  SECONDAKY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        153 


TABLE  LXXU.  PERCENTAGE  OP  GRADUATES  OF  DIFFERENT 
GRADES  OF  SCHOLARSHIP  ENTERING  VARIOUS  OCCUPATIONS, 
NEW  YORK  STATE  * 


Scholarship 
group 

Total 
number 
in  each 
group 

Went  to 
college 

Went  to 
normal 
school 

Went  to 
profes- 
sional 
school 

Went 
directly 
into 
teaching 

Went 
into 
business 

Went 
into 
trade 

Stayed 
at  home 

84-97 
79-85 
67-78 

227 
278 
233 

41.41 
34.89 
23.61 

13.42 
15.11 
19.31 

1.32 
6.50 
8.15 

18.94 
11.51 
18.03 

9.25 
12.23 
13.30 

3.52 
9.71 
11.16 

7.93 
6.12 
3.00 

67-97 

738 

33.61 

16.60 

5.43 

15.63 

11.70 

8.30 

5.58 

*  Tables  derived  from  data  given  by  Shallies,  G.  W.,  toe.  cit. 

TABLE  LXXTTT.  PERCENTAGE  OF  GRADUATES  ENTERING  VARIOUS 
OCCUPATIONS  FROM  DIFFERENT  SCHOLARSHIP  GROUPS,  NEW 
YORK  STATE  f 


Scholarship 
group 

Total 
number 
in  each 
group 

Went  to 
college 

Went  to 
normal 
school 

Went  to 
profes- 
sional 
school 

Went 
directly 
into 
teaching 

Went 
into 
business 

Went 
into 
trade 

Stayed 
at  home 

84-97 
79-83 
67-78 

227 
278 
233 

38.21 
39.43 
22.36 

28.69 
34.42 
36.89 

7.50 
45.00 
47.50 

36.75 
27.35 
35.90 

24.42 
39.54 
36.04 

13.12 
44.26 
42.62 

42.86 
40.48 
16.66 

84-97 

738 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

t  Tables  derived  from  data  given  by  Shallies,  G.  W.,  toe.  cit. 


44.  Pupils  destined  not  to  complete  the  course.  Approxi- 
mately two  thirds  of  the  pupils  who  enter  the  first  grade  of 
the  public  secondary  school  leave  school  before  the  close  of 
the  course.  About  one  third  of  those  who  enter  leave  during 
the  first  year  or  before  the  beginning  of  the  second  year, 
about  one  half  leave  before  the  beginning  of  the  third  year 
and  about  two  thirds  leave  before  the  beginning  of  the  last 
year.  Relatively  few  pupils  leave  school  during  the  fourth 
year  of  the  course. 


154       PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

If  these  figures  be  correct  it  follows  that  of  all  pupils  leav- 
ing the  secondary  school  before  the  completion  of  the  full 
course  three  important  groups  demand  attention  in  the 
organization  and  administration  of  the  public  high  school. 

(1)  Pupils  destined  to  receive  not  more  than  one  year  of 
secondary  education  constitute  about  one  third  of  all  pupils 
entering  the  public  secondary  school  at  the  present  time. 
In  1913-14  there  were  497,110  pupils  in  the  first  grades  of 
public  high  schools,  about  165,703  of  whom  were  destined 
to  end  then*  education  at  or  before  the  end  of  the  first  grade 
of  the  secondary  school.   This  fact  demands  that  the  atten- 
tion of  school  authorities  be  directed  along  two  lines.    It 
demands  first  of  all  that  steps  be  taken  to  decrease  the 
number  of  those  who  leave  school  so  early  by  (a)  encourag- 
ing some  to  proceed  further  along  courses  now  offered,  or 
(6)  by  providing  new  forms  of  education  which  will  encou- 
rage many  who  now  drop  out  to  continue  further.    It  de- 
mands, secondly,  that,  for  those  who  must  drop  out  of 
school  by  the  close  of  the  first  grade  of  the  high  school, 
secondary  education  must  be  provided  such  that  they  may 
be  most   benefited   by  their  brief  stay  in  the  secondary 
school  and  best  fitted  for  the  lives  which  they  must  needs 
live.    It  is  obvious  that  those  who  must  leave  school  thus 
early  are  destined  to  enter  industrial,  commercial,  agricul- 
tural, or  household  occupations  for  the  most  part  and  to 
live  corresponding  lives. 

(2)  Pupils  destined  to  remain  more  than  one  year  but 
not  more  than  two  years  in  the  secondary  school  constitute 
about  one  fifth  of  all  pupils  entering  the  first  grade  and  about 
one  third  of  all  pupils  in  the  second  grade  of  the  high  school. 
In  1913-14  those  proportions  included  about  100,000  pupils 
in  each  of  the  first  and  second  grades  belonging  to  this 
group.  Here  again  the  facts  demand  that  school  authorities 
direct  their  attention  to  this  group  as  well  as  to  the  group 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        155 

of  pupils  who  would  receive  but  one  year  of  high-school 
education.  While  the  lives  of  pupils  belonging  to  this 
group  may  reach  a  somewhat  higher  level  than  the  lives  of 
those  who  receive  but  one  year  of  high-school  education, 
these  pupils  will  be  much  of  the  same  type  and  the  education 
afforded  them  should  differ  from  the  latter  more  in  extent 
than  in  general  character.  Such  pupils  are  also  destined 
to  enter  the  industries,  business,  agriculture,  and  home- 
making  for  the  most  part. 

(3)  Pupils  destined  to  remain  more  than  two  years  but 
not  more  than  three  years  in  the  secondary  school  constitute 
approximately  ten  per  cent  of  the  pupils  entering  the  first 
grade,  approximately  fifteen  per  cent  of  those  in  the  second . 
grade,  and  approximately  one  third  of  those  in  the  third 
grade  of  the  secondary  school.  In  1913-14  those  propor- 
tions included  approximately  50,000  pupils  in  each  of  the 
first,  second,  and  third  grades  of  the  high  school.  Beyond 
doubt  many  of  those  pupils  could  readily  be  encouraged  to 
complete  the  full  four  years  of  high-school  work.  Others, 
however,  must  be  provided  for  much  as  in  the  case  of  the 
other  two  groups  considered. 

No  form  of  organization  and  administration  of  the  public 
secondary  school  can  be  considered  satisfactory  which  does 
not  have  as  one  important  aim  provision  for  these  three 
groups  of  pupils  so  as  to  provide  (a)  that  larger  proportions 
of  pupils  may  be  encouraged  to  extend  the  time  spent  by 
them  in  the  high  school,  and  (6)  provide  suitable  forms  of 
education  for  those  who  must  conclude  their  formal  educa- 
tion after  one,  two,  or  three  years  of  high-school  education. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

' —  1.  Show  how  the  rapid  increase  of  the  secondary  school  population  has 
affected  the  economy  of  the  high  school.  Illustrate  specific  failures  to 
adjust  the  secondary  school  to  the  changed  conditions  caused  by  the 
increase  in  number  of  pupils  and  changes  in  their  character. 


156      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

-x  2.  Indicate  specific  ways  in  which  the  secondary  school  of  fifty  pupils 
with  two  or  three  teachers  is  limited  in  the  facilities  which  it  can  pro- 
vide the  pupils.  Do  the  same  for  the  secondary  school  of  one  hundred 
pupils  with  four  or  five  teachers. 

3.  Compare  the  average  number  of  pupils  per  public  high  school  in  the 
United  States  for  the  individual  years  from  1907-08  to  1914-15.  Do  the 
same  for  the  average  number  of  each  of  the  four  grades.    (Cf.  Report 
of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  n,  p.  448. 

4.  What  was  the  number  of  children  of  different  school  ages  in  1910?  Is 
it  true  that  there  are  larger  numbers  of  children  of  a  given  age  each 
successive  year?  (Cf.  the  Report  of  the  Thirteenth  Census  (1910),  vol.  i, 
p.  310.) 

5.  Compare  the  tables  of  the  age-grade  distribution  for  the  high  schools  of 
any  two  or  three  cities.  Assuming  a  two-year  span  for  normal  age  for 
each  grade,  e.g.,  14-15  for  the  first  grade  of  the  high  school,  what  are 
the  relative  amounts  of  retardation  and  acceleration? 

— .  6.  What  common  forms  of  administrative  machinery  interfere  with  rapid 
promotion  in  the  public  high  school? 

7.  If  possible  secure  data  concerning  the  number  of  'repeaters'  in  any 
high  school  and  determine  the  cost  of  those  repeaters,  assuming  that  each 
costs  the  amount  of  the  per  capita  cost  of  the  secondary  school.  The 
actual  cost  would  really  be  much  less.  Why?  Estimate  the  saving  in  the 
case  of  accelerates  on  the  same  basis. 

8.  Assuming  that  the  largest  age  group  indicates  the  number  of  pupils  be- 
ginning school  each  year  estimate  the  elimination  for  grades  of  the  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  school  i-iv  for  any  school  system  whose  age- 
grade  distribution  is  available. 

—  9.  What  may  be  the  causes  of  the  apparently  great  elimination  between 
grades  I  and  II  of  the  public  secondary  school.  Suggest  remedies. 

10.  For  pupils  at  present  in  the  last  grade  of  the  high  school  secure  the 
earliest  gradings  received  in  their  first  year  of  high-school  work.   Make 
a  table  indicating  the  per  cent  of  elimination  for  groups  arranged  accord- 
ing to  the  different  gradings  received  in  those  first  reports. 

11.  For  any  high  school  consider  the  pupils  belonging  to  the  class  which  has 
recently  graduated.  From  their  school  records  classify  them  according 
to  the  scheme  employed  in  Table  LXVIII.   (Compare  the  tables.) 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Ayres,  L.  P.,  Laggards  in  Our  Schools. 

Berry,  C.  S.,  A  Study  of  Retardation,  Acceleration  Elimination,  and  Repeti- 
tion in  the  Public  Elementary  Schools  of  Two  Hundred  Twenty-five  Towns 
and  Cities  of  Michigan :  reproduced  in  part  in  the  Seventy-ninth  Annual 
Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  the  State  of  Michigan 
(1915-16). 


THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  POPULATION        157 

Bliss,  D.  C.,  "High-School  Failures,"  Journal  of  Educational  Administra- 
tion and  Supervision,  vol.  in,  pp.  125-37. 

Book,  W.F.,  "  Why  Pupils  Drop  Out  of  High  School,"  Pedagogical  Seminary, 
vol.  xi,  pp.  204  ff. 

Glement,  J.  A.,  "Student  Population  and  Related  Problems  in  High 
Schools,"  Illinois  School  Survey,  pp.  185-222.  Illinois  State  Teachers' 
Association  (1917). 

Counts,  G.  S.,  Part  n  of  A  Study  of  the  Colleges  and  High  Schools  in  the  North 
Central  Association,  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1915)  no.  6,  pp.  31  jf. 

Dynes,  J.  J.,  "  Relation  of  Retardation  to  Elimination  of  Students  from  the 
High  School,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxn,  pp.  396-406. 

Holley,  C.  E.,  "The  Relationship  between  Persistence  in  School  and  Home 
Conditions,"  Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education,  part  n. 

Ruling,  R.  G.,  "Failures  in  the  First- Year  High  School,"  Educational  Re- 
view, vol.  xx,  pp.,  463  ff. 

Inglis,  A.  J.,  "The  Distribution  of  Pupils  in  the  Public  High  Schools,"  Ed' 
ucational  Review,  vol.  XIAI,  pp.  344-50. 

Inglis,  A.  J.,  "  High-School  Graduates  and  Preparation  for  Higher  Institu- 
tions, School  and  Society,  vol.  i,  pp.  932-34. 

Johnson,  G.  R.,  "Qualitative  Elimination  in  High  Schools,"  School  Review, 
vol.  xviii,  pp.  380  ff. 

King,  I.,  The  High-School  Age,  pp.  154-205. 

King,  I.,  "The  Vocational  Interests,  Study  Habits,  and  Amusements  of 
Pupils  of  Certain  High  Schools  in  Iowa,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxn,  pp. 
165-81. 

Koons,  G.  J.,  "Vocational  Distribution  of  High  School  Graduates  and  of 
Pupils  Leaving  School  before  Graduation,"  Educational  Administration 
and  Supervision,  vol.  in,  pp.  358-60. 

Lurton,  E.  E.,  "The  Disintegration  of  a  High  School  Class,"  School  Review, 
vol.  xrx,  pp.  680 /. 

Mitchell,  H.  E.,  "The  Distribution  of  High  School  Graduates  in  Iowa, 
School  Review,  vol.  xxn,  pp.  82-90. 

Shallies,  G.  W.,  "The  Distribution  of  High-School  Graduates  after  Leaving 
School,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxi,  pp.  86-87. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  Age  and  Grade  Census  of  Schools  and  Colleges,  Bureau  of 
Education,  Bulletin  (1911)  no.  5. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Administration,  pp.  3-53, 
69-73,  165-75. 

Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence,  chaps,  i,  n. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School,  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, Bulletin  (1907)  no.  4. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  "Educational  Diagnosis,"  Science,  vol.  xxxvn,  pp.  133- 
42,  258-59. 

Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  Causes  of  Elimination  of  Students  in  Public  Secondary 
Schools  of  New  York  City. 


PART  H 
THE  INSTITUTION  AND  ITS  PURPOSE 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   SECONDARY  EDUCATION 
IN   AMERICA 

45.  Three  principal  periods  of  development.  The  history 
of  secondary  education  in  America  is  commonly  and  con- 
veniently considered  according  to  the  three  principal  phases 
of  its  development:  (1)  the  Latin  grammar  school,  covering 
approximately  the  colonial  period;  (2)  the  academy  move- 
ment, beginning  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
and  extending  well  into  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century;  (3)  the  public  high-school  movement,  beginning 
in  the  third  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  establishing 
itself  in  the  last  quarter  of  that  century,  and  continuing  up 
to  the  present  time.  These  three  movements  overlap  to  a 
considerable  degree,  some  Latin  grammar  schools  persisting 
long  after  the  academy  movement  was  well  under  way,  and 
the  academy  continuing  up  to  the  present  to  some  extent. 

The  distinction  of  periods  and  movements  is  not  based 
on  institutional  changes  alone.  The  institutional  changes 
themselves  were  the  outcomes  of  real  social  factors  at  work 
in  American  society  and  consequent  modifications  in  the 
conceptions  of  the  function  of  secondary  education.  When 
the  Latin  grammar  schools  of  the  American  colonies  became 
inadequate  for  the  social  needs  which  developed  in  the  new 
country  they  disappeared  and  the  academy  which  supplied 
education  suited  to  those  needs  took  its  place  as  the  domi- 
nant institution  for  secondary  education.  The  academy, 
however  well  suited  though  it  may  have  been  to  the  frontier 
conditions  of  the  early  democracy  and  to  the  laissez-faire 
policy  of  our  early  government,  was  not  well  suited  to  our 


162      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

later  democratic  ideals  or  to  later  governmental  policy. 
It  therefore  gave  way  to  the  public  high  school. 

I.  THE  LATIN  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL 

46.  The  Latin  grammar  school  of  England.   The  earliest 
secondary  schools  of  this  country  were  modeled  on  the 
Latin  grammar  schools  of  England.     Unfortunately  data 
regarding  the  early  Latin  grammar  school  of  the  American 
colonies  are  so  meagre  and  fragmentary  that  any  exact 
analysis  of  the  school  is  impossible.   Such  data  as  we  have, 
however,  show  clearly  the  debt  of  the  Latin  grammar  school 
in  this  country  to  its  prototype  in  England.   In  both  coun- 
tries the  aim  of  the  grammar  school  was  preparation  for  the 
university.    The  curriculum  in  both  cases  was  restricted  to 
the  study  of  the  classics.   The  specific  authors  read,  the  spe- 
cific books  employed,  and  the  methods  of  teaching  involved 
in  both  countries  were  almost  exactly  the  same.    In  both 
cases  the  schools  were  for  those  few  boys  who  were  destined 
to  go  to  college  or  at  least  belonged  to  the  upper  classes. 

47.  The  beginning  of  secondary  education  in  America. 
As  early  as  1621  a  movement  was  inaugurated  to  establish 
a  grammar  school  at  Charles  City  by  the  Virginia  Company 
of  London.    Definite  plans  were  made  for  its  establishment, 
but  the  Indian  massacres  of  1622  and  the  downfall  of  the 
Virginia  Company  in  1624  ended  the  movement  and  there 
is  no  evidence  that  the  school  was  ever  opened.    Again  in 
Virginia  a  second  movement  to  establish  a  grammar  school 
was  begun  in  1635  when  a  certain  Syms  left  his  estate  for 
the  foundation  of  a  free  school.  Acceptance  of  that  grant 
was  not  confirmed  until  seven  years  later.     Subsequently 
records  refer  to  that  school  endowed  by  Syms  as  in  active 
operation  and  an  existing  institution  claims  that  some  of 
the  original  grant  remains  as  a  part  of  its  permanent  funds. 


48.  The  Public  Latin  School  in  Boston.  The  first  second- 
ary school  in  America,  of  which  we  have  definite  knowledge, 
was  the  Public  Latin  School  founded  in  Boston  in  1635. 
It  is  a  fact  of  no  little  interest  that  the  colonists  from  the 
beginning  devoted  special  attention  to  secondary  education 
and  it  is  possible  that  secondary  education  as  a  public 
responsibility  would  not  so  easily  have  gained  its  way  in 
America  if  impetus  had  not  been  given  to  that  movement  in 
early  colonial  days. 

While  the  Latin  grammar  school  in  Boston  probably 
represented  secondary  education  at  its  best  hi  colonial 
America  and  therefore  cannot  be  considered  in  all  respects 
as  typical  of  the  colonial  grammar  school,  it  is  not  unfair  to 
consider  it  as  representing  at  least  the  general  scope  and 
economy  of  such  institutions. 

(a)  Control  and  support:  In  contrast  with  the  grammar 
schools  of  England,  which  for  the  most  part  were  controlled 
and  supported  by  the  Church,  by  guilds,  or  by  private  endow- 
ment, the  Boston  Public  Latin  School  was  established  by 
the  town.  Since  fees  were  regularly  charged,  the  school  can- 
not be  said  to  have  been  free  and  public  in  the  present-day 
sense.  It  was,  nevertheless,  a  "town  school"  and  in  most 
respects  justified  its  name  "public."  In  the  case  of  some 
other  grammar  schools  bequests  were  frequently  made  to 
provide  for  their  support,  notably  in  the  case  of  the  gram- 
mar schools  endowed  by  Edward  Hopkins  hi  Hartford,  New 
Haven,  and  Hadley.  In  many  schools  endowments  were  of 
such  a  character  that,  while  the  schools  remained  "public" 
schools  in  some  respects,  the  immediate  control  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  trustees. 

(6)  Aim :  The  definite  aim  of  the  Boston  Public  Latin 
School  was  to  prepare  boys  for  college  (Harvard  College 
was  founded  in  1636).  This  was  the  general  aim  of  the 
Latin  grammar  schools  of  England  and  was  the  general  aim 


164      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

of  those  schools  in  America.  It  was  explicitly  so  stated  for 
the  grammar  schools  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  by 
the  law  of  1647. 

(c)  Curriculum  :  The  curriculum  of  the  Latin  School,  until 
a  very  late  period  (beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century),  was 
almost  exclusively  classical  and  consisted  in  most  cases  solely 
of  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek.  One  of  the  earliest  known 
complete  programs  of  the  Boston  Lathi  School  was  that 
adopted  in  1789.  Excerpts  pertinent  to  the  present  consid- 
eration follow,  that  as  complete  a  view  as  possible  may  be 
given  in  brief  space. 

The  System  of  Public  Education,  adopted  by  the  Town  of  Bos- 
ton, 15th  Octob.  1789.  I.  That  there  shall  be  one  school  in  which 
the  rudiments  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  shall  be  taught, 
and  scholars  fully  qualified  for  the  Universities.  That  all  candi- 
dates for  admission  into  this  School  shall  be  at  least  ten  years  of 
age,  having  previously  been  well  instructed  in  English  Grammar; 
that  they  shall  continue  in  it  not  longer  than  four  years,  and  that 
they  have  liberty  to  attend  the  public  writing  Schools  at  such 
hours  as  the  visiting  Committee  shall  direct. 
[II-IV  deal  with  lower  schools  only.] 

Votes  of  the  Committee  appointed  to  carry  into  Execution  the 
System  of  public  Education  adopted  by  the  Town  of  Boston,  15th 
October  1789, 

At  a  meeting  of  the  said  Committee,  held  Decemb.  1,  1789. 
VOTED,  I.  That  the  Latin  Grammar  school  be  divided  into  four 
Classes,  and  that  the  following  Books  be  used  in  the  respective 
Classes. 
1st  Class  —  Cheever's  Accidence.  Corderius's  Colloquies  —  Latin 

and  English.    Nomenclator,  ^Esop's  Fables  —  Latin 

and  English.   Ward's  Latin  Grammar,  or  Eutropius. 
2d   Class  —  Clarke's  Introduction  —  Latin  and  English.   Ward's 

Latin  Grammar.     Eutropius,  continued.    Selectee  e 

Veteri  Testamento  Historiae,  or,  Castilio's  Dialogues. 

The  making  of  Latin,  from  Garretson's  Exercises. 
3d   Class  —  Caesar's  Commentaries.    Tully's  Epistles,  or  Offices. 

Ovid's    Metamorphoses.     Virgil.      Greek    Grammar. 

The  making  of  Latin  from  King's  History  of  the 

Heathen  Gods. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA         165 

4th  Class  —  Virgil,  continued.  —  Tully's  Orations.   Greek  Testa- 
ment. —  Horace.    Homer.  —  Gradus  ad  Parnassum. 
The  making  of  Latin  continued. 
[Sections  II-IV  deal  with  the  lower  schools  only.] 
V.   That  the  following  hours  be  punctually  observed  hi  all  the 
Schools,  viz.  From  the  third  Monday  in  April  to  the  third  Monday 
in  October,  the  Schools  begin  at  half  past  7  o'Clock,  A.M.  and 
continue  'till  eleven,  and  begin  at  half  past  1  o'Clock,  P.M.  and  con- 
tinue 'till  five.  —  That  from  the  third  Monday  in  October  to  the 
third  Monday  in  April,  the  Schools  begin  at  half  past  8  o'Clock, 
A.M.  and  continue  'till  eleven,  and  begin  at  half  past  1  o'clock,  P.M. 
and  continue  'till  half  past  four.1 

No  change  was  made  from  the  purely  classical  course  of 
the  Boston  Public  Latin  School  until  some  time  between 
1814  and  1828  (during  the  headmastership  of  Gould),  when 
arithmetic,  geometry,  trigonometry,  algebra,  and  geography 
were  introduced.  By  1826  declamation,  reading,  English 
grammar,  English  composition,  forensic  discussions,  history 
and  chronology,  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  and 
of  Massachusetts  were  introduced.  In  the  case  of  some 
Latin  grammar  schools  such  modifications  in  the  curriculum 
were  introduced  earlier. 

49.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  law  of  1647.  While 
Harvard  College  had  been  established  by  the  General  Court 
in  1636  and  legislation  touching  on  education  had  occurred 
in  1641,  1642,  and  1645,  the  earliest  legislation  in  this  coun- 
try which  affected  secondary  education  in  any  comprehen- 
sive way  was  the  law  passed  in  1647  by  the  Massachusetts 
Bay  Colony.  This  law  (with  spelling  modernized)  was  as 
follows: 

It  being  one  chief  project  of  that  old  deluder  Satan  to  keep  men 
from  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  as  in  former  times  by  keep- 

1  The  System  of  Public  Education,  adopted  by  the  Town  of  Boston,  15th 
Octob.  1789.  Quoted  by  Jenks,  Henry  F.,  Catalogue  of  the  Boston  Public 
Latin  School,  pp.  286-88. 


166      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ing  them  in  an  unknown  tongue,  so  in  these  latter  times  by  per- 
suading from  the  use  of  tongues,  that  so  at  least  the  true  sense  and 
meaning  of  the  original  might  be  clouded  by  false  glosses  of  saint- 
seeming  deceivers,  that  learning  may  not  be  buried  in  the  grave  of 
our  fathers  in  the  church  and  commonwealth,  the  Lord  assisting 
our  endeavors,  — 

It  is 'therefore  ordered,  that  every  township  in  this  jurisdiction 
after  the  Lord  hath  increased  them  to  the  number  of  50  house- 
holders,|shall  then  forthwith  appoint  one  within  then'  town  to  teach 
all  such  children  as  shall  resort  to  him  to  write  and  read,  whose 
wages  shall  be  paid  either  by  the  parents  or  masters  of  such  children 
or  by  the  inhabitants  in  general,  by  way  of  supply,  as  the  major 
part  of  those  that  order  the  prudentials  of  the  town  shall  appoint; 
provided,  those  that  send  their  children  be  not  oppressed  by  pay- 
ing much  more  than  they  can  have  them  taught  in  other  towns; 
and  it  is  further  ordered,  that  where  any  town  shall  increase  to  the 
number  of  100  families  or  householders,  they  shall  set  up  a  gram- 
mar school,  the  master  thereof  being  able  to  instruct  youth  so  far 
as  they  may  be  fitted  for  the  university,  provided,  that  if  any  town 
neglect  the  performance  hereof  above  one  year,  that  every  such 
town  shall  pay  5  pounds  to  the  next  school  till  they  shall  perform 
this  order.1 

In  connection  with  this  law  certain  important  facts  should 
be  noted.  The  law  represented  the  first  comprehensive  legis- 
lation for  secondary  education  in  America  and  established 
principles  of  general  educational  policy  which  were  of  far- 
reaching  effect  on  American  education.  Therein  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  the  school  was  a  "town"  or  public  school, 
although  the  law  made  it  optional  with  towns  whether  fees 
should  be  charged  or  the  support  of  the  school  be  a  town 
responsibility.  It  is  further  to  be  observed  that  the  curricu- 
lum of  the  school  was  specifically  defined  as  one  designed 
to  provide  for  admission  to  the  college,  which,  at  that  time, 
could  mean  but  one  thing  —  the  narrow  classical  curricu- 

1  Records  of  the  Governor  and  Company  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  in  New 
England,  November  11,  1G47,  p.  203. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        167 

lum.  Still  further  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  law  estab- 
lished a  general  system  of  secondary  schools.  All  these 
features  were  later  made  to  cover  the  state  of  Massachusetts, 
which  until  1820  included  Maine. 

50.  Further  legal  provision  in  Massachusetts.  The  essen- 
tial characteristics  of  the  law  of  1647  remained  the  basis  of 
educational  legislation  in  Massachusetts  throughout  the 
period  of  the  Latin  grammar  school.  Laws  passed  in  1671, 
1683,  1701,  1718,  and  1789  increased  the  amount  of  penalty 
for  non-compliance  with  the  requirement  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  grammar  school.  The  law  of  1683  provided  for 
the  establishment  of  two  Latin  grammar  schools  in  towns 
of  five  hundred  families  or  householders.  The  law  of  1789 
provided  that  "every  town  or  district  containing  two  hun- 
dred families,  or  householders,  shall  be  provided  with  a 
grammar  school  Master  of  good  morals,  well  instructed  in 
the  Latin,  Greek  and  English  languages."1  This  law  re- 
mained in  force  without  material  modification  until  1827, 
but  its  operation  was  practically  nullified  by  a  law  passed 
in  1824  which  exempted  towns  containing  less  than  five 
thousand  inhabitants  from  maintaining  a  Latin  grammar 
school  on  conditions  easily  met.  Out  of  296  towns  enum- 
erated in  the  census  lists  of  Massachusetts  in  1820  be- 
tween 173  and  215  towns  were  required  to  maintain  a 
Latin  grammar  school  according  to  the  law  of  1789.  By 
the  law  of  1824  all  but  seven  (Boston,  Salem,  Nantucket, 
Newburyport,  Charlestown,  Marblehead,  Gloucester)  were 
released  from  the  necessity  by  easy  alternative  conditions. 
The  passage  of  the  high  school  law  of  1827  eliminated  the 
Latin  grammar  school  in  Massachusetts  as  far  as  legal  man- 
date was  concerned.  It  is,  perhaps,  needless  to  state  that 
the  law  requiring  Latin  grammar  schools  had  never  met  with 
even  a  fair  degree  of  compliance. 

1  Laws  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  1789,  chap,  xrx,  sees.  1-6. 


168      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

51.  Legal  provision  in  other  colonies.  In  the  Plymouth 
Colony  an  attempt  was  made  in  1667  to  establish  a  gram- 
mar school  and  the  General  Court  decided  that  each  town 
of  fifty  families  should  raise  funds  for  that  purpose.  The 
attempt  was  unsuccessful.  In  1670  the  Court  granted 
profits  from  certain  fisheries  toward  the  establishment  of  a 
free  school.  The  county  of  Plymouth  embraced  this  oppor- 
tunity. After  1692  the  Plymouth  Colony  was  united  with 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  and  the  laws  of  the  latter 
were  in  effect  in  the  whole  State.  Maine  was  a  part  of 
Massachusetts  until  1820  and  hence  the  legal  provision  for 
grammar  schools  was  the  same  there  as  in  Massachusetts. 
From  1641-1679  New  Hampshire  was  also  a  part  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  hence  more  or  less  affected  by  the  legislation 
in  Massachusetts.  When  the  separation  took  place  a  general 
school  law  was  passed  (1680)  in  New  Hampshire  but  that 
and  subsequent  laws  were  so  neglected  that  in  1719  a  law 
was  enacted  which  was  a  close  copy  of  the  law  of  1647 
passed  by  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.  The  law  of  1650 
as  passed  by  the  Connecticut  Colony  was  an  almost  verba- 
tim copy  of  the  same  law  and  this  remained  essentially  the 
same  throughout  the  colonial  period.  In  Rhode  Island  no 
comprehensive  legislation  came  about  until  1800.  Vermont 
was  first  settled  in  1724  and  its  first  law  affecting  general 
education  did  not  come  until  the  adoption  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  1777.  In  Connecticut,  in  1666,  the  united  colonies 
were  divided  into  four  counties,  with  Hartford,  New  Lon- 
don, New  Haven,  and  Fairfield  the  chief  town  in  each  and 
six  years  later  the  Court  granted  to  each  county  six  hundred 
acres  of  land  "to  be  improved  in  the  best  manner  that  may 
be  for  the  benefit  of  a  grammar  school  .  .  .  and  to  no  other 
ase  or  end  whatsoever."  And  it  was  ordered,  further,  "That 
in  every  county  town  there  shall  be  set  up  and  kept  a  gram- 
mar school  for  the  use  of  the  county,  the  master  thereof 


169 

being  able  to  instruct  youths  so  far  as  they  may  be  fitted 
for  college."  In  the  other  colonies,  while  partial  legislation 
was  made  at  times,  no  such  mandatory  and  comprehensive 
law  was  passed  affecting  secondary  education  directly  within 
the  period  of  the  grammar  school.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in 
Massachusetts  the  unit  of  the  school  system  was  the  town. 
This  was  also  true  of  New  Hampshire  and  the  earlier  system 
of  Connecticut.  Later  the  county  unit  was  employed  in 
Connecticut.  The  county  unit  was  also  found  in  Maryland. 
52.  The  Latin  school  in  New  England  and  elsewhere.  The 
Latin  grammar  school  developed  first  and  at  its  best  in 
New  England  and  particularly  in  Massachusetts,  although 
examples  were  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  original  colonies. 
Statistics  concerning  the  establishment  of  secondary  schools 
during  the  colonial  period  are  difficult  to  secure,  if  indeed 
the  requisite  data  exist.  Small  has  estimated  the  number 
of  Latin  grammar  schools  in  existence  in  New  England  up 
to  1700  at  about  forty,  of  which  twenty-four  were  found  in 
Massachusetts.1  Eight  of  these  had  been  founded  before 
1650.  Concerning  grammar  schools  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury Small  says:  2 

Meanwhile  (previous  to  the  law  of  1789)  the  term  "grammar 
school"  had  practically  disappeared  from  use,  the  district-school 
had  taken  away  the  central  authority,  the  old  form  of  school  had 
been  forgotten,  and  there  was  fastened  upon  the  state  the  district- 
school  system,  which  required  fifty  years  of  strenuous  effort  to 
dislodge.  The  grammar  school  had  practically  disappeared  from 
New  England  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

While  somewhat  exaggerated,  this  statement  is  essentially 
correct.  Just  how  much  the  district-school  system  had  to 

1  Small,  W.  H.,  "The  New  England  Grammar  School,  1635-1700," 
School  Review,  vol.  x,  pp.  513-31. 

2  Small,  W.  H.,  "The  New  England  Grammar  School,  1700-1800," 
School  Review,  vol.  xiv,  pp.  42-56. 


170      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

do  with  the  downfall  of  the  grammar  school  in  New  Eng- 
.  land  it  would  be  difficult  to  determine.  Its  effect  in  that 
direction  was  probably  not  small.  Two  other  powerful 
influences,  however,  were  at  work  to  interfere  with  the 
growth  of  the  Latin  school.  The  first  was  the  fact  that  the 
school  was  designed  for  boys  only  who  were  preparing  for 
college.  The  law  reduced  this  limitation  to  an  absurdity  in 
Massachusetts  where  at  periods  apparently  more  schools 
were  required  than  there  were  boys  entering  college  in  any 
one  year  during  the  colonial  period.1  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  same  law  limited  the  aim  of  the  grammar  school 
to  preparation  for  the  university.  Hence  the  social  demand 
for  grammar  schools,  in  point  of  number,  was  far  behind  the 
legal  requirements  and  the  records  are  full  of  evidence  of 
the  constant  endeavor  by  towns  to  evade  the  law  and  by 
the  State  to  enforce  it.  The  second  factor  interfering  with 
the  development  of  the  grammar  school  during  the  last 
quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  the  growth  of  the 
academy.  This  movement  will  be  outlined  in  following 
sections.  It  may  be  noted  here,  however,  that  the  rise  of 
the  academy  was  probably  as  much  a  result  as  a  cause  of 
the  failure  of  the  Latin  grammar  school. 

II.  THE  ACADEMY 

53.  The  origin  of  the  academy  in  America.  Fundamen- 
tally the  origin  of  the  academy  movement  is  found  in  the 
social  changes  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
which  rendered  the  existing  classical  schools  inadequate  for 
contemporary  needs.  The  breaking  away  from  traditional 
schools  was  found  in  England  in  the  rise  of  the  academy  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  in  Scot- 
land about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  in 

1  Inglis,  A.  J.,  The  Rise  of  the  High  School  in  Massachusetts,  pp.  65-70. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA         171 

America  about  the  same  time.  This  movement  was  to  some 
extent  paralleled  in  Germany  by  the  development  of  the 
Realschule  as  evidenced  by  Hecker's  school  in  Berlin 
(established  in  1747),  which  included  in  its  curriculum,  in 
addition  to  the  classical  studies,  such  subjects  as  German, 
French,  drawing,  geography,  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  history,  natural  history,  physics,  and  phil- 
osophy. The  same  tendency  is  found  in  the  Scotch  academy. 
ThusKerr:1 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  in  many 
quarters  a  desire  fqr  schools  with  a  more  liberal  and  practical  cur- 
riculum than  that  in  use  in  the  old  grammar  schools.  "Academies" 
was  the  name  chosen  for  such  institutions.  They  were  meant  to 
supplement  grammar  schools  by  introducing  commercial  and  science 
subjects,  but  in  many  cases  they  superseded  them  or  became  their 
rivals.  Perth  has  thevhonor  of  being  the  oldest  academy  in  Scot- 
land. It  was  founded  in  1760. 

For  more  than  two  centuries  secondary  education  in  the 
American  colonies  was  restricted  to  that  provided  in  the 
Latin  grammar  school  with  its  limited  classical  curriculum 
and  its  provision  primarily  for  those  who  were  destined  to 
enter  the  higher  professions  through  the  college.  By  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  had  become  evident  to 
many  that  such  a  school  was  inadequate  for  the  needs  of 
the  American  youth  and  that  a  broader  form  of  secondary 
education  was  needed.  The  basis  of  the  academy  movement 
in  America  was,  then,  recognition  of  the  need  for  a  form  of 
secondary  education  of  broader  scope  and  better  suited  to 
contemporary  needs. 

54.  The  Franklin  Academy  in  Philadelphia.     Nowhere 

did  the  reaction  away  from  the  narrow  classicism  of  the 

Latin  grammar  school  find  a  more  enthusiastic  proponent 

than  in  Benjamin  Franklin.    In  1743  Franklin  drew  up  the 

1  Kerr,  J.,  Scottish  Education,  School  and  University,  p.  162. 


172      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

plan  of  an  academy  but  did  not  publish  it  until  1749.  In- 
struction in  the  Publick  Academy  in  the  City  of  Philadelphia 
began  in  1751  with  its  three  departments,  the  Latin  School, 
the  English  School,  and  the  Mathematical  School.  Shortly 
after  the  institution  was  reincorporated  as  the  "College, 
Academy,  and  Charitable  School  of  Philadelphia"  and  was 
given  the  power  of  conferring  degrees.  The  charter  of  this 
"college"  was  revoked  in  1779  and  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania established  in  its  stead.  It  is  evident  that  this 
academy  was  a  different  type  of  school  from  any  previous 
institution.  It  should  also  be  evident  —  and  that  fact  has 
not  always  been  properly  recognized  —  that  it  was  by  no 
means  typical  of  the  academy  as  it  developed  in  America. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  Moravian  Academy  at  Bethlehem 
was  established  in  1742,  the  Moravian  school  for  girls  in 
Germantown  in  1742,  and  Nazareth  Hall  in  1743.  It  is  not 
clear  that  those  schools  were  of  secondary-school  rank.  If 
so  they  antedated  the  academy  at  Philadelphia. 

55.  The  academy  in  Massachusetts.  The  academy  move- 
ment in  Massachusetts  had  its  beginning  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Dummer  Academy  in  South  Byfield  and  of  the 
Phillips  Academy  at  Andover.  Although  the  former  was  not 
incorporated  until  1782  its  history  dates  from  the  legacy  of 
Lieutenant-Governor  Dummer  in  1761  and  the  opening  of 
the  school  in  1763.  Of  the  Phillips  Academy  at  Andover 
the  endowment  was  established  by  the  execution  of  a  deed 
of  gift  in  1778.  In  that  year  the  school  was  opened  and  in 
1780  the  academy  was  incorporated.  By  1800  seventeen 
academies  had  been  incorporated  in  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts. Before  the  founding  of  the  first  public  high  school 
more  than  thirty-six  academies  had  been  founded  in  the 
State  —  far  more  than  the  number  of  surviving  Latin  gram- 
mar schools.  The  growth  of  the  academy  movement  in 
Massachusetts  may  be  observed  from  the  following  table. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        173 


TABLE  LXXIV.   ACADEMIES  INCORPORATED  IN  MASSACHUSETTS, 
1780-1870  * 


Dates 

Number 

Dates 

Number 

New 

Total 

New 

Total 

1780-1790  

6 
11 
11 
8 
32 

6 
17 
28 
36 
68 

1831-1840  

46 
21 
19 
10 

114 

135 
154 
164 

1791-1800  

1841-1850  

1801-1810  

1851-1860  

1811-1820  

1861-1870  

1821-1830  

*  Compiled  from  data  given  in  the  Fortieth  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education, 
Appendix  E,  pp.  175-347. 

Here  it  may  be  noted  that,  as  measured  by  the  number 
of  academies  incorporated,  the  period  of  most  rapid  devel- 
opment in  Massachusetts  was  1826-35  when  sixty  acade- 
mies were  incorporated  within  ten  years,  as  compared  with 
forty  in  the  preceding  forty-five  years  and  sixty-nine  in  the 
succeeding  forty  years.  This  is,  of  course,  not  a  fair  criterion 
of  the  development  and  influence  of  the  academy  in  that 

TABLE  LXXV.  ACADEMIES  AND  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS  IN 
MASSACHUSETTS  f 


Number  of  academies 

Number  of  pupils 

Total  pop- 

Pupilt per 

Year 

ulation  of 

10,000 

Incor- 
porated 

Unincor- 
porated 

All 

Incor- 
porated 

Unincor- 
porated 

Att 

state 

population 

1835    . 

24,278 

683,861 

350 

1840  .  . 

78 

1,308 

1,386 

3,701 

28,635 

32,336 

737,699 

438 

1845  .  . 

66 

1,167 

1,233 

3,939 

26,762 

30,701 

856,531 

358 

1850  .  . 

67 

845 

012 

3,717 

19,534 

23,251 

994,514 

234 

1855  .  . 

71 

646 

717 

4,716 

17,571 

22,287 

1,132,364 

197 

1860  .  . 

65 

640 

705 

3,561 

15,933 

19,494 

1,231,066 

158 

t  Compiled  from  data  given  in  the  Abstracts  of  Massachusetts  School  Returns  for  the 
years  1834-60.  For  complete  data  see  InglLs,  A.  J.,  The  Rise  of  the  High  School  in  Massa- 
chusetts, p.  57. 


174      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

state,  but  it  is  indicative  of  the  general  trend  of  the  academy 
movement.  Table  LXXV  shows  the  influence  of  the  acad- 
emy in  Massachusetts  during  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

Since  younger  pupils  are  doubtless  included  in  large  num- 
bers in  these  figures  they  cannot  be  interpreted  with  any 
exactness.  Nevertheless  they  show  clearly  the  great  influ- 
ence of  the  academy  and  private  schools  at  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century  and  its  decline  as  the  high-school 
movement  developed  after  1840.  The  academy  movement 
in  Massachusetts  developed  somewhat  earlier  than  in  most 
parts  of  the  country  (New  York  State  perhaps  excepted). 
It  also  declined  before  the  advance  of  the  high-school  move- 
ment at  an  earlier  date. 

56.  The  academy  movement  in  other  States.  Apparently 
the  sort  of  education  introduced  by  the  academy  met  a  very 
definite  need  in  the  field  of  secondary  education.  Gaining 
an  early  and  firm  hold,  especially  in  Massachusetts,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North  Caro- 
lina, toward  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  acad- 
emy had  spread  rapidly  throughout  the  country.  This  is  to 
be  seen  from  the  figures  presented  in  Table  LXXVI. 

In  considering  such  figures  it  must,  of  course,  be  remem- 
bered that  the  number  of  academies  existing  in  1850  includes 
many  which  were  institutions  enrolling  elementary-  and 
secondary-school  pupils  or  even  elementary  school  students 
alone  so  that  any  direct  comparison  of  conditions  in  1850 
and  in  1910  would  be  quite  unfair.  Nevertheless  the  figures 
presented  indicate  the  important  position  which  academies 
had  assumed  in  this  country  by  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

The  academy  movement  during  the  last  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  was  intimately  related  to  the  development 
of  the  public  high-school  movement  and  is  best  considered 
in  that  connection  in  later  sections. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA 


175 


TABLE  LXXVI.  SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OF  ACADEMIES  AND 
PUPILS  ATTENDING  THEM  IN  1850.  ALSO  THEIR  DISTRIBUTION 
WITH  REFERENCE  TO  POPULATION.  FIGURES  ARE  PRESENTED 
ALSO  FOR  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  IN  1910-1911 
FOR  PURPOSES  OF  COMPARISON* 


Section  of  the 
Country 

Academies  in  1850 

All  Secondary  Schools  1910 

Number  of 

Population 
to  each 

Number  of 

Population 
to  each 

Schools 

Pupils 

School 

Pupil 

Schools 

Pupils 

School 

Pupil 

1,007 
1,636 
515 
238 
1,379 
931 
330 
49 

6,085 
6,095 

40,866 
82,923 
29,823 
9,952 
49,818 
37,559 
11,224 
1,052 

263,096 
263,096 

2,709 
3,606 
8,783 
3,861 
3,392 
3,613 
2,849 
3,649 

3,811 
3,811 

67 
71 
152 
88 
96 
89 
84 
170 

88 
88 

850 
1,996 
2,909 
1,339 
1,408 
787 
829 
443 

10,581 
12,213 

118,741 
239,599 
266,415 
112,351 
85,918 
51,309 
57,702 
64,014 

996,049 
1,115,326 

7,716 
9,677 
6,274 
5,671 
8,681 
10,686 
8,598 
9,532 

7,922 
7,531 

55 
81 
69 
68 
142 
164 
124 
66 

84 

82 

Middle  Atlantic  .  .  . 
East  North  Central 
West  North  Central 
South  Atlantic  .... 
East  South  Central. 
West  South  Central 
Other  States  

States  of  1850  
All  present  States  .  . 

*  Figures  for  the  academies  taken  from  the  American  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  i,  p.  368 
(reproduced  by  Dexter,  E.  G.,  A  History  of  Education  in  the  United  States,  p.  96).  Figures 
for  the  schools  of  1910-11  taken  from  Public  and  Private  Schools,  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of 
Education  (1912),  no.  22,  p.  42.  Figures  for  population  taken  from  Report  of  the  Thirteenth 
Census  (1910),  vol.  I,  pp.  30-31.  Computation  and  compilation  by  the  writer. 

57.  The  control  and  support  of  the  academy.  By  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Latin  grammar  school  of  the 
colonies  had  become  an  institution  of  the  past  except  in  a 
few  important  centers.  The  high-school  movement  did  not 
gain  any  great  impetus  until  after  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Hence  it  is  obvious  that  the  academy  was 
the  dominant  institution  of  secondary  education  in  this  coun- 
try from  its  inception  in  the  last  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury until  well  into  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  Latin  grammar  school  had  been  essentially 
a  free  public  institution,  controlled  and  supported  by  the 
town  or  state.  The  high  school  likewise  was  a  free  public 
institution  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term.  In  contrast  with 


176      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

those  institutions  the  academy  was  essentially  a  private 
institution  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  control  being  in- 
vested commonly  in  a  board  of  trustees  or  other  similar  body. 
Nevertheless  it  is  true  that  all  degrees  of  private  and  public 
control  and  support  were  exemplified,  ranging  from  com- 
pletely private  and  personal  control  to  practically  public 
control  and  supervision. 

In  Massachusetts  previous  to  1797  seven  academies  had 
received  state  aid  in  addition  to  the  rights  of  legal  existence. 
In  that  year  other  academies  petitioned  the  legislature  for 
endowments  and  a  committee  was  appointed  to  consider 
those  petitions  and  outline  a  plan  of  the  public  policy  with 
regard  to  incorporated  academies.  This  committee  reported 
February  27,  1797: 

On  a  general  view  of  this  subject,  the  committee  are  of  the  opin- 
ion that  the  system  hitherto  pursued,  of  endowing  academies  with 
State  lands  ought  to  be  continued;  but  with  several  material  al- 
terations; first,  that  no  academy  (at  least  not  already  erected) 
ought  to  be  encouraged  by  government  unless  it  have  a  neighbor- 
hood to  support  it  of  at  least  thirty  or  forty  thousand  inhabitants, 
not  accommodated  in  any  manner  by  any  other  academies,  by  any 
other  college  or  school  answering  the  purpose  of  an  academy; 
secondly  ^  that  every  such  portion  of  the  Commonwealth  ought  to  be 
considered  as  equally  entitled  to  grants  of  State  lands,  in  aid  of 
private  donations;  and  thirdly,  that  no  State  lands  ought  to  be 
granted  to  any  academy  but  in  aid  of  permanent  funds.1 

In  the  same  report  it  was  recommended  that  half  a  town- 
ship of  six  miles  square  of  land  in  Maine  (which  was  until 
1820  a  part  of  Massachusetts)  be  granted  to  each  academy 
which  met  certain  conditions  regarding  funds.  Those  recom- 
mendations were  adopted  and  from  this  action  of  the  legis- 
lature it  would  appear  that  the  academy  in  Massachusetts 

1  Report  of  the  Committee,  quoted  in  the  Fortieth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  Appendix  E,  pp.  207-09. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        177 

was  recognized  as  early  as  1797  as  fulfilling  in  some  degree 
the  function  of  a  quasi-public  institution  and  as  one  deserv- 
ing public  support.  That  this  view  was  accepted  is  clear 
from  the  following: 

The  following  principles  appear  to  have  been  established,  as  de- 
termining the  relations  of  the  academies  to  the  Commonwealth. 
They  were  to  be  regarded  as  in  many  respects,  and  to  a  considerable 
extent,  as  public  schools;  as  a  part  of  an  organized  system  of  pub- 
lic and  universal  education;  as  opening  the  way,  for  all  the  people, 
to  a  higher  order  of  instruction  than  the  common  schools  can  sup- 
ply, and  as  a  complement  to  them.  Towns,  as  well  as  the  Common- 
wealth, were  to  share,  with  individuals,  the  character  of  founders, 
or  legal  visitors  of  them.1 

The  organization  of  the  academies  as  component  parts  of 
a  comprehensive  State  system  reached  its  highest  level  in 
New  York  State.  In  1787  the  academies  in  that  State  were 
made  a  part  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York 
which  had  been  organized  three  years  before.  Here  also  the 
policy  of  endowing  academies  with  State  funds  was  adopted. 
In  the  earlier  period  special  grants  were  made  to  academies, 
and  a  permanent  fund,  known  as  the  Literature  Fund,  was 
established  hi  1813.  The  organized  system  of  academy  sup- 
port and  control  which  thus  grew  up  in  New  York  State 
was  an  important  element  prolonging  the  life  of  the  academy 
and  in  some  ways  delaying  the  high-school  movement  in 
that  State. 

The  policy  of  aiding  academies  by  State  appropriations 
of  public  money  or  land  was  somewhat  general  throughout 
the  country  and  such  academies  were  regularly  looked  upon 
as  quasi-public  schools.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  in 
New  York  State  only  did  the  State  exercise  any  sort  of  ade- 
quate supervision  and  control,  so  that  in  general  we  find 

1  Report  of  the  Committee,  quoted  in  the  Fortieth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  Appendix  E,  pp.  207-09. 


178      PKINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

the  phenomenon  of  schools  essentially  controlled  by  private 
individuals,  religious  denominations,  or  self-perpetuating 
boards  of  trustees,  in  extensive  amount  supported  by  public 
money. 

58.  The  curriculum  of  the  academy.  It  was  the  design 
of  the  early  founders  of  academies  to  establish  schools, 
which,  as  contrasted  with  the  Latin  grammar  schools,  should 
provide  a  rather  extensive  training  covering  a  number  of 
subjects  of  study  having  value  aside  from  preparation  for 
college,  courses  of  study  which  should  be  better  fitted  to 
the  changed  conditions  of  life  and  society,  and  be  of  prac- 
tical benefit  to  pupils  in  whatever  kind  of  life  they  were  des- 
tined to  follow.  This  aim  is  manifest  in  the  proposals  pro- 
mulgated by  Franklin  and  in  all  his  activities  connected  with 
the  academy  at  Philadelphia.  It  is  also  manifest  in  the 
constitution  proposed  by  the  founders  of  the  Phillips  Acad- 
emy at  Andover  wherein  the  aim  was  stated  to  be 

to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  public  free  school  or  ACADEMY  for  the 
purposes  of  instructing  Youth,  not  only  in  English  and  Latin  Gram- 
mar, Writing,  Arithmetic,  and  those  Sciences  wherein  they  are  com- 
monly taught;  but  more  especially  to  learn  them  the  GREAT  END 
AND  REAL  BUSINESS  OF  LIVING  ...  it  is  again  declared 
that  the  first  and  principal  object  of  this  Institution  is  the  promo- 
tion of  TRUE  PIETY  and  VIRTUE;  the  second,  instruction  in  the 
English,  Latin,  and  Greek  Languages,  together  with  Writing, 
Arithmetic,  Music,  and  the  Art  of  Speaking;  the  third,  practical 
Geometry,  Logic,  and  Geography;  and  the  fourth,  such  other 
liberal  Arts  and  Sciences  or  Languages,  as  opportunity  and  ability 
may  hereafter  admit,  and  as  the  TRUSTEES  shall  direct. 

As  early  as  1799  we  know  that  the  following  subjects  were 
taught  at  the  Phillips  Academy  at  Exeter:  the  English, 
French,  Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  geography,  arithmetic, 
practical  geometry,  rhetoric,  logic,  natural  philosophy 
(physics),  history,  astronomy,  moral  philosophy,  and  natu- 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        179 

ral  law.  At  the  same  academy  in  1818  were  given  studies  in 
a  "Classical  Department"  and  an  "English  Department." 
The  studies  of  the  Classical  Department  were  practically 
the  same  as  those  of  the  Boston  Latin  School  of  about  the 
same  time.  The  English  Department  included  the  following 
studies: 

For  the  First  Year:  English  Grammar  including  exercises  in  Read- 
ing, in  Parsing,  and  Analysing,  in  the  correction  of  bad  English; 
Punctuation  and  Prosody;  Arithmetic;  Geography,  and  Algebra 
through  Simple  Equations. 

For  the  Second  Year:  English  Grammar  continued;  Geometry; 
Plane  Trigonometry  and  its  application  to  heights  and  distances; 
mensuration  of  Sup.  and  Sol.;  Elements  of  Ancient  History;  Logic; 
Rhetoric;  English  Composition;  Declamation  and  exercises  of  the 
forensic  kind. 

For  the  Third  Year:  Surveying;  Navigation;  Elements  of  Chem- 
istry and  Natural  Philosophy  with  experiments;  Elements  of  Mod- 
ern History,  particularly  of  the  United  States;  Moral  and  Political 
Philosophy,  with  English  Composition,  Forensics,  and  Declama- 
tion continued. 

The  development  of  the  academy  coincided  with  the 
development  of  the  newly  established  Republic  and  this 
movement  was  marked  by  the  extended  curriculum  offered 
to  boys  and  girls  who  were  to  become  citizens  of  that 
Republic.  It  also  coincided  with  the  development  of  the 
sciences  and  the  part  played  by  them  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  This  also  was  reflected  by  the  curriculum  of  the 
academy.  Subjects  of  study  were  constantly  added  to  the 
curriculum  until  it  covered  almost  every  phase  of  learning. 
This  is  indicated  by  the  range  of  subjects  reported  to  the 
Regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York  by  the 
academies  in  that  State  in  1837:  1 

1  Quoted  from  Monroe,  P.,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  p.  58, 
with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  The  Macmillan  Company. 


180     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Arithmetic,  algebra,  architecture,  astronomy,  botany,  book- 
keeping, Biblical  antiquities,  biography,  chemistry,  composition, 
conic  sections,  constitution  of  the  United  States,  constitution  of 
New  York,  elements  of  criticism,  declamation,  drawing,  dialing, 
English  grammar,  evidences  of  Christianity,  embroidery,  civil 
engineering,  extemporaneous  speaking,  French,  geography,  phys- 
ical geography,  geology,  plane  geometry,  analytic  geometry,  Greek, 
Grecian  antiquities,  German,  general  history,  history  of  the  United 
States,  History  of  New  York,  Hebrew,  Italian,  Latin,  law  (consti- 
tutional, select  revised  statutes,  criminal,  mercantile,  Black- 
stone's  Commentaries),  logic,  leveling,  logarithms,  vocal  music,  in- 
strumental music,  mapping,  mensuration,  mineralogy,  mythology, 
natural  history,  navigation,  nautical  astronomy,  natural  the- 
ology, orthography,  natural  philosophy,  moral  philosophy,  intellec- 
tual philosophy,  penmanship,  political  economy,  painting,  perspec- 
tive, physiology,  English  pronunciation,  reading,  rhetoric,  Roman 
antiquities,  stenography,  statistics,  surveying,  Spanish,  trigonom- 
etry, topography,  technology,  principles  of  teaching. 

With  the  radical  changes  in  the  curriculum  came  also 
tendencies  to  change  the  methods  of  teaching  employed. 
About  the  curriculum  of  the  Latin  grammar  school  had  been 
developed  a  body  of  traditional  method  which  continued 
to  be  the  method  employed  in  the  teaching  of  Latin  and 
Greek  and  also  was  transferred  to  the  newer  language 
studies.  The  other  subjects  now  introduced  were  not  forti- 
fied with  traditional  methods  and  hence  there  was  possible 
experimentation  in  the  methods  of  teaching  those  subjects. 
Formal  catechetical  and  recitation  methods  continued  to  be 
employed  but  some  of  the  newer  subjects  demanded  an 
emphasis  on  practical  use  that  were  not  to  be  found  in 
previous  methods,  e.g.,  surveying,  navigation,  the  sciences, 
painting,  declamation,  stenography,  bookkeeping,  etc.  In 
the  case  of  political  economy,  evidences  of  Christianity,  law, 
etc.,  the  methods  employed  emphasized  the  acquisition  of 
informational  facts,  frequently  of  a  type  wherein  the  text- 
book was  arranged  in  question-answer  form.  Textbooks 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        181 

rapidly  multiplied  and  introduced  new  methods,  some  of 
which  were  of  temporary  vogue  while  others  influenced  all 
later  teaching. 

59.  Secondary  education  for  girls  in  the  academy.  In 
colonial  times  secondary  or  higher  education  for  girls  was 
entirely  lacking.  In  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  the  ques- 
tion of  the  admission  of  girls  to  the  grammar  school  was 
raised  at  the  time  of  the  founding  of  the  school,  but  it  evi- 
dently did  not  result  in  any  such  provision.  In  1784  the 
girls  of  that  town  were  permitted  to  attend  the  grammar 
school  (building?)  in  the  summer,  but  it  is  doubtful  that 
anything  ever  resulted  from  that  privilege.  Early  in  the 
history  of  the  academy  movement,  however,  we  find  acade- 
mies established  for  girls  alone  and  for  both  sexes  together. 
Of  academies  for  girls  alone  the  school  at  Germantown 
founded  in  1743  may  have  been  the  first  although  there  is 
some  question  of  the  character  of  that  school.  At  any  rate 
a  school  for  girls  was  established  by  Dr.  Rush  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1780.  Of  coeducational  academies  the  Leicester 
Academy  in  Massachusetts  was  probably  the  first.  That 
school  was  coeducational  from  its  establishment  in  1784. 
This  was  followed  in  Massachusetts  by  a  number  of  acade- 
mies either  for  girls  alone  or  for  both  sexes  and  the  concep- 
tion of  secondary  education  for  girls  was  thus  firmly  im- 
planted in  the  public  mind. 

Some  of  the  academies  established  for  girls  were  of  a  dis- 
tinctly inferior  character  to  those  for  boys  and  emphasized 
particularly  the  "polite  accomplishments"  of  the  period. 
Foreshadowing  these  schools  was  a  school  such  as  that 
whose  announcement  is  quoted  by  Monroe  for  the  Armston 
School  (1772),  in  which  such  subjects  as  the  following  were 
offered:  l 

1  Monroe,  P.,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  vol.  n,  p.  120;  courtesy  of  the 
publishers,  The  MacmUlan  Company. 


182      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Petit  Point  in  Flowers,  Fruit,  Landscapes  and  Sculpture,  Nun's 
Work,  Embroidery  in  Silk,  Gold,  Silver,  Pearls,  or  embosed,  Shad- 
ing of  all  kinds,  in  the  Various  Works  in  Vogue,  Dresden  Point 
Work,  Lace  Ditto,  Catgut  in  different  Modes,  flourishing  Muslin, 
after  the  newest  Taste,  and  most  elegant  Pattern  Waxwork  in 
Figure,  Fruit,  or  Flowers,  Shell  Ditto,  or  grotesque,  Painting  in 
Water  Colours  and  Mezzotinto;  also  the  Art  of  taking  off  Foliage, 
with  several  other  Embellishments  necessary  for  the  Amusement 
of  Persons  of  Fortune  who  have  Taste. 

Such  a  school  was  the  prototype  of  the  later  "finishing 
school." 

60.  Effect  of  the  academy  movement.  The  effect  of  the 
academy  on  the  development  of  secondary  education  in  the 
United  States  was  both  good  and  bad.  On  the  credit  side  of 
its  account  may  be  placed  at  least  four  important  contribu- 
tions which  secondary  education  in  America  received  from 
the  academy  movement:  (1)  it  introduced,  or  at  least  met, 
the  conception  that  secondary  education  should  be  provided 
for  the  large  number  of  boys  and  girls  not  preparing  to 
enter  college;  (2)  it  enriched  and  extended  the  course  of 
study;  (3)  it  introduced  and  developed  secondary  education 
for  girls;  (4)  it  popularized  if  not  democratized  secondary 
education  in  America  and  prepared  the  public  mind  for 
universal  secondary  education  which  was  to  be  attempted 
later  through  the  public  high  school.  To  these  four  contri- 
butions of  the  academy  we  may  add  another  item  in  the  fact 
that  private  initiative  founded  and  fostered  secondary  edu- 
cation at  a  period  when  legislatures  and  local  authorities 
failed  to  provide  an  institution  adequate  to  meet  the  needs 
of  society.  For  a  period  of  more  than  three  quarters  of 
a  century  the  academy  was  the  dominant  form  of  second- 
ary education  in  the  country,  during  a  large  part  of  that 
time  it  was  the  only  form  of  secondary  education  in  many 
regions,  and  it  exerted  an  influence  on  secondary  educa- 
tion in  the  United  States  which  lasted  throughout  the  nine- 


teenth  century  in  spite  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  public 
high  school  during  the  last  half  or  the  last  quarter  of  that 
century. 

On  the  debit  side  of  the  ledger  we  must  enter  accounts 
against  the  academy  of  the  following  items:  (1)  The  acad- 
emy was  essentially  a  private,  sometimes  a  denominational 
or  at  least  a  religious  institution.  The  very  fact  that,  while 
dependent  on.  private  or  denominational  initiative  and  in- 
terest for  establishment  and  control,  academies  were  "to 
be  regarded  as  in  many  respects  and  to  a  considerable  extent, 
public  schools;  as  a  part  of  an  organized  system  of  public 
and  universal  education"  constituted  its  worst  defect. 
(2)  With  the  possible  exception  of  academies  in  New  York 
State,  the  academies  were  not  organized  into  a  State  system 
and  standards  were  not  established.  (3)  While  the  academies 
did  popularize  secondary  education  in  the  United  States 
they  did  not  democratize  it  in  the  sense  that  they  equal- 
ized educational  opportunity  for  all.  Here  two  characteris- 
tics of  the  academy  interfered:  first,  in  spite  of  numerous 
free  or  nearly  free  scholarships,  etc.,  the  burden  of  expense 
fell  on  the  pupil  or  his  parents  rather  than  on  the  public; 
secondly,  since  academies  were  located  more  according  to 
the  choice  or  whim  of  the  founders  and  were  in  part  "board- 
ing "  schools,  attendance  at  them  was  determined  as  much 
by  their  accessibility  as  by  need  and  desire.  This  again 
affected  the  matter  of  expense.  (4)  While  the  academy  did 
much  to  pave  the  way  for  the  later  public  high  school,  both 
by  establishing  a  form  of  organization,  curriculum,  etc., 
and  by  preparing  the  mind  of  the  public  for  extensive 
secondary  education,  it  also  constituted  the  greatest  impedi- 
ment to  the  early  development  of  a  really  public  secondary 
school.  Though  the  high-school  movement  started  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
its  victory  over  the  private  school  and  academy  was  not 


184      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

complete  until  the  end  of  the  century,  if  indeed  it  has  yet 
fulfilled  its  destiny  in  that  respect. 

In  this  connection  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  practically 
every  new  movement  in  secondary  education  has  begun  in 
some  private  or  semi-private  institution  and  only  gradually 
has  been  adopted  by  the  public  high  school.  Instances 
of  this  may  be  found  in  the  manual  training  movement 
commercial  education,  vocational  education  and  vocational 
guidance,  the  six-year  high-school  plan,  and  other  move- 
ments. 

With  the  development  of  the  public  secondary  school, 
many  academies  were  absorbed  into  the  public  system,  a 
few  grew  into  colleges  or  other  higher  institutions,  and 
many  died  through  lack  of  support,  high-school  competi- 
tion, or  for  other  reasons.  The  lessening  importance  of  the 
academy  and  the  private  school  and  the  increasing  impor- 
tance of  the  public  high  school  during  the  past  quarter- 
century  are  best  considered  in  connection  with  the  history 
of  the  public  high-school  movement.  In  passing,  however, 
it  may  be  noted  that  non-sectarian  private  secondary 
schools  (including  academies)  have  decreased  from  1182 
schools  with  57,385  pupils  in  1895-96  to  662  schools  with 
51,215  pupils  hi  1914-15,  while  sectarian  secondary  schools 
maintained  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  have  increased 
from  271  schools  with  11,728  pupils  in  1895-96  to  975 
schools  with  56,182  pupils  in  1914-15.  Other  sectarian 
secondary  schools  have  increased  but  slightly. 

| 

III.  THE  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL 

61.  Secondary  education  in  the  early  nineteenth  century. 
Of  the  colonial  Latin  grammar  schools  a  few  only  had  sur- 
vived the  educational  decline  in  public  education  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  extension  of  the  district  system, 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        185 

and  the  rapid  development  of  the  academy  in  the  late 
eighteenth  century.  Here  and  there,  particularly  in  New 
England,  a  few  of  the  grammar  schools  survived.  The 
Boston  Public  Latin  School  renewed  its  power  with  impor- 
tant modifications  under  the  able  administration  of  Gould 
(1814-28)  and  several  other  Latin  grammar  schools  con- 
tinued to  flourish.  However,  the  demands  of  society  after 
the  birth  of  the  new  nation  had  forever  relegated  the  Latin 
grammar  school  as  a  general  public  secondary  school  to  the 
history  of  the  past.  The  institution  which  had  replaced  it 
met  some  of  the  newer  conceptions  of  education,  but  the 
academy  was  essentially  a  non-public  or  at  best  but  a  quasi- 
public  institution  which  could  not  satisfy  the  ideals  of  a 
thoroughly  public  secondary  school.  Hence  there  was  need 
for  a  new  type  of  secondary  school  which  should  involve 
the  newer  conceptions  of  the  aims  and  methods  of  secondary 
education  as  exemplified  in  the  academy  and  at  the  same 
time  fulfill  the  requirements  of  a  public  institution.  This 
idea  was  especially  strong  in  Massachusetts  and  its  accom- 
plishment there  marked  the  beginning  of  the  high  school 
in  America. 

62.  The  English  Classical  (High)  School  of  Boston.  Sen- 
timent for  this  type  of  secondary  school  first  bore  fruit  in 
Boston  where  the  English  Classical  School  was  founded  in 
1821.  The  aim  of  those  who  advocated  this  school  is  indi- 
cated in  the  report  of  a  sub-committee  which  had  been 
appointed  to  consider  the  question  of  its  establishment: 

The  mode  of  education  now  adopted,  and  the  branches  of  knowl- 
edge that  are  taught  at  our  English  grammar  schools  are  not  suffi- 
ciently extensive  nor  otherwise  calculated  to  bring  the  powers  of  the 
mind  into  operation  nor  to  qualify  a  youth  to  fill  usefully  and  re- 
spectably many  of  the  stations,  both  public  and  private,  in  which 
he  may  be  placed.  A  parent  who  wishes  to  give  a  child  an  educa- 
tion that  shall  fit  him  for  active  life,  and  shall  serve  as  a  foundation 
for  eminence  in  his  profession,  whether  mercantile  or  mechanical, 


186      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

is  under  the  necessity  of  giving  him  a  different  education  from  any 
which  our  public  schools  can  now  furnish.  Hence,  many  children 
are  separated  from  their  parents  and  sent  to  private  academies  in 
this  vicinity,  to  acquire  that  instruction  which  cannot  be  obtained 
at  the  public  seminaries.1 

Its  aim  was  further  stated  in  the  Regulations  of  the  School 
Committee  for  1833: 

It  was  instituted  in  1821,  with  the  design  of  furnishing  the  young 
men  of  the  city  who  are  not  intended  for  a  collegiate  course  of  study, 
and  who  have  enjoyed  the  usual  advantages  of  the  other  public 
schools,  with  the  means  of  completing  a  good  English  education  to 
fit  them  for  active  life  or  qualify  them  for  eminence  in  private  or 
public  station.2 

Here  it  is  to  be  noted  that  while  the  conception  of  college 
preparation  as  a  function  of  secondary  education  was  still 
held  (and  exemplified  in  Boston  in  the  Public  Latin  School 
which  still  continued)  there  was  introduced  in  public  sec- 
ondary education  the  conception  that  another  function  was 
also  involved  in  secondary  education  —  that  of  providing 
training  for  boys  destined  for  other  walks  of  life,  "  whether 
mercantile  or  mechanical."  This  conception  was  in  some 
degree  reflected  in  the  first  course  of  study  in  that  school: 

First  Class:  Composition;  reading  from  the  most  approved  au- 
thors; exercises  in  criticism,  comprising  critical  analyses  of  the 
language,  grammar,  and  style  of  the  best  English  authors,  their 
errors  and  beauties;  Declamation;  Geography;  Arithmetic  con- 
tinued. 

Second  Class:  Composition,  Reading,  Exercises  in  Criticism,  Dec- 
lamation; Algebra;  Ancient  and  Modern  History  and  Chronology; 
Logic;  Geometry;  Plane  Trigonometry,  and  its  applications  to 
mensuration  of  heights  and  distances;  Navigation;  Surveying; 
Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids;  Forensic  Discussions. 

1  Report  of  the  Sub-Committee  quoted  in  Catalogue  of  the  English  High 
School,  Boston,  1890.   Also  quoted  by  Brown,  E.  E.,  The  Making  of  Our 
Middle  Schools,  p.  299. 

2  Regulations  of  the  School  Committee  (1833),  pp.  14-16. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        187 

Third  Class:  Composition;  Exercises  in  Criticism;  Declamation; 
Mathematics;  Logic;  History,  particularly  that  of  the  United 
States;  Natural  Philosophy,  including  Astronomy;  Moral  and  Po- 
litical Philosophy.1 

In  this  course  of  study  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  Boston 
school  took  over  the  newer  subjects  of  study  from  the  acad- 
emy, that  great  emphasis  was  placed  on  the  study  of  Eng- 
lish, and  that  an  attempt  was  made  to  provide  a  certain 
amount  of  "vocational  education."  The  practical  side  of 
secondary  education  found  manifestation  in  the  study  of 
English,  in  the  mathematics  to  a  certain  degree,  in  naviga- 
tion, surveying  (important  in  those  days  in  New  England), 
and  in  the  sciences.  This  tendency  was  furthered  in  the 
course  of  study  for  1823-24  when  bookkeeping,  "by  single 
and  double  entry,"  "elements  of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  and 
"Practical  Mathematics"  were  added  to  the  program  of 
studies,  together  with  Natural  Theology,  Sacred  Geography, 
and  Evidences  of  Christianity  —  "vocational"  and  "moral" 
training  at  the  beginning  of  the  high-school  movement. 

The  school  was  first  called  "The  English  Classical  School." 
The  name  "English  High  School"  occurs  first  in  the  records 
of  the  Boston  School  Committee  of  June  23,  1824,  and  the 
term  was  in  common  use  until  1832.  In  that  year  the 
original  name  was  restored  only  to  be  changed  once  more 
in  1833  when  the  name  "English  High  School"  was  for- 
mally adopted. 

63.  The  Girls'  High  School  of  Boston.  The  secondary 
education  of  girls  had  been  begun  in  the  academy  during 
the  last  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  first  public 
institution  for  the  secondary  education  of  girls  was  that 
established  in  Boston  in  1826.  Its  character  may  be  seen 
from  the  course  of  study  adopted:2 

1  Report  of  the  Sub-Committee,  mentioned  i»  note  1. 
1  The  High  School  for  Girls,  Boston:  An  Account  (February,  1826). 
pp.  12-13. 


188      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

First  Year 

Required:  No.  1.  Reading. .  .2.  Spelling. .  .3.  Writing  words  and 
sentences  from  dictation. .  .4.  English  Grammar  with  exercises 
in  the  same. .  .5.  Composition. .  .6.  Modern  and  Ancient  Geog- 
raphy... 7.  Intellectual  and  written  arithmetic. .  .8.  Rheto- 
ric... 9.  History  of  the  United  States. 

Allowed:  Logic,  or  Botany. 

Second  Year 

Required:  Nos.  1,  2,  5,  6,  7,  8,  continued. .  .10.  Bookkeeping  by 
single  entry. . .  11.  Elements  of  Geometry. . .  12.  Natural  Phil- 
osophy. . .  13.  General  History. . .  14.  History  of  England ...  15. 
Paley's  Natural  Theology. 

Allowed:  Logic,  Botany,  Demonstrative  Geometry,  Algebra, 
Latin,  or  French. 

Third  Year 

Required:  Nos.  1,  5,  12,  15,  continued. . .  16.  Astronomy... 
17.  Treatise  on  the  use  of  globes.  . .  18.  Chemistry. . .  19.  His- 
tory of  Greece.  .  .20.  History  of  Rome. . .  21.  Paley's  Evidences 
of  Christianity. 

Allowed:  Logic,  Algebra,  Principles  of  perspective,  projection  of 
maps,  Botany,  Latin  or  French. 

The  success  of  this  school  was  so  great  that  more  girls 
wished  to  enter  than  could  be  accommodated.  This  gave 
rise  to  the  necessity  of  increasing  the  facilities  for  instruction 
in  this  school  or  of  extending  the  scope  of  the  elementary 
schools  for  girls  —  the  writing  and  grammar  schools.  The 
latter  course  was  adopted  and  the  High  School  for  Girls 
passed  out  of  existence  in  1828,  not  to  be  revived  until  the 
middle  of  the  century,  when  it  was  reestablished  as  a  training 
school  for  teachers.  This  had  been  one  of  its  chief  purposes 
in  the  original  establishment. 

64.  The  Massachusetts  law  of  1827.  Six  years  after  the 
establishment  of  the  English  Classical  (High)  School  and 
the  year  following  the  establishment  of  the  High  School  for 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        189 

Girls  in  Boston  the  State  of  Massachusetts  enacted  a  law 
requiring  the  establishment  of  high  schools  throughout  the 
State.  That  law  (operative  March  10,  1827)  was  the  real 
beginning  of  the  high-school  movement  and  deserves  some- 
what extended  notice  here.  The  part  affecting  secondary 
education  directly  reads  as  follows: 

And  every  city,  town,  or  district,  containing  five  hundred  families 
or  householders,  shall  be  provided  with  such  teacher  or  teachers 
for  such  term  of  time  as  shall  be  equivalent  to  twenty-four  months, 
for  one  school  in  each  year,  and  shall  also  be  provided  with  a 
master  of  good  morals,  competent  to  instruct,  in  addition  to  the 
branches  of  learning  aforesaid,  the  history  of  the  United  States, 
bookkeeping  by  single  entry,  geometry,  surveying,  and  algebra; 
and  shall  employ  such  master  to  instruct  a  school,  in  such  city, 
town,  or  district,  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  inhabitants  thereof,  at 
least  ten  months  in  each  year,  exclusive  of  vacations,  in  such 
convenient  place,  or  alternately  at  such  places  in  such  city,  town, 
or  district,  as  the  said  inhabitants,  at  their  meeting  in  March,  or 
April,  annually  shall  determine;  and  in  every  city,  or  town,  con- 
taining four  thousand  inhabitants,  such  master  shall  be  competent 
in  addition  to  all  the  foregoing  branches,  to  instruct  the  Latin  and 
Greek  languages,  history,  rhetoric,  and  logic."  1 

In  spite  of  the  various  retroactive  measures  of  1829  (re- 
pealed 1835),  of  1840  (repealed  1848),  and  1850  (repealed 
1857),  this  law  remained  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  legisla- 
tion affecting  secondary  education  in  Massachusetts  and  a 
model  for  the  country.  Significant,  however,  were  the  pro- 
visions of  the  act  of  1857  which  changed  the  course  of  study 
so  as  to  include  algebra  and  the  history  of  the  United  States 
in  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school,  natural  philos- 
ophy, chemistry,  botany,  Latin,  and  the  civil  polity  of  Mass- 
achusetts and  of  the  United  States  in  the  curriculum  of  high 
schools  of  lower  grade  (in  towns  of  five  hundred  families), 

1  Laws  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  January  Session,  1827,  chap 
CXLIII,  sees.,  1,  19,  21,  especially. 


190     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

and  French,  astronomy,  geology,  intellectual  and  moral  sci- 
ence, and  political  economy  in  the  curriculum  of  high  schools 
of  more  than  four  thousand  inhabitants.1  After  those 
changes  no  important  modifications  were  made  in  the  high- 
school  law  until  the  revision  of  1898. 

The  term  "high  school "  does  not  appear  in  the  laws  which 
created  that  type  of  school  in  Massachusetts  until  1840. 
In  common  use,  however,  the  term  was  applied  almost  from 
the  beginning  in  1827  to  designate  the  type  of  school  referred 
to  in  the  act  of  that  year.  The  term  was  applied  indiscrim- 
inately to  schools  in  towns  of  five  hundred  families  or  those  in 
towns  of  four  thousand  inhabitants  and,  although  the  law 
distinguished  high  schools  of  two  different  types,  once  a  high 
school  was  established  it  tended  to  include  in  its  curriculum 
all  the  studies  prescribed  for  high  schools  of  higher  grade. 
Misuse  of  the  term  and  evasion  of  the  law  were,  of  course, 
frequent. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that,  while  no  specific  mention  is  made  of 
boys  and  girls  in  the  law,  except  as  they  were  included  in  the 
phrase  "for  the  benefit  of  all  the  inhabitants  thereof,"  both 
girls  and  boys  were  regularly  admitted  to  the  high  school 
from  the  very  beginning.  The  absence  of  contemporary  com- 
ment on  this  fact  indicates  how  thoroughly  the  idea  of  coedu- 
cation had  been  inculcated  through  the  academy  movement. 

65.  The  public  high  school  in  Massachusetts.  The  figures 
presented  in  the  following  table  will  fairly  indicate  the  devel- 
opment of  the  high  school  in  Massachusetts  from  the  passage 
of  the  original  law  in  1827  up  to  1865.  By  the  latter  date  the 
high  school  had  assumed  a  stable  position  in  the  State,  the 
legal  requirements  regarding  the  establishment  of  schools 
had  met  with  a  fair  degree  of  compliance,  the  list  of  subjects 

1  Acts  and  Resolves,  1857,  chap.  206,  sees.  1,  2,  3.  On  the  whole  ques- 
tion of  high-school  legislation  in  Massachusetts  see  Inglis,  A.  J.,  The  Rise  oj 
the  High  Sdiool  in  Massachusetts,  chaps,  ii-m. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        191 


to  be  taught  had  assumed  a  form  destined  to  endure  for  the 
rest  of  the  century,  the  graded-school  system  was  well  under 
way,  the  academy  had  begun  to  give  way  to  the  public  high 
school  as  the  preeminent  institution  of  secondary  education, 
and  a  favorable  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  public  toward  the 
high  school  had  been  created. 

TABLE  LXXVII.   THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN 
MASSACHUSETTS  * 


Census 

Number  re- 
quired by  law 

Established 
according  to 
law 

Percentage 
meeting  the 
law 

Established 
but  not 
required 

Total 
number 
established 

1830  

35 

3 

8.6 

0 

3 

1840  

44 

16 

36.4 

2 

18 

1850  

76 

42 

55.3 

5 

47 

1855  

120 

77 

64.2 

10 

87 

1860  

128 

86 

67.2 

16 

102 

1865  

130 

88 

68.0 

20 

108 

*  Inglis,  A.  J.,  The  Rise  of  the  High  School  in  Massachusetts,  pp.  38,  42-45. 

The  unstable  status  of  some  of  the  high  schools  established 
and  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  the  so-called  "high  schools" 
were  so  in  little  more  than  name  render  this  table  somewhat 
unreliable,  but  the  general  growth  is  obvious.  It  will  be 
noted  that  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  the  passage 
of  the  mandatory  law  for  high  schools  the  development  was 
comparatively  slow.  There  is  abundant  evidence  that  many 
factors  combined  to  interfere  with  that  development  —  the 
dominance  of  the  academy,  the  prevalence  of  the  "district 
system"  for  common  schools  involving  a  conflict  of  interest, 
control,  and  policy  between  the  "town"  high  schools  and  the 
district  common  schools,  the  difficulty  of  meeting  the  man- 
date of  the  law  in  smaller  towns  and  sparsely  populated  dis- 
tricts, the  ever-present  financial  problem,  the  various  reac- 


192     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


tionary  laws  passed  as  relief  measures  in  1829,  1840,  and 
1850,  the  lack  of  any  centralized  authority  until  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Board  of  Education  in  1837. 

The  mere  number  of  high  schools  is  not  a  good  measure  of 
their  real  effectiveness.  A  better  measure  of  the  degree  of 
their  influence  would  be  the  extent  to  which  they  served  the 
population.  The  following  table  will  give  an  indication  of 
the  situation  in  Massachusetts  in  1865. 

TABLE  LXXVIII.   DISTRIBUTION  OF  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  MASSA- 
CHUSETTS  ACCORDING   TO   POPULATION   IN    1865  * 


Population 

Percentage  of 
population 
served 

Total  population  of  State,  census  of  1865  

1,267,031 

In    towns   required   by  law    to   maintain   high 
school     

961,297 

75.9 

In  towns  required  to  maintain  high  schools  and 
meeting  the  law  

828,643 

65.2 

In  towns  required  to  maintain  high  schools  and 
not  meeting  the  law  

132,654 

10.5 

In  towns  not  required  to  maintain  high  schools  but 
doing  so  

37,238 

2.9 

Total  in  towns  maintaining  high  schools  

865,881 

68  3 

*  Inglis,  A.  J.,  op.  cit.,  p.  48. 

It  has  been  intimated  that  many  of  the  so-called  "high 
schools  "  were  not  deserving  of  that  title.  This  is  undoubt- 
edly true,  and  it  is  a  difficult  task  to  judge  the  standing  of 
some  schools.  Basing  the  estimate  on  a  study  of  almost 
every  report  of  every  town  in  Massachusetts  from  1827  to 
1865,  I  feel  safe  in  asserting  that  the  number  was  certainly 
not  less  than  sixty-three  in  1861  and  in  all  probability  was 
far  greater.  The  number  sixty-three  was  determined  from 
definite  data  preserved.1 

1  Inglis,  A.  J.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  49-51. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        193 

In  Massachusetts  the  public  high  school  fought  its  way 
successfully  against  the  academy  much  earlier  than  wap  the 
case  in  most  States.  The  following  table  presents  data 
showing  the  status  of  the  academy  and  the  high  school  in 
Massachusetts,  where  the  high  school  first  developed,  and 
in  New  York,  where  the  academy  gained  its  firmest  foot- 
hold. 


TABLE  LXXIX.   GROWTH  OF  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AND  OF  THE 
ACADEMY  IN  MASSACHUSETTS  AND  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE* 


Massachusetts 

New  Yolk 

Period 

High  schools 
established 

Academies 
incorporated 

High  schools 
established 

Academies 
incorporated 

Period 

Total 

Period 

Total 

Period 

Total 

Period 

Total 

Before  1820.. 

36 

52 

1820-1840.  .  . 

18 

18 

78 

112 

10 

10 

176 

228 

1840-1860.  .  . 

94 

102 

30 

142 

31 

41 

183 

411 

*  Cf.  Inglis,  A.  J.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  11,  46,  155. 


66.  The  high-school  movement  in  the  United  States. 
With  a  few  exceptions  the  high  schools  of  this  country  owe 
their  basis  in  aim,  theory,  and  practice  to  the  high  school 
first  created  and  earliest  developed  in  Massachusetts.  For 
the  first  fifteen  or  twenty  years  after  the  beginning  of  the 
movement  progress  was  slow.  Previous  to  1840  not  more 
than  eighteen  high  schools  had  been  established  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  probably  a  less  number  outside  that  State. 
Within  the  next  two  decades  (1840-1860)  the  movement 
spread  rather  rapidly,  especially  in  Massachusetts,  Ohio,  and 
New  York.  Next  to  Massachusetts,  Ohio  seems  to  have  led 


194      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

in  the  establishment  of  high  schools,  and  the  growth  of  the 
high  school  in  that  State  is  of  particular  interest.  The  move- 
ment there  began  with  the  establishment  of  the  Central 
High  Schools  in  Cleveland  and  Columbus  in  1846.  For  the 
period  up  to  1860  the  State  Commissioner  reported  as 
follows:  l 

There  were  few,  if  any,  High  Schools  in  the  State  fifteen  years 
ago:  and  not  more  than  twenty  when  our  general  school  law  was 
anacted  in  1853.  Since  1855  they  have  increased  from  91  to  161, 
being  an  average  increase  of  12  per  annum.  During  that  time  the 
teachers  in  these  schools  have  increased  from  196  to  319  and  the 
pupils  from  7522  to  13,183. 

Numerous  estimates  have  been  made  of  the  number  of 
public  high  schools  established  and  maintained  in  various 
parts  of  the  country  for  the  period  from  the  founding  of  the 
English  Classical  (High)  School  in  Boston  up  to  the  year 
1889-90  when  the  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education  began  to  give  some  data.  None  of  those  esti- 
mates appears  to  be  very  reliable.  Commissioner  Harris  esti- 
mated the  number  of  high  schools  in  operation  in  the  United 
States  in  1870  at  about  160  and  those  in  operation  in  1880 
as  about  800. 2  Those  figures  are  undoubtedly  a  gross  under- 
estimate, but  how  much  so  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge.  Dexter  has  analysed  the 
data  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education 
for  1902  to  determine  the  number  and  distribution  of  the 
3,179  public  high  schools  reporting  to  the  Department  of 
Education  the  dates  of  their  establishment.  His  table  is 
reproduced  on  the  following  page. 

1  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Ohio  State  Commissioner  of  Common  Schools 
(1860),  p.  45.   Cf.  also  Inglis,  A.  J.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  156-57. 

2  Harris,  W.  T.,  "The  Growth  of  the  Public  High  Schools  in  the  United 
States,"  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association  (1901),  p.  174. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        195 


TABLE  LXXX.    ESTABLISHMENT  OF  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS  BY 
DECADES  IN  THE  VARIOUS  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  COUNTRY* 


Decades 

North 
Atlantic 

South 
Atlantic 

South 
Central 

North 
Central 

Western 

Total 

1820-1829  

6 

1 

7 

1830-1839  

10 

1 

1 

2 

14 

1840-1849  

27 

4 

3 

9 

43 

1850-1859  

67 

1 

5 

34 

1 

108 

1860-1869  

60 

7 

3 

103 

4 

177 

1870-1879  

121 

25 

27 

298 

8 

479 

1880-1889  

142 

47 

103 

508 

29 

829 

1890-1899  

318 

91 

161 

595 

155 

1320 

1900-1902  

31 

17 

30 

93 

31 

202 

Total  to  1902.  . 

782 

193 

334 

1642 

228 

3179 

*  Dexter,  E.  G.,  A  History  of  Education  in  the  United  States,  pp.  172-73.  Cf.  also  Inglis, 
A.  J.,  op.  cit.,  p.  155. 

Although  these  figures  are  without  exactness,  they  are 
io  be  considered  as  an  underestimate  rather  than  as  too 
great  and  indicate  the  rapidity  of  the  development  of  the 
high  school  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  same  criticism  applies  to  the  figures  given  in  Table 
LXXXI  illustrating  the  development  of  the  high  school  up 
to  1915.  The  nearer  we  come  to  the  present  the  more  reliable 
the  figures  become. 

With  all  due  allowance  for  the  inaccuracies  in  the  data 
available  and  the  difficulties  of  interpreting  conditions, 
we  may  be  justified  in  saying  that  the  period  from  1821  to 
about  1870  represents  the  period  of  the  beginning  of  the 
high  school  movement  for  the  country  at  large,  the  period 
of  about  1870  to  1890  the  period  of  growth  and  development, 
and  the  period  from  about  1890  to  the  present  the  period  of 
the  dominance  of  the  public  high  school  in  the  field  of 
secondary  education. 


196      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  LXXXI.   GROWTH  OF  THE  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOL, 
1890-1915* 


Year 

Schools 

Teachers 

Students 

1890-1891  

2,771 

8,270 

211,596 

1895-1896  

4,974 

15,700 

380,493 

1900-1901  

6,318 

21,778 

541,730 

1905-1906  

8,031 

30,844 

722,692 

1910-1911  

10,234 

45,167 

984,677 

1913-1914  

11,515 

57,909 

1,218,804 

1914-1915  

11,674 

62,519 

1,328,984 

*  Figures  taken  from  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916), 
vol.  n,  p.  449. 

67.  The  public  high  school  and  the  academy.  The  devel- 
opment of  the  academy  and  its  dominance  in  the  field  of 
secondary  education  in  this  country  until  well  into  the  last 
half,  or  even  the  last  quarter,  of  the  nineteenth  century  have 
been  outlined  earlier  in  this  chapter.  That  secondary  schools 
established  and  controlled  by  private  individuals  or  cor- 
porations, more  or  less  supported  by  public  funds,  threat- 
ened to  become  the  controlling  type  of  secondary  school 
in  the  United  States  is  obvious  from  the  data  previously 
presented.  This  tendency  the  public  high  school  was  forced 
to  combat  and  for  more  than  half  a  century  the  outcome  of 
the  public  high-school  movement  was  dubious.  However, 
by  the  middle  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century 
we  find  the  high  school  well  in  the  lead  and  its  ultimate 
victory  over  the  academy  and  private  high  school  well 
assured.  The  situation  since  that  time  is  illustrated  by  the 
figures  in  Table  LXXXIL 

With  all  due  allowance  for  the  incompleteness  and  inac- 
curacy of  the  returns  made  to  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion (especially  for  the  earlier  years),  the  growing  influence 
of  the  public  high  school  and  its  dominance  over  the  private 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        197 


TABLE  LXXXII.   THE  RELATIVE  PROGRESS  OF  PUBLIC  Ain> 
PRIVATE  HIGH  SCHOOLS,  1889-1915* 


Year 

Per  cent  of  number 
of  schools 

Per  cent  of  number 
of  teachers 

Per  cent  of  number 
of  pupils 

Public 

Private 

Public 

Private 

Public 

Private 

1889-1890  

60.75 
68.37 
75.22 
82.32 
85.15 
83.85 

39.25 
31.63 

24.78 
17.68 
14.85 
16.15 

55.85 
62.26 
66.82 
74.29 
78.90 
81.68 

44.15 
37.74 
33.18 
25.71 
21.10 
18.32 

68.13 

74.74 
82.41 
86.38 
88.63 
89.55 

31.87 
25.26 
17.59 
13.62 
11.37 
10.45 

1894-1895  

1899-1900  

1904-1905  

1909-1910..  

1914-1915  

*  Report  oj  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  u,  p.  449. 

secondary  school  is  evident.  There  must  always  be  some 
place  for  the  private  secondary  school,  and  it  is  doubtful  that 
the  present  status  will  ever  greatly  change.  An  extension  of 
public  supervision  over  privately  controlled  schools  is  prob- 
ably the  next  step  rather  than  any  form  of  repression  or 
complete  control  on  the  part  of  the  State.  Since  the  public 
school  must  always  determine  its  policy  in  terms  of  the 
larger  group,  some  small  proportion  of  children  will  always 
receive  better  educational  opportunities  in  the  smaller 
private  school  than  in  the  public  system.  This  fact,  together 
with  the  facts  that  the  complete  exclusion  of  religion  from  the 
public  school  leads  to  the  establishment  of  sectarian  schools, 
and  that  educational  experimentation  is  commonly  more 
easily  conducted  in  the  private  school,  will  doubtless  encour- 
age the  continuance  of  non-public  secondary  schools. 

68.  State  systems  of  secondary  education.  In  the  United 
States  there  exists  no  Federal  power  or  administrative  ma- 
chinery, such  as  is  found  in  some  countries,  whereby  the 
centralized  control  or  supervision  of  secondary  schools  can 


198      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDAEY  EDUCATION 

be  developed.  Control  over  secondary  education  as  over 
other  forms  of  secondary  education  is  left  to  the  several 
States.  Some  States  have  exercised  that  power  extensively: 
other  States  have  left  the  control  of  secondary  education 
almost  entirely  to  local  school  authorities.  As  a  result  there 
is  found  little  uniformity  in  practice,  and  gross  inequalities 
in  educational  opportunity  are  obvious.  It  has  already 
been  shown  that  from  the  passage  of  the  law  of  1647  second- 
ary schools  in  Massachusetts  have  been  more  or  less  con- 
trolled by  the  State.  By  the  passage  of  the  law  of  1827 
Massachusetts  compelled  the  establishment  of  public  high 
schools  which  were  required  to  meet  very  specific  demands 
as  to  curriculum,  length  of  school  year,  etc.,  to  that  extent 
providing  for  a  State  system  of  secondary  education.  Not 
until  1902,  however,  did  the  State  share  directly  in  the  sup- 
port of  public  secondary  education.  An  anomalous  situation 
arose  in  the  early  part  of  the  high-school  movement  when 
the  State  lent  financial  support  to  private  academies,  while 
requiring  communities  to  maintain  high  schools,  but  not 
sharing  in  the  support  of  them. 

In  other  States  comprehensive  schemes  for  the  State 
organization  of  all  education,  including  the  coordination 
of  secondary  schools  with  other  divisions  of  education,  were 
elaborated  before  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  or  in 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  although  the  actual 
carrying-out  of  proposed  schemes  failed  or  was  developed 
later.  Thus,  in  1779  Jefferson  presented  a  bill  to  the  Legis- 
lature of  Virginia  which  provided  for  elementary  schools  in 
each  district  in  the  State  five  or  six  miles  square,  for  coordi- 
nated grammar  schools  at  twenty  centers  in  the  State,  and 
for  the  articulation  of  those  schools  with  William  and  Mary 
College.  Some  of  his  proposals  were  incorporated  in  the 
law  of  1796,  but  the  scheme  as  a  whole  was  not  put  into 
operation. 


SECONDAEY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        199 

In  1784  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York  was 
established  and  by  1787  it  had  assumed  the  fundamental 
characteristics  of  its  present  form.  The  University  provided 
an  elaborate  form  of  control  and  supervision  over  all  second- 
ary schools  and  most  of  the  higher  institutions  of  the  State. 
It  did  not  originally  provide  for  careful  articulation  between 
the  elementary  school  and  the  academy,  in  part  because  of 
the  then  existing  emphasis  on  secondary  education,  and  in 
part  because  at  that  time  much  of  the  present-day  elemen- 
tary education  was  provided  in  the  academy.  Practically 
from  the  beginning  assistance  was  rendered  by  the  State  to 
secondary  education,  and  in  1813  a  permanent  "Literature 
Fund  "  was  established  which  has  always  been  applied  wholly 
to  the  support  of  secondary  education.  The  University  plan 
was  adopted  in  Georgia  in  1785  in  the  Territory  of  New 
Orleans,  in  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1817,  and  the 
scheme  may  be  traced  in  other  States. 

While  the  development  of  State  systems  of  secondary 
schools  began  in  the  legal  mandate  of  Massachusetts  in 
1647,  its  progress  has  been  more  favorable  where  State 
support  has  been  stressed  instead  of  legal  mandate  and 
where  control  and  supervision  has  been  gained  in  large  part 
through  the  granting  or  withholding  of  public  State  funds. 
In  some  States  there  has  never  been  any  legal  mandate  re- 
quiring the  establishment  of  public  high  schools  and  then* 
development  has  been  secured  wholly  or  almost  wholly  by 
State  aid  encouraging  local  interest  and  support.  Appar- 
ently the  first  example  of  a  law  providing  for  the  appropria- 
tion of  State  funds  to  aid  high  schools  (though  the  practice 
of  granting  aid  through  gifts  of  State  money  and  land  had 
grown  up  with  the  academy  movement)  was  the  act  of  the 
Legislature  of  Maine  in  1871,  which  provided  that  the  State 
should  pay  annually  an  amount  equal  to  that  raised  by 
local  taxation  for  a  high  school,  that  amount,  however,  not 


200     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

to  exceed  in  any  one  case  $500.  A  somewhat  similar  pro- 
vision was  made  in  Wisconsin  in  1875,  in  Minnesota  in  1878, 
and  later  in  many  other  States.  At  the  present  time  some 
form  of  State  aid  is  provided  in  practically  every  Common- 
wealth, although  the  source  of  such  funds,  their  amounts, 
and  the  forms  of  their  distribution  vary  widely.1  Especially 
noteworthy  has  been  the  tendency  to  encourage  vocational 
education  by  the  granting  of  State  aid. 

The  fact  that  in  most  States  legislation  affecting  the  es- 
tablishment and  maintenance  of  public  high  schools  during 
the  earlier  period  was  permissive  rather  than  mandatory  and 
the  fact  that  in  some  States  no  provision  had  been  made, 
gave  rise  early  to  the  question  of  the  legal  right  on  the  part 
of  communities  and  States  to  raise  and  appropriate  money 
derived  from  taxation  for  the  support  of  high  schools.  The 
issue  was  finally  settled  in  the  affirmative  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Michigan  in  the  so-called  Kalamazoo  High  School 
Case  and  that  decision  became  the  legal  precedent.2 


NOTE:  Consideration  of  many  special  phases  of  the  later  de- 
velopment of  secondary  education  is  deferred.  Such  problems  as 
the  historical  relation  of  the  secondary  school  and  the  college,  the 
historical  relation  between  elementary  and  secondary  education, 
the  historical  development  of  various  studies,  the  historical  de- 
velopment of  the  curriculum  organization,  and  like  topics  are 
considered  in  appropriate  later  sections. 

1  On  the  whole  matter  of  State  aid  for  secondary  education  see:  Cubber- 
ley,  E.  P.,  School  Funds  and  Their  Apportionment;  Snyder,  E.  R.,   The 
Legal  Status  of  Rural  High  Schools;  Hanger,  J.  H.,  "  The  Legal  Status  of  the 
High  School,"  chap,  in  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  The  Modern  High  School. 

2  30  Michigan  69. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA        *Ul 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  Trace  the  legal  status  of  the  secondary  school  in  America. 

2.  Trace  the  development  of  local  or  State  control  of  secondary  education 
in  America. 

3.  In  what  ways  did  the  academy  movement  affect  secondary  education  in 
America? 

4.  Trace  the  development  of  secondary  school  controlled  or  maintained  by 
religious  denominations  in  America  during  the  past  two  decades.   (Cf. 
Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1895-96   to 
1916.) 

5.  Trace  the  development  of  non-academic  subjects  in  the  secondary- 
schcol  curriculum. 

6.  Trace  changes  in  the  methods  of  teaching  subjects  in  the  secondary 
school  as  indicated  by  the  textbooks  employed.   (Cf.  Inglis,  A.  J.,  The 
Rise  of  the  High  School  in  Massachusetts,  chap,  vi.) 

7.  Trace  the  development  of  the  academy  in  any  one  State. 

8.  Trace  the  development  of  the  high  school  in  any  one  State. 

9.  Trace  the  development  of  rural  high  schools  in  any  one  State. 

10.  Trace  the  development  of  State  aid  to  secondary  education  in  the 
United  States. 

11.  Consider  any  one  problem  in  present-day  secondary  education  and 
trace  its  history. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 
Boone,  R.  G.,  Education  in  the  United  States,  especially  chaps,  i,  in,  v,  XV, 

XIX,  XXI. 

Brown,  E.  E.,  The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools. 

Davis,  C.  O.,  Public  Secondary  Education. 

Dexter,  E.  G.,  A  History  of  Education  in  the  United  States,  especially  chaps* 
i-xiv. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  Documents  Illustrative  of  American  Educational  History. 

Inglis,  A.  J.,  The  Rise  of  the  High  School  in  Massachusetts. 

Jones,  D.  R.,  State  Aid  to  Secondary  Schools,  University  of  California  Pub- 
lications; Education,  vol.  3,  no.  2,  pp.  47-150. 

Lull,  H.  G.,  Inherited  Tendencies  of  Secondary  Instruction  in  the  United 
States,  University  of  California  Publications;  Education,  vol.  3,  no.  3, 
pp.  155-281. 

Monroe,  P.,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  n. 

Philbrick,  J.  D.,  City  School  Systems  in  the  United  States,  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion Circulars  of  Information  (1885),  no.  1,  especially  pp.  22-32,  35-37, 
69-89. 

Small,  W.  H.,  "The  New  England  Grammar  School,"  School  Review,  voL 
x,  pp.  513-31;  vol.  xiv,  pp.  42-56. 


202      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Snyder,  E.  R.f  The  Legal  Status  of  Rural  High  Schools. 

Smith,  F.  W.,  The  High  School;  A  Study  of  Origins  and  Tendencies. 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Reports. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Circulars  of  Information.    Several 

numbers  contain  the  history  of  education  in  various  States. 
Monroe,  P.,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  articles  on  Grammar  School,  Academy, 

High  School,  etc. 

Extended  bibliography:  Brown  E.  E.,  The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools, 
pp.  481-518  (to  1905) ;  Smith,  F.  W.,  The  High  School;  A  Study  of  Origins 
and  Tendencies,  pp.  443^451  (to  1916). 


CHAPTER  VI 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

69.  The  comparative  study  of  secondary  education.  The 
comparative  study  of  institutions  for  secondary  education 
in  different  countries  is  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of 
evaluating  theories  and  practices  in  any  one  country.  To 
the  student  of  secondary  education  in  America  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  organization  of  secondary  education  in  foreign 
countries  is  of  value  for  a  number  of  reasons. 

(1)  The  person  familiar  with  but  a  single  type  of  institu- 
tion tends  constantly  to  think  in  terms  of  that  institution 
only,  fails  to  recognize  the  existence  of  many  problems  in- 
volved in  that  institution,  and  lacks  a  basis  for  intelligent 
comparison  of  institutions  of  different  types  designed  to 
accomplish  somewhat  like  and  somewhat  different  purposes. 
A  basis  for  the  valuation  of  theories  and  practices  in  Ameri- 
can secondary  education  is  provided  through  the  study  of 
theories  and  practices  obtaining  in  other  countries. 

(2)  Dominant  social  ideals  and  the  form  of  social  organi- 
zation differ  in  different  countries,  and  the  aims  and  organ- 
ization of  secondary  education  should  vary  accordingly. 
Nevertheless  certain  fundamental  social  ideals  are  much  the 
same  in  all  countries  and  in  all  cases  secondary  education 
has  some  common  purposes.    A  study  of  the  various  ways  in 
which  secondary  education  is  organized  to  achieve  those 
common  ends  is  suggestive  of  fundamental  theories  and 
practices  for  the  student  of  secondary  education  in  America 
or  any  other  country. 

(3)  Many  specific  problems  of  theory  and  practice  in- 
volved in  secondary  education  in  America  at  the  present 


204      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

time  have  in  part  originated  in  Europe.  Instances  may  be 
found  in  connection  with  vocational  education,  continuation 
schools,  methods  of  teaching  foreign  languages,  economy  of 
time  in  education,  the  earlier  beginning  of  secondary  edu- 
cation, etc.  The  development  of  many  of  these  movements 
cannot  be  understood  adequately  without  some  knowledge 
of  conditions  affecting  secondary  education  in  certain 
European  countries. 

(4)  From  time  to  time  proposals  are  made  for  the  adop- 
tion in  America  of  certain  practices  found  in  other  countries. 
In  some  cases  those  proposals  are  worthy  of  serious  consid- 
eration. In  other  cases  foreign  practice  is  itself  misunder- 
stood by  those  who  advocate  changes  in  America,  or  is  so 
conditioned  by  factors  peculiar  to  some  one  country  that  its 
adoption  in  America  would  be  a  gross  mistake.  The  student 
of  secondary  education  who  is  unacquainted  with  social  and 
educational  conditions  in  other  important  countries  is  at  a 
disadvantage  when  called  on  to  estimate  the  merits  and 
defects  of  such  proposals. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  provide  some  basis  for 
the  comparative  study  of  secondary  education.  Space  avail- 
able limits  the  number  of  secondary-school  systems  which 
can  be  considered  and  the  amount  of  consideration  which 
can  be  given  to  secondary  education  in  any  one  country. 
Attention  will  be  confined,  therefore,  to  secondary  educa- 
tion in  Germany,  France,  and  England  —  countries  which 
are  most  suggestive  to  the  student  of  secondary  education 
in  America. 

70.  Purview  of  secondary  education  in  other  countries. 
In  different  countries  the  organization  of  education  is  so 
varied  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  general  statements 
concerning  the  institutions  for  secondary  education.  In 
many  foreign  countries  two  or  more  systems  of  education 
run  somewhat  parallel,  separated  by  lines  of  social  or 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


205 


TABLE  LXXXIII.    STATISTICS  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS* 


Countries 

Year  of 
report 

Types  of  secondary  schools 

Schools 

Pupils 

Austria-Hungary  . 

1910-11 

484 

162,796 

Realschulen  

189 

62,508 

Gymnasia  for  girls  (Austria  only)  

24 

3,254 

Total  

697 

228,550 

35 

8,323 

90 

19,765 

44 

10,104 

Middle-class  normal  schools  

4 

209 

Total  

173 

38,401 

Bulgaria  

1911-12 

Gymnasia  

47 

16,487 

Lower  middle  schools  

316 

55,512 

Special  technical  and  other  schools  

155 

9,492 

Total  

518 

81,492 

Denmark  

1910-11 

State  schools  

12 

2,878 

Private  Latin  schools  

39 

9,860 

Private  Realskole  

126 

17,815 

Total  

177 

30,553 

France  

1913 

Lycees  for  boys  

112 

82,879 

Communal  colleges  

231 

37,324 

Secondary  schools  for  girls  

193 

38,358 

Total  

536 

138,561 

Germany  

1911 

Gymnasia  

524 

160,237 

223 

70,357 

167 

75,832 

Girls'  Gymnasia  

39 

22,137 

Total  

953 

328,563 

Italy  

1912-13 

Ginnasi  

553 

49  784 

Licei  

239 

15,136 

Total  

792 

64,920 

1913-14 

33 

2  817 

Middle-class  schools  

105 

15,807 

Total   

138 

18  624 

1910-11 

338 

31  399 

1911-12 

89 

19  71C 

1913 

31 

10  401 

1912 

393 

137  594 

276 

76  971 

Gymnasia  for  girls  

779 

292,353 

Total  

1448 

506  918 

1915 

59 

33  071 

1914 

77 

24  364 

1912 

84 

17  266 

1913-14 

316 

131  242 

High  schools  for  girls  

328 

82,474 

Total  

644 

13716 

*  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  i,  pp.  67-1-75. 


£06      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

economic  cleavage.  In  few  countries  other  than  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  Japan  is  secondary  education  se- 
quentially related  to  elementary  education.  Nevertheless 
Table  LXXXIII  may  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  con- 
sideration of  secondary  education  in  other  countries.  The 
reader  is  warned  that  in  no  country  can  the  character  of 
secondary  education  and  its  scope  be  appraised  accurately 
from  the  data  given. 

Secondary  schools  in  the  countries  of  Continental  Europe 
are  for  the  most  part  modeled  on  the  type  of  the  German 
Gymnasium  and  Realschule  or  on  the  type  of  the  French 
lycee,  so  that  the  more  extended  consideration  given  to  the 
schools  of  Prussia  and  of  France  in  later  sections  will  illus- 
trate the  general  principles  of  organization  and  education 
in  many  other  countries  of  Continental  Europe.  Secondary 
education  in  England  is  of  a  noticeably  different  character 
than  that  of  Continental  Europe  and  will  be  given  separate 
attention. 


I.  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  PRUSSIA 

71.  The  organization  of  school  systems  in  Prussia. 
The  German  Empire  comprises  a  number  of  more  or  less 
independent  States  (kingdoms,  grand  duchies,  principali- 
ties, etc.),  each  of  which  controls  its  own  system  of  education. 
In  this  respect  the  situation  in  Germany  is  somewhat  the 
same  as  in  the  United  States,  where  each  State  has  entire 
control  over  its  system  of  schools.  However,  since  Prussia 
has  about  two  thirds  of  the  population  of  the  German  Em- 
pire, includes  approximately  two  thirds  of  the  total  area,  and 
has  assumed  a  commanding  lead  in  educational  matters  as 
well  as  in  most  political  matters,  the  treatment  of  educa- 
tion in  Germany  given  in  the  following  sections  will  deal 
specifically  with  the  Prussian  schools  as  the  type,  with  occa- 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  207 

sional  references  to  differing  conditions  found  in  other 
States  of  the  Empire. 

Although  there  is  no  centralized  system  of  educational 
control  in  the  Empire  as  a  whole,  the  administration  is  rather 
highly  centralized  in  separate  States.  Thus,  in  Prussia  the 
central  authority  is  vested  in  the  Minister  of  Religious  and 
Educational  Affairs  who  is  responsible  to  the  King  alone. 
In  the  ministry  under  his  charge  are  three  departments,  one 
for  religious  affairs  and  two  for  educational  affairs  —  com- 
mon schools  and  higher  schools  being  controlled  by  different 
departments.  In  each  of  the  twelve  provinces  which  com- 
pose the  Prussian  Kingdom  is  a  provincial  school  board 
having  almost  entire  charge  of  all  higher  schools  within  the 
province.  Through  the  department  for  higher  schools  in  the 
State  Ministry,  through  the  provincial  boards,  and  through 
the  examining  commissions,  the  centralized  State  control  of 
higher  schools  is  practically  complete.  The  result  is  a  system 
of  standardized  higher  schools  throughout  the  Kingdom  of 
Prussia,  manifesting  a  degree  of  uniformity  in  organization, 
administration,  curricula,  and  all  other  matters,  which  is 
without  parallel  in  any  American  State.  Local  school  boards 
play  an  insignificant  role  in  the  control  of  higher  schools. 
Municipalities  may  assume  the  initiative  in  the  establish- 
ment of  their  own  schools,  but  in  such  case  they  must  con- 
form to  the  regulations  of  the  provincial  boards.  They  may 
decide  what  type  of  school  shall  be  established,  but  once 
established  the  school  must  conform  in  every  way  to  the 
minimum  requirements  set.  Local  authorities  may  select 
their  own  teachers,  but  the  selection  must  be  made  from  a 
list  of  eligibles  prepared  by  the  higher  authorities.  In  all 
cases  the  action  of  the  local  boards  is  determined  by  stand- 
ards set  up  by  higher  authorities,  and  once  the  school  is 
established  little  is  left  for  the  local  authorities  except  to  see 
that  the  work  of  the  school  f  ulfills  the  demands  set  by  State 


208      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

and  provincial  officers  and  see  that  bills  are  paid.  Their 
control  over  the  professional  side  of  the  work  of  the  school 
is  nil. 

72.  The  place  of  "  higher  schools  "  in  Prussian  education. 
In  no  State  of  the  German  Empire  is  there  a  division  of 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  at  all  similar  to  that 
found  in  America.  In  Prussia  there  are  really  three  almost 
entirely  separate  systems  of  schools:  (a)  schools  for  boys 
and  girls  of  the  common  people,  of  which  the  basis  is  the 
"  People's  School "  ( Volksschule) ;  (6)  higher  schools  for  boys 
of  the  upper  classes  (Hohere  Knabenschule) ;  (c)  higher 
schools  for  girls  of  the  upper  classes  ( Hohere  Madchenschule). 
Boys  and  girls  of  the  lower  classes  enter  the  Volksschule  at 
the  age  of  six  and  continue  there  until  they  are  about  four- 
teen, after  which,  if  they  continue  their  school  education, 
they  enter  continuation  or  vocational  schools,  middle 
schools,  etc.  Boys  of  the  upper  classes  enter  the  higher 
school  proper  at  the  age  of  nine  or  ten  and  continue  there 
for  a  six-grade  course  or  a  nine-grade  course.  To  most  of 
the  higher  schools  for  boys  are  attached  three-grade  prepar- 
atory divisions  (Vorschule)  in  which  boys  are  trained  from 
the  age  of  six  to  the  age  of  nine  and  then  pass  directly  into 
the  higher  school  proper.  Theoretically  there  is  articulation 
between  the  third  grade  of  the  Volksschule  and  the  first 
grade  of  the  higher  school  for  boys.  Practically  there  is 
almost  no  articulation  between  the  systems.  Girls  of  the 
upper  classes  enter  the  Hohere  Madchenschule  at  the  age  of 
six  and  remain  there  for  twelve  or  more  years  according 
to  the  course  chosen  in  the  latter  part  of  the  school. 

A  more  detailed  description  of  the  various  higher  schools 
will  be  given  later.  From  this  preliminary  description,  how- 
ever, it  should  be  clear  that  for  different  groups  of  pupils 
in  Prussia  elementary  and  secondary  education  (in  the  Amer- 
ican sense  of  the  terms)  are  combined  in  each  of  the  three 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


209 


systems  mentioned.  No  greater  mistake  could  be  made 
(and  it  is  a  common  mistake)  than  to  confuse  the  Volksschide 
(also  called  the  Elementarschide)  with  the  elementary  school 
in  the  American  sense  of  the  term,  and  to  confuse  the 
Hohere  Schule  with  the  secondary  school  in  the  American 
sense. 

73.  Higher  schools  for  boys  in  Prussia.  Higher  schools 
for  boys  in  Prussia  are  of  three  types:  (1)  the  Gymnasium 
and  Progymnasium,  which  are  essentially  classical  schools 
of  the  older  type;  (2)  the  Realgymnasium  and  Realprogym- 


TABLE  LXXXIV. 


PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  IN  THE  PRUSSIAN 
GYMNASIUM* 


VI 

V 

IV 

UIII 

0/77 

UII 

077 

UI 

01 

Total 

Religion  

3 

4 

8 

2 
3 
8 

2 
3 
8 

2 
2 
8 
6 
2 
2 
1 
3 
2 

2 
2 
8 
6 
2 
2 
1 
3 
2 

2 
3 
7 
6 
3 
2 
1 
4) 
2$ 

2 
3 

7£ 
6f 

3 
(3 

4} 

21 

2 
3 

7f 
6) 

3 

\3 
V 

2 
3 

7l 
6j 

3 

I3 

ii 

19 
26 
68 
36 
20 
17 
9 
34 
18 
4 
8 

259 

27 
(18) 

German*  

Latin  

Greek  

French.  .  .  . 

4 

2 
2 
4 

2 

Historya  

Geography.  .  .  . 
Mathematics.  . 
Natural  science 
Writing  

2 
4 
2 
2 

2 
4 
2 
2 
2 

Drawingb.  .  . 

2 

2 

2 

Total  

25 

3 
2 

25 

3 

2 

29 

3 

(2) 

30 

3 
(2) 

30 

3 

(2) 

30 

3 

(2) 

30 

3 

(2) 

30 

3 

(2) 

30 

3 

(2) 

Gymnastics  .  .  . 
Singing0.  . 

NOTES:  a.  In  the  study  of  German  for  VI  and  V  one  hour  per  week  is  devoted  to  his- 
torical stories. 

b.  Drawing  is  optional  two  hours  per  week  each  in  U  II  to  O  I. 

c.  After  V  singing  is  required  of  those  possessing  ability  only. 

Brackets  denote  that  a  redistribution  of  time  is  permissible. 

Hebrew  and  English  are  optional  for  two  hours  per  week  in  each  of  years 

O  U  to  O  I. 

*  Lehrplane  imd  Lehraufgaben  fiir  die  hoheren  Schulen  in  Preusien  (Berlin,  1901),  pp.  5-7. 
The  six-grade  schools  have  exactly  the  same  programs  as  those  of  the  nine-grade  schook 
from  VI  to  U  IL 


nasium,  which  are  in  part  classical  and  in  part  modern;  (3) 
the  Oberrealschide  and  Realschule,  which  emphasize  modern 
studies.  The  Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium,  and  Oberreal- 
schule  are  nine-grade  schools.  The  Progymnasium,  Real- 
progymnasium,  and  Realschule  are  six-grade  schools  whose 
curricula  correspond  exactly  to  those  of  the  respective  nine- 
grade  schools.1  Boys  completing  the  six-grade  course,  if 
they  continue  their  education,  enter  the  seventh  grade  of 
the  corresponding  nine-grade  school. 

Boys  enter  the  preparatory  department  (Vorschule)  of 
the  higher  school  at  the  age  of  six  and,  after  three  years  of 
study  there,  enter  the  higher  school  proper  at  the  age  of 
nine  or  ten.  The  complete  higher  school  course  has  nine 
grades  beginning  with  Sexta  (the  lowest,  VI),  and  proceeding 

TABLE  LXXXV.   PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  m  THE  PRUSSIAN 
REALGYMNASIUM  * 


VI 

V 

IV 

U11I 

07/7 

UII 

077 

U  I 

01 

Total 

Religion  

3 
4 

8 

2 
3 
8 

2 
3 
7 
5 

2 
3 
5 
4 
3 
2 
2 
5 
2 

2 
3 
5 
4 
3 
2 
2 
5 
2 

2 
3 
4 
4 
3 
2 
1 
5 
4 

2 
3 
4 

SI 

\3 

5 
5 

2 
3 
4 

l\ 

\3 

5 
5 

2 
3 
4 
41 

3} 
(3 

1  • 
5 
5 

19 
28 
49 
29 
18 
17 
11 
42 
29 
4 
16 

German  a.  

Latin  

French  

English  

History3  

2 
2 
4 
2 

Geography  
Mathematics  .  . 
Natural  science 
Writing 

2 
4. 
2 
2 

2 
4 

2 
2 
2 

Drawing  

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Total  

25 

25 

29 

30 

30 

30 

31 

31 

31 

262 

N 

NOTES:  a.  Music  and  gymnastics  as  in  Gymnasium.    Other  notes  as  in  Gymnasium,  ex- 
cept that  drawing  (geometrical)  is  optional  two  hours  per  week  from  O  III  on. 

*  Lehrpldne  und  Lehraufgaben  fur  die  hoheren  Schulen  in  Preussen  (Berlin,  1901),  pp.  5-7, 


Minor  differences  may  be  allowed  in  the  Realschule. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


211 


through  Quinta  (V),  Quarto,  (IV),  Unter-tertia  (U  III), 
Ober-tertia  (O  III),  Unter-sekunda  (U  II),  Ober-sekunda 
(O  II),  Unter-prima  (U  I),  and  Ober-prima  (O  I).  Thus  the 
close  of  the  six-grade  school  or  course  comes  at  the  end  of 
Unter-sekunda. 

The  character  of  the  different  types  of  higher  schools  for 
boys  may  be  seen  best  from  the  programs  presented  in 
Tables  LXXXIV,  LXXXV,  and  LXXXVI.  The  headings 
refer  to  the  classes  or  grades  mentioned  and  the  figures 
refer  to  the  number  of  periods  per  week  devoted  to  the 
various  studies. 


TABLE  LXXXVI.   PBOGBAM  OF  STUDIES  IN  THE  PRUSSIAN 
1  OBERBEALSCHULE  * 


VI 

V 

IV 

UIII 

OIII 

U  II 

Oil 

U  1 

07 

Total 

Religion  

3 
5 
6 

2 
4 
6 

2 
4 
6 

2 
3 
6 
5 

2 
2 
6 

2 

2 
3 
6 

4 
2 
2 
5 
4 

2 
3 
Bl 

M 

2 
1 
5 
6 

2 
4 
4) 

M 

3 
1 
5 
6 

2 
4 
4) 
4f 
3 
1 
5 
6 

2 
4 
41 
4j 
3 
1 
5 
6 

19 
34 
47 
25 
18 
14 
47 
36 
6 

16 

GermEna  

French  

English  

History8  ...... 

3 

2 
6 

2 
2 

2 

Geography  .... 
Mathematics  .  . 
Natural  science 
Writing  

2 
5 

2 
2 

2 
5 

2 

2 

2 

Freehand  draw- 
ini? 

2 
30 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Total  

25 

25 

29 

30 

30 

31 

31 

31 

262 

NOTES:  Same  as  for  the  Realgymnasium. 
*  Lehrpldne  und  Lehraufgaben  fur  die  hoheren  Schulen  in  Preussen  (Berlin,  1901),  pp.  5-7. 


A  tabulation  of  the  total  number  of  periods  per  week 
devoted  to  the  various  studies  shows  the  difference  between 
the  three  types  of  schools. 


212      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  LXXXVII 


Gymnasium 

Realgymnasium 

Obenealsckule 

Religion  

19 

19 

19 

German  

26 

28 

34 

Latin  

63 

49 

Greek  

36 

French  

20 

29 

47 

English  

(+  6) 

18 

25 

History  

17 

17 

18 

Geography  

9 

11 

14 

Mathematics  

84 

42 

47 

Natural  science  

18 

29 

36 

Writing  

4 

4 

6 

Drawing  

8  (+9) 

16  (  +  10) 

16  (+  10) 

Totals  

259 

262 

262 

The  Gymnasium  of  to-day  is  the  lineal  descendant  of  the 
old  classical  Gymnasium  established  before  the  Reformation. 
To  it  attaches  all  the  prestige  and  support  which  comes  from 
reverence  for  an  old-established  institution,  and,  since  it 
receives  the  support  of  the  military  and  aristocratic  classes, 
it  is  preeminently  the  socially  "select"  higher  school  for 
boys  in  Germany.  It  has  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
chapter  that  the  movement  away  from  the  narrow  classicism 
of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  was  marked 
in  Germany  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  by 
the  beginning  of  "real"  schools  (Realschuleri) .  Their  early 
promise  was  soon  checked,  however,  and  in  spite  of  attempts 
at  reform  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
it  was  not  until  the  ministerial  order  of  1859  that  the  mod- 
ern movement  for  the  newer  types  of  schools  was  officially 
recognized  by  the  institution  of  the  Realschule  Erste  Ord- 
nung  and  the  Realschule  Zweite  Ordnung.  The  first  of  these 
schools  was  permitted  to  offer  a  full  nine-grade  course  and 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  213 

later  developed  into  the  Realgymnasium.  The  second  of  those 
schools  was  a  six-grade  school.  The  Oberrealschule  was 
created  by  adding  three  grades  to  that  six-grade  Realschule 
in  1882.  After  the  establishment  of  the  Oberrealschule  the 
Realgymnasium  in  the  opinion  of  many  became  a  rather 
useless  institution  and  in  the  Conference  of  1890  its  dis- 
continuance was  recommended  by  a  majority  vote.  The 
recommendation  was  not  carried  out,  however,  and  the 
Realgymnasium  continues  to  exist  as  a  higher  school  occupy- 
ing a  position  midway  between  the  Gymnasium  and  the 
Oberrealschule.  In  1870  for  the  first  time  those  who  had 
passed  the  "leaving  examination"  (Abiturientenprufung) 
of  the  Realschule  Erste  Ordnung  (later  the  Realgymnasium) 
were  given  access  to  the  university,  though  to  certain  courses 
only.  This  privilege  was  extended  to  the  students  of  the 
Oberrealschule  in  1892  but  it  was  not  until  the  imperial  edict 
of  1900  that  limitations  were  removed  and  the  three  types 
of  higher  schools  placed  on  practically  an  equal  footing  in 
Prussia. 

74.  "Reform  Schools"  in  Germany.  The  limited  articu- 
lation between  the  three  types  of  higher  schools  for  boys  in 
Prussia  and  the  consequent  necessity  for  early  decision  as 
to  the  school  or  course  to  be  pursued  by  any  boy  has  led 
within  recent  years  to  attempts  to  modify  existing  institu- 
tions. As  a  result  there  have  developed  Reformgymnasien 
which  have  introduced  two  new  principles:  (a)  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  common  foundation  in  the  lower  grades;  (6)  the 
principle  of  bifurcation  in  the  upper  grades.  This  means 
that  the  decision  of  an  educational  choice  may  be  post- 
poned for  some  years  and  that  two  or  more  courses  may 
be  offered  in  one  institution. 

Two  general  types  of  Reformgymnasien  are  found  —  the 
Frankfurt  system  and  the  Altona  system.  Of  these  the 
Frankfurt  system  provides  a  common  foundation  in  the 


214      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

earlier  grades  for  gymasial  and  realgymnasial  courses,  and 
the  Altona  system  provides  a  common  foundation  for  real- 
gymnasial and  realschule  courses.  The  reforms  inaugurated 
by  these  two  systems  are  so  important  that  they  deserve 
some  detailed  consideration.  The  official  program  for  the 
Frankfurt  system  is  as  follows: 

TABLE  LXXXVIII.  THE  FBANKFURT  PROGRAM  * 


Subjects 

Lower 
Division 

Middle  Division 

Upper  Division 

Gymnasium 

Realgymnasium 

VI 

V 

IV 

V  111 

0111 

Ull 

Oil 

J7/ 

01 

Ull 

O// 

tf/ 

O/ 

Religion  

3 
5 

6 

2 
4 

6 

2 
4 

6 

2 
3 
(G2 
}R4 
JGIO 

}R  s 

2 
3 
G21 
R45 
GW) 
R  B\ 

2 
3 

2 

8 
8 

2 
3 

2 

8 
8 

2 
3 

2 

8 
8 

2 
3 

2 

8 
8 

2 
3 

3 
6 

2 
3 

3 
6 

2 
3 

3 

6 

2 
3 

3 
6 

German.  
French  

Latin  

Greek  

English  

6 
1 
2 
4 

4 
1 
2 
5 

4 
1 

2 
5 

4 

1 

2 
5 

Geography.  .  . 
History  

2 

2 

2 
3 
5 

2 

1 

2 
4 
2 

1 

2 
4 

2 

1 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 

4 

3 
4 

Mathematics.. 
Nature  study.. 
Writing  

5 
2 

2 

5 

2 
2 
2 

Drawing  

2 

2 

2 

2 
3 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

Physics  

2 

2 

2 

2 

Chemistry.  .  .  . 

*  Statislitches  Jahrbuch  der  hoheren  Schvlen  (1913-14),  p.  1012,  8.    G  =  Gymnasium, 
R  =  Itealgymnasium. 

It  is  to  be  noted  here  that  all  pupils  take  the  same  course 
in  the  first  three  grades  and  that  the  work  in  grades  Unter- 
tertia  and  Obertertia  differs  only  in  the  distribution  of  time 
between  Latin  and  French.  Thus  differentiation  is  prac- 
tically postponed  until  the  boy  is  the  age  of  about  fourteen. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


215 


This  type  of  school  has  become  popular  in  Prussia,  133 
having  been  established  in  that  state  by  1912.  * 

TABLE  LXXXIX.  THE  ALTONA  PROGRAM  * 


Subjects 

Foundation 

Realschule 

Realgymnasium 

VI 

V 

IV 

2 
3 
5 
4 

HI 

II 

/ 

UIH 

0777 

f/77 

0/7 

UI 

07 

Religion  

3 
4 
6 

2 
3 
6 

2 
3 
6 
5 

2 
3 
6 
4 

2 
3 
5 
5 

2 
2 
4 
3 
6 

4 
5 

2 

2 
2 
4 
3 
6 

3 
4 

2 

2 
3 
4 
3 
5 

3 
5 

2 

2 
3 
4 
3 
5 

3 
4 

2 
3 
4 
3 
5 

3 
5 

2 
3 
4 
3 
5 

3 
5 

German  

French  

English  

Latin       

History  and  Geo- 
graphy. .  . 

3 
5 

2 
2 

3 
5 

2 
2 

2 

4 

6 

2 

4 
6 
2 

4 

5 

2 

3 
5 

Mathematics  .  .  . 
Nature  study  .  .  . 
Writing  

Drawing  

2 

2 

2 
2 

2 
3 

9 

2 

2 
2 

2 
2 

2 
3 

2 

2 
2 

2 

2 
2 

2 

Physics  

Chemistry.  .    .    . 

*  Siaiittitches  Jahrbuch  der  koheren  Schulen  (1913-14),  p.  1012,  8. 

The  Altona  system  has  not  proved  very  popular,  there 
being  but  five  in  Prussia  in  1912,  some  of  which  have 
changed  to  the  Frankfurt  plan  since  then. 

According  to  figures  presented  in  the  Kommunales  Jahr- 
buch for  1913-14  there  were  184  Reformschiden  in  Germany 
in  1912,  Prussia  having  133.2  In  spite  of  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  such  schools,  however,  the  older  types  of  separated 
schools  are  dominant.  How  far  they  may  be  able  to  with- 
stand the  encroachment  of  the  Reformschulen  must  remain 
for  the  future  to  determine. 

1  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  hoheren  Schulen  (1913-14),  p.  1012,  9. 

2  Kommunales  Jahrbuch  (1913-14),  p.  362.    Cf.  Statistisches  Jahrbuch 
(1913-14),  pp.  1012,  9-10. 


216      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

75.  Higher  schools  for  girls  in  Prussia.  In  considering 
the  higher  schools  for  girls  in  Prussia  two  important  facts 
must  be  kept  in  mind.  The  first  is  that  higher  education  for 
girls  is  a  matter  of  recent  development,  its  present  organiza- 
tion beginning  with  the  regulations  of  1908.  Hence  higher 
education  for  girls  in  Prussia  must  be  considered  to  be  in  a 
formative  and  experimental  stage.  The  second  fact  is  that 
higher  education  for  girls  is  separate  from  that  for  boys 
and  different  in  organization.  Coeducation  is  practically 
unknown  in  Prussia. 

The  central  institution  for  the  higher  education  of  girls 
is  the  Lyzeum,  which  offers  education,  elementary  and  sec- 
ondary in  the  American  sense  of  the  terms,  for  girls  from  the 
age  of  six  to  the  age  of  sixteen.  Superimposed  on  this  course 
is  the  Oberlyzeum  which  comprises  two  courses,  one  the 
Women's  School  (Frauenschule)  with  a  two-grade  course, 
designed  to  provide  training  in  household  and  kindergarten 
arts,  the  other  the  Teachers'  Training  School  (Hoheres 
Lehrerinnenseminar)  with  a  four-grade  course,  designed  to 
train  teachers  for  the  lower  schools.  In  addition,  for  girls 
who  plan  to  enter  the  university,  there  are  higher-course 
schools  (Studienanstalteri)  which  are  essentially  university 
preparatory  schools.  These  correspond  somewhat  to  the 
courses  for  boys  in  the  Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium,  and 
Oberrealschule  and  are  called  by  corresponding  names.  Girls 
taking  the  Oberrealschule  course  are  transferred  from  the 
Lyzeum  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  grade  (minimum  age  four- 
teen years).  Girls  taking  the  Gymnasial  or  Realgymnasial 
course  are  transferred  from  the  Lyzeum  at  the  close  of  the 
seventh  grade  (minimum  age  thirteen  years).  Thus  the 
Gymnasial  and  Realgymnasial  courses  for  girls  have  six 
grades  and  the  Oberrealschule  course  has  five  grades,  all 
having  a  common  basis  in  the  Lyzeum. 

The  general  organization  of  higher  schools  for  girls  may 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  217 

be  seen  from  the  following  diagram  and  the  program  for  the 
Lyzeum. 

TABLE  XC.  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  FOB 
GIRLS  IN  PRUSSIA  * 


Age   678          9         10      11    12        13  14         15       16        17      18          19          20 


Grade  X   IX  VIII    VII    VI    V     IV 
Lyzeum 


in 


n    i  f  n     i 

I  Frauenschule 

1    HI     n        1         Sem. 

( Lehrerinnenseminar 

•  v   iv    m    n     n 

Oberrealachule  Course 
|i 


Ober- 


IV      III     II       1 


IV       III      II        I 

nasial  Course 


aastalten 


•  Adapted  from  Statislischea  Jahrbuch  der  kdkeren  Schvlen  (1913-14),  p.  1012,  7. 

In  the  Frauenschule  the  course  of  study  comprises  peda- 
gogy (two  hours  per  week  in  each  of  the  two  grades),  house- 
hold arts,  including  practical  work  (five  periods  per  week 
in  each  grade),  kindergarten  teaching,  including  practice 
work  (four  periods  per  week  hi  each  grade),  hygiene  and  the 
care  of  children,  including  practical  work  in  nurseries,  etc. 
(four  periods  per  week  hi  each  grade),  civics  and  economics, 
including  visits  to  institutions  (two  periods  per  week  in 
each  grade),  household  bookkeeping  (one  period  per  week  hi 
each  grade),  needlework  (two  periods  per  week  in  each 
grade),  and  religion,  German,  French,  English,  Latin, 
Italian,  history,  geography,  science,  history  of  art,  gymnas- 
tics, drawing  and  painting,  music  (each  subject  according 
to  circumstances  and  needs;  two  periods  each  per  week). 

In  the  Hoheres  Lehrerinnenseminar  the  course  of  study 
includes  three  years  of  academic  continuation  work  and  one 
year  of  practical  work.  The  studies  of  the  three  first  years 
comprise  religion,  German,  French,  English,  history,  geo- 
graphy, mathematics,  natural  science,  pedagogy,  method 


218      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

TABLE  XCI.  COURSE  OF  STUDY   IN  THE  PRUSSIAN    LYZEUM  * 
a.  Literary  and  Scientific  Subjects 


Lower  stage 

Middle  stage 

Upper  stage 

Total 

X 

IK 

Vlll 

VII 

VI 

V 

IV 

III 

II 

/ 

VII-I 

Religion  

3 

10 

3 
9 

3 

8 

3 
6 
6 

3 
5 
5 

3 
5 

5 

2 
4 
4 
4 
2 
2 
3 
3 

2 
4 
4 
4 
2 
2 
3 
3 

2 
4 
4 
4 
2 
2 
3 
3 

2 
4 
4 
4 
3 
2 
3 
3 

17 
32 
32 
16 
13 
14 
21 
17 

German.  .  .    . 

French  

English  

History*  

2 
2 
3 
2 

2 
2 
3 

2 

Geography  .  . 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 

Mathematics  
Natural  Science  . 

Totals  

3 

3 

16 

15 

16 

22 

22 

22 

22 

24 

24 

24 

162 

b.  Technical  Subjects 


Writing  

3 

9, 

1 

1 

1 

3 

Drawing  

(h)' 

(M 

(M 

9, 

9, 

9 

9 

2 

2 

2 

14 

Needlework  
Singing.  .  . 

1 

2 
1 

2 
1 

2 
9, 

2 

9, 

2 

9, 

(c) 

9, 

(c) 

9 

(c) 

9 

(c) 

9 

6(14) 
14 

Gymnastics  

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

18 

Totals.  .  . 

9 

7 

6 

9 

9 

9 

7(9) 

7(9) 

7(9) 

7(9) 

55  (63) 

NOTES:  a.  Including  art  history. 

b.  In  classes  X-VIII  occasional  drawing  and  clay  modeling  during  the  object 

lessons  in  German. 

c.  Needlework  is  optional  in  the  upper  classes. 

*  From  Monroe,  P.,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  vol.  m,  pp.  86-87. 

and  model  lessons,  drawing,  singing,  gymnastics.  The  work 
of  the  practical  year  comprises  method  and  model  lessons, 
practice  teaching,  reports,  and  discussions. 

In  the  Studienanstalten  the  courses  of  study  correspond 
in  general  to  the  courses  of  study  in  the  boys'  higher  schools, 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


219 


though  the  entire  course,  including  the  Lyzeum  grades, 
covers  thirteen  years  instead  of  twelve  and  the  number  of 
recitations  per  week  is  somewhat  smaller.  Few  higher  girls' 
schools  maintain  Studienanstalten,  however,  and  many  girls 
find  it  practically  impossible  to  secure  the  kind  of  education 
provided  in  such  institutions.  Since  that  is  the  only  avenue 
of  approach,  they  are  unable  to  prepare  themselves  for  work 
in  the  university. 

76.  Statistics  of  higher  schools  in  Germany.  In  1912 
there  were  1395  higher  schools  for  boys  in  Germany,  dis- 
tributed as  follows: 

TABLE  XCn.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  FOR 
BOYS  nsr  GERMANY  IN  1912  * 


State* 

Gymna- 
fien 

Real- 
gymna- 
sien 

Oberreal- 
schulen 

Progym- 
nasien 

Real- 

progym- 
nasien 

Real- 
schulen 

Totalt 

Prussia.  ... 

339 

143 

97 

30 

57 

167 

833 

Bavaria  

48 

5 

9 

31 

48 

141 

Saxony  

19 

21 

5 

5 

33 

83 

Wiirttemberg  

18 

7 

12 

6 

20 

63 

Baden  

18 

9 

11 

2 

25 

65 

Other  States  

83 

29 

29 

3 

4 

62 

210 

Totals  

525 

214 

163 

70 

68 

355 

1395 

•  Statittischei  Jahrbuch  der  huheren  Schukn  (1913-14),  p.  1012,  5. 

From  these  figures  it  is  evident  that  the  Gymnasium  with 
its  classical  curriculum  is  still  the  most  prominent  of  the 
higher  schools  for  boys. 

In  Prussia  the  boys  in  attendance  at  the  higher  schools 
were  distributed,  as  shown  in  Table  XCIII,  in  1912. 

In  1909  the  distribution  of  boys  according  to  grade  was 
as  shown  in  Table  XCIV. 

About  one  half  of  the  boys  who  enter  Sexta  of  the  Gym- 
nasium or  Progymnasium  apparently  continue  into  Ober- 


TABLE  XCIH.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  BOYS  IN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 
IN  PRUSSIA  IN  1912  * 


103,314 

3,787 

Both 

107,101 

50,319 

Realprogymnasien  .  .  . 

4,346 

Both  

54,665 

41  986 

32,421 

Both  

74,407 

195  619 

Six-grade  schools  .... 

40,554 

Total  

235,173 

*  Statiilisches  Jahrbuch  der  hoheren  Schulen  (1913-14),  p.  1012,  5. 

TABLE  XCIV.  f 


Grade 

VI 

V 

IV 

UIII 

01  II 

VII 

on 

13,616 

UI 

01 

Total 

36,949 

34,697 

34,492 

31,184 

27,619 

23,775 

10,222 

8,304 

220,959 

t  Cf .  Monroe,  P.,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  vol.  in,  p.  84. 

TABLE  XCV.   STATISTICS  OF  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  IN  GERMANY 
IN  1911  J 


School* 

Teachers 

Pupils 

Public 

Private 

Public 

Private 

Public 

Private 

Schools  having  a  nine-year  course  .  . 

914 

524 
223 
167 

1,186 

81 
63 
629 
413 

828 

39 
789 

15 

6 
3 

4 

124 

7 
1 
103 
13 

373 

5 
S68 

16,950 

9,769 
3,708 
3,473 

7,230 

570 
384 
5,037 
1,239 

12,398 

1,039 
11,359 

221 

157 
31 
33 

975 

36 
3 
903 
S3 

4,599 

64 
4,535 

306,426 

160,237 
70,357 
75,832 

170,908 

9,509 
7,252 
104,457 
49,690 

234,461 

22,137 
212,324 

2,905 

2,451 
304 
150 

16,562 

1,095 
32 

14,989 
466 

79,679 

1,399 

78,280 

Schools  having  a  six-year  course  only 

Realschulen,  Btlrgerschulen,  etc.  . 

Gytnnasion  

Higher  schools  

Grand  totals  

2,928 

512 

36,578 

5,795 

711,795 

99,146 

t  Figures  quo 
irol.  i,  p.  822. 


ted  from  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1913), 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  221 

seJcunda  and  about  one  third  continue  into  Oberprima.  Of 
boys  who  enter  Sexta  of  the  Realgymnasium  or  Realprogym- 
nasium  about  one  third  continue  into  Obersekunda  and  about 
one  sixth  into  Oberprima.  Of  boys  who  enter  Sexta  of  the 
Oberrealschule  or  Realschule  about  one  sixth  continue  into 
Obersekunda  and  a  little  over  one  sixteenth  continue  into 
Oberprima.  Of  all  boys  entering  Sexta  of  a  higher  school 
a  little  over  one  third  persist  as  far  as  Obersekunda  and 
between  one  quarter  and  one  fifth  continue  into  Oberprima. 

Table  XCV  presents  figures  for  all  higher  schools  in 
Germany  in  1911. 

77.  "  Intermediate  schools,"  etc.,  in  Germany.  As  it  is 
a  great  mistake  to  consider  all  the  work  of  the  "higher 
schools"  of  Germany  as  involving  secondary  education  in 
the  American  sense  of  that  term,  so  it  is  a  great  mistake  to 
consider  that  all  secondary  education  in  Germany  is  con- 
fined to  the  higher  schools  above  considered.  In  reality 
elementary  education  in  the  American  sense  of  the  term 
must  be  conceived  as  cutting  a  cross-section  through  the 
lower  grades  of  all  the  higher  schools  previously  considered 
and  the  Volksschule.  Likewise  secondary  education  in  the 
American  sense  of  the  term  must  be  conceived  as  cutting  a 
cross-section  through  the  upper  grades  of  the  higher  schools 
above  considered  and  also  through  a  number  of  other 
schools,  including  the  Intermediate  Schools  (Mittelschuleri) , 
"Citizens'  Schools"  (Burgerschulen,  which  are  closely  allied 
to  the  Realschuleri),  certain  vocational  schools  (including 
agricultural  schools,  Lantvnrtschaftsschulen,  higher  trade 
schools,  etc.),  continuation  schools  (Fortbildungsschuleri), 
etc.  What  proportion  of  the  work  in  these  last-mentioned 
schools  should  be  considered  of  secondary  grade  in  the 
American  sense  of  the  term  it  is  impossible  to  determine. 
Nevertheless  the  fact  should  not  be  overlooked  that  much 
of  the  work  peculiar  to  secondary  education  in  America  is 


222      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

provided  for  in  schools  other  than  the  higher  schools  com- 
monly classed  under  the  head  of  "secondary  schools"  in 
Germany.  Vocational  education,  for  instance,  is  not  pro- 
vided for  at  all  in  the  Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium,  Ober- 
realschule,  etc.,  but  is  relegated  to  special  vocational  schools. 

In  Prussia,  previous  to  the  regulations  of  February  3, 
1910,  the  intermediate  school  (Mittelschule}  had  been  devel- 
oped less  extensively  than  in  other  States  of  the  Empire. 
Since  the  promulgation  of  those  regulations,  however,  the 
Mittelschule  has  given  promise  of  extensive  development  in 
Prussia  and  may  in  the  future  prove  an  important  step  in 
the  articulation  of  the  Volksschule  system  and  the  higher 
schools  system.  They  comprise  a  nine-grade  course  which 
in  the  lower  stages  have  a  common  course  with  the  Volks- 
schule and  in  the  higher  grades  may  be  articulated  with  the 
higher  schools.  The  course  includes  the  following  studies: 
religion,  German,  Latin,  French,  English,  history,  geography, 
mathematics,  nature  study,  and  other  common  subjects.1 

The  importance  of  continuation  schools  in  Germany  may 
be  seen  from  the  figures  presented  in  the  following  table. 

TABLE  XCVL   CONTINUATION  SCHOOLS  m  GERMANY  nsr  1911  * 


Schools 

Pupil* 

Industrial  continuation  schools  

3,300 

550,000 

Commercial  continuation  schools  

700 

102,000 

Agricultural  continuation  schools    

5,200 

84,000 

Non-  vocational  continuation  schools  

16,000 

700,000 

Total  listed  

25,200 

1,436,000 

*  Cf.  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1918),  vol.  n,  p.  818.  The 
figures  are  in  round  numbers. 

1  Cf.  Monroe,  P.,  Cyclopedia,  of  Education,  vol.  in,  p.  78;  Statistisches 
Jahrbuch  der  hoheren  Schulen  (1913-14),  p.  2280  ff.\  Kommunales  Jahr- 
buch  (1913-14),  p.  360. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  223 

The  organization  of  other  vocational  schools  in  the 
German  States  is  too  complicated  to  permit  analysis 
here.  It  should  be  recognized,  however,  that  they  play 
an  important  part  in  the  educational  systems  of  the 
Empire  of  great  importance  to  the  student  of  secondary 
education. 

78.  Teachers  in  Prussian  higher  schools  for  boys.  All 
teachers  in  the  public  higher  schools  of  Prussia  are  State 
employees  who  have  been  certificated  by  the  State  author- 
ities. In  order  to  secure  such  positions  they  must  have 
shown  their  qualifications :  (a)  by  presenting  a  leaving  cer- 
tificate from  a  Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium,  or  Oberreal- 
schide;  (6)  by  presenting  evidence  that  they  have  spent  at 
least  six  semesters  at  a  recognized  university;  (c)  by  pas- 
sing examinations  in  philosophy  (including  psychology), 
pedagogy,  German  literature,  religion,  and  in  the  special 
subjects  to  be  taught  (at  least  two  subjects  must  be  in- 
cluded); (d)  by  spending  a  Seminarjahr  (year  in  practice 
and  observation);  (e)  by  spending  a  Probejahr  (trial  year). 
Having  met  these  requirements  successfully,  the  candidate 
is  then  qualified  for  appointment  and  receives  the  title  Ober- 
lehrer.  Older  teachers  may  receive  the  title  Professor.  The 
salary  of  the  Oberlehrer  begins  at  2700  marks  ($675)  and  by 
triennial  increases  of  700  marks  ($175)  reaches  4800  marks 
($1200)  after  nine  years  of  service.  From  that  point  the 
triennial  increases  of  600  marks  ($150)  bring  it  up  to  7200 
marks  ($1800)  after  twenty-one  years  of  service.  To  this 
must  be  added  from  560  to  1300  marks  ($140-$325)  allowed 
as  compensation  for  rent.  These  figures  apply  to  the  salaries 
of  the  ordinary  teachers  in  boys'  higher  schools.  Salaries 
of  headmasters  are  not  much  higher  than  those  of  the  higher 
teachers.  In  the  higher  schools  for  boys  men  teachers  only 
are  engaged.  In  the  higher  schools  for  girls  both  men  and 
women  teachers  are  employed,  the  latter  having  been  pre- 


224      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

pared  either  at  the  universities  or  in  the  higher  normal 
school  (Hoheres  Lekrerinnenseminar} . 

The  training  of  the  higher-school  teacher  is  thorough  and 
adequate.  His  selection  and  certification  are  carefully  super- 
vised. From  those  two  facts  result  the  high  character  of  the 
teachers  employed  and  the  excellent  teaching  found.  In 
spite  of  what  appears  to  Americans  to  be  a  relatively  low 
salary  schedule,  an  abundance  of  excellent  material  is 
recruited.  This  arises  in  large  part  from  the  fact  that  the 
higher-school  teacher  in  Germany  is  recognized  as  a  pro- 
fessional official  of  the  Government  with  a  social  and  official 
position  on  a  par  with  other  higher  professions. 

79.  Higher  schools  and  the  social  organization.  The 
schools  of  Germany  are  intimately  and  functionally  related 
to  the  social  structure  to  an  extent  not  apparent  in  most 
countries.  As  evidence  of  this  in  Prussia  we  may  note  first 
the  well-organized  and  standardized  work  of  the  schools 
under  rather  high  centralization  of  control  and  adminis- 
tration, typical  of  the  efficient  organization  of  social  and 
economic  institutions  in  the  State.  Secondly,  we  may  note 
the  lines  of  social  distinction  manifest  in  the  social  organi- 
zation of  the  Prussian  State  and  exemplified  in  the  separa- 
tion of  the  Volksschule  and  the  higher  schools.1  Thirdly, 
we  may  note  the  powerful  influence  of  the  aristocratic  and 
military  classes  in  their  struggle  to  maintain  the  supremacy 
of  the  aristocratic  Gymnasium  throughout  the  nineteenth 
century  and  the  present  status  of  that  school.  In  the  fourth 
place,  we  may  note  the  characteristic  German  attitude 
toward  women  manifest  in  the  failure  until  recently  to  pro- 
vide higher  education  for  girls.  In  the  fifth  place,  we  may 

1  As  this  book  goes  to  press,  there  is  evident  in  German  pedagogical 
journals  renewed  agitation  for  the  reorganization  of  German  schools  so 
as  to  establish  an  Einheitschule  providing  a  common  educational  founda- 
tion for  all  pupils  up  to  the  ags  of  twelve.  Cf.  Kandel,  I.,  School  and 
Society,  vol.  v,  p.  3. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  225 

note  the  specific  points  of  social  organization  in  connection 
with  the  relation  of  the  schools  to  the  social  and  industrial 
phases  of  German  life.  These  are  manifest  best,  perhaps, 
in  the  various  social,  military,  professional,  and  educational 
privileges  granted  to  boys  who  have  successfully  completed 
specified  parts  or  all  the  work  of  the  higher  schools. 

Boys  who  successfully  complete  the  work  of  the  first  six 
grades  of  a  higher  school  receive  a  certificate  which  entitles 
them  to  serve  but  one  year  in  the  army  instead  of  two  or 
more  required  of  others.  Also  such  boys  have  the  privilege 
within  limits  of  choosing  the  time  of  their  military  service, 
the  regiment  hi  which  they  may  serve,  and  other  privileges 
of  a  military  nature.  In  addition,  since  that  certificate  indi- 
cates a  recognized  standard  of  training,  it  is  an  indispensable 
requirement  for  many  minor  Governnent  positions,  and  in 
many  respects  it  functions  much  as  a  part  of  a  civil  service 
system.  Hence  also  many  mercantile  houses  require  the 
possession  of  such  a  certificate  of  all  their  apprentices  in 
many  lines.  Thus  the  acquirement  of  this  certificate  estab- 
lishes a  well-determined  point  of  demarcation  in  the  higher- 
school  system  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  grade,  noticeable  not 
only  in  the  organization  of  the  six-grade  schools,  but  also  in 
the  falling  off  of  pupils  at  that  point  in  the  nine-grade  schools. l 

At  the  end  of  the  nine-year  course  comes  the  "maturity" 
examination  (Reifeprufung).  The  passing  of  that  examina- 
tion gives  the  boy  the  right  of  admission  to  the  university 
or  higher  technical  school,  and  a  higher  social  recognition 
than  he  can  otherwise  secure.  Since  practically  the  only 
avenue  to  the  higher  professions  lies  through  the  university, 
it  cannot  be  entered  save  by  first  completing  the  course  of 
study  in  a  higher  school.2 

1  Table  XCIV. 

2  For  details  of  the  privileges  granted  to  boys  completing  various  amounts 
of  work  in  the  higher  schools  of  Germany  see  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  hoheren 
Schulen  (1913-14) .  Cf .  also  Russell,  J.  E.,  German  Higher  Schools,  Appendices. 


226      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Such  privileges  offer  to  the  German  boy  and  his  parents 
an  appeal  that  can  scarcely  be  appreciated  by  the  American. 
The  ambitious  parent  struggles  hard  to  give  his  son  the 
benefits  of  an  education  in  the  higher  school,  although  the 
financial  burden  of  tuition  alone  is  not  always  light.  Con- 
trary to  the  American  practice,  but  quite  in  accord  with 
European  practice,  higher-school  education  is  not  free  in 
Germany  and  tuition  is  regularly  charged,  the  maximum  in 
Prussia  being  150  marks  ($37.50)  per  annum. 

80.  Secondary  education  in  Germany  and  America. 
Though  the  limits  of  space  have  permitted  only  a  general 
outline  of  secondary  education  in  Germany,  sufficient  data 
have  been  presented  to  indicate  a  number  of  important 
differences  between  secondary  education  in  Prussia  and  in 
the  United  States.  Some  of  the  more  important  differences 
may  be  summarized  here,  though  the  reader  should  be 
warned  that  fundamental  differences  in  organization  make 
difficult  comparisons  which  are  frequently  made. 

(1)  Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that 
"elementary  education"  and  "secondary  education"  are 
not  delimited  in  Germany  as  in  America  by  administrative 
divisions.  Elementary  education  in  the  American  sense  of 
the  term  is  provided  in  each  of  the  three  systems  of  edu- 
cation previously  outlined.  Secondary  education  in  the 
American  sense  of  the  term  is  provided  especially  in  the 
two  systems  of  boys'  and  girls'  higher  schools,  but  also  to 
some  extent  in  the  intermediate  schools  and  in  vocational 
schools  which  are  more  directly  correlated  with  the  Volks- 
schule.  To  gain  a  purview  of  elementary  education  one  must, 
therefore,  examine  a  cross-section  through  all  three  systems 
of  schools,  and  to  gain  a  purview  of  secondary  education 
one  must  examine  the  higher  grades  of  the  three  systems. 
In  either  case  it  is  quite  impossible  to  designate  a  specific 
grade  as  the  beginning  of  secondary  education,  which  must 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  227 

be  conceived  as  developing  gradually  out  of  the  lower  stages 
of  education  and  without  any  line  of  clear  demarcation. 
One  of  the  most  noteworthy  features  of  the  German  school 
systems  is  the  fact  that  whatever  school  system  a  boy  or 
girl  enters  he  proceeds  gradually  and  without  abrupt  tran- 
sition from  stage  to  stage. 

(2)  Notwithstanding  the  above-mentioned  facts  it  is  true 
that  "secondary  education"  begins  at  an  earlier  age  and 
that  differentiated  education  begins  much  earlier  in  Ger- 
many than  in  America.    Here  we  may,  in  some  respects  at 
least,  agree  with  a  German  critic:  "Admittedly,  the  second- 
ary school  in  north  Germany  begins  too  early,  when  it  starts 
at  nine  years  of  age;  but  just  as  surely  does  the  American 
secondary  school  begin  too  late."  x    This  problem  will  be 
considered  in  a  later  section. 

(3)  Lines  of  social  and  economic  cleavage  are  much  more 
manifest  and  important  in  the  schools  of  Germany  than  in 
the  United  States.    This  is  clear  from  the  separation,  even 
in  the  earlier  stages,  of  children  in  the  Volksschule  and  the 
Hohere  Schulen,  in  the  fact  that  no  form  of  vocational  edu- 
cation is  provided  in  the  higher  schools  for  boys,  and  in  the 
fact  that  a  relatively  small  number  of  boys  and  girls  are 
enrolled  in  the  higher  schools.    Confessedly,  the  German 
higher  schools  are  designed  not  for  people  in  general,  but 
for   special   groups.     Selection,   a   legitimate   function   of 
secondary  education,  becomes  in  German  higher  schools 
selection  by  elimination  or  exclusion,  whereas  in  America 
it  becomes  selection  by  differentiation  of  courses  and  studies 
to  meet  the  needs  of  individual  differences.    Because  of  dif- 
ferences  in   organization  exact  comparison   between    the- 
"higher  schools"  of  Prussia  and  the  public  high  schools 
of  the  United  States  becomes  difficult,  if  not  impossible. 

1  Kerschensteiner,  G.,  A  Comparison  of  Public  Education  in  Germany  and 
in  the  United  States,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1913),  no.  24,  p.  13. 


228      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Considering  higher  schools  for  boys  alone  in  Prussia  and 
the  public  high  schools  in  the  United  States,  we  may  note 
the  following  figures : 

TABLE  XCVII.   NUMBER  OF  BOYS  PER  100,000  OF  TOTAL  POPU- 
LATION   IN    THE    HOHERE     ScHULEN    OF    PRUSSIA    AND    IN    THE 

PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1909  * 

Theoretic  age  14-15      15-16      16-17      17-18         Total 

Americanhighschools....)^--;;;;;      i  »6  HI  IV  I-IV 

T,       .      .....         ,     ,„    (Grade...       .     U II        Oil         UI          OI       U II O I 

Prussmn    higher  schools    .  {  Number 59  34  26  22  115 

*  Compiled  by  the  writer  from  data  in  Table  XCIV  and  in  Report  of  the  United,  States 
Commissioner  of  Education  (1910),  vol.  u. 

(4)  Fixity  of  curriculum  is  the  rule  in  German  schools 
and  flexibility  is  the  rule  in  the  American  high  school.    In 
Germany  the  pupil  chooses  his  school,  in  America  he  chooses 
his  course  or  even  his  specific  studies.    In  Germany,  after 
a  decision  has  been  made  as  to  the  type  of  school  to  be 
attended,  there  is  practically  little  opportunity  for  transfer 
to  another  type  of  school.    This  rigidity  is  all  the  greater 
because  there  is  little  opportunity  for  choice  of  studies 
within  any  higher  school  and  the  curriculum  is  the  same  for 
all.  The  contrast  is  noticeable  with  the  elective  system  found 
in  America.   It  is  possible  that  the  elective  system  has  been 
carried  too  far  in  this  country,  but  it  would  appear  to  the 
American  educator  that  it  has  not  been  carried  far  enough 
in  Prussia.    The  development  of  the  Reformgymnasien  in 
Germany  indicates  a  strong  tendency  to  modify  the  school 
system  so  as  to  postpone  to  a  later  age  and  grade  the  deci- 
sion of  the  curriculum  to  be  engaged  in  by  the  pupil  in  the 
higher  school. 

(5)  While  secondary  education  in  America  may,  perhaps, 
be  considered  more  extensive  than  secondary  education  in 
Prussia  in  point  of  the  number  of  individuals  that  it  reaches 
and  in  point  of  the  differentiated  scope  of  its  offerings,  it 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  229 

must  also  be  noted  that  secondary  education  in  Prussia 
(at  least  in  the  Hohere  Schulen)  is  more  intensive  in  the 
sense  that  it  is  more  thorough  and  systematic.  Perhaps  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  in  either  case  are  necessarily 
correlated.  The  period  of  formal  education  covered  from 
the  beginning  of  school  life  in  both  countries  is  approxi- 
mately the  same,  from  age  six  to  age  eighteen.  The  results, 
however,  appear  to  be  far  different.  The  graduate  of  the 
German  higher  school  is  commonly  considered  to  be  as  far 
advanced  in  his  education  as  boys  in  the  sophomore  class 
of  the  American  college.  This  is  certainly  true  of  much  of  his 
attainment  in  subject-matter,  and  with  respect  to  the  char- 
acter of  his  development  along  academic  lines.  Doubtless  the 
reason  for  much  of  this  is  found  in  the  fact  that  in  Germany 
there  is  a  longer  school  day,  a  longer  school  week,  and  a  longer 
school  year.  However,  it  is  also  in  part  doubtless  due  to  the 
efficiency  of  instruction.  Critics  of  German  and  American 
school  systems  frequently  note  the  lack  of  thoroughness  and 
the  superficiality  in  American  secondary  education  in  com- 
parison with  the  "hard  fiber  of  intellectual  discipline"  of 
the  German  higher  school.  Likewise  they  note  the  greater 
freedom  of  the  American  secondary  school,  the  individuality, 
initiative,  and  adaptability  engendered  by  it  (or  by  the 
general  social  stimulus?),  in  contrast  with  the  rigidity  and 
uniformity  of  the  German  higher  school.1  The  contrast 
should  not  be  considered  without  reference  to  the  conception 
of  the  intensive,  selective  aim  of  the  German  higher  school 
and  the  extensive  aim  of  the  American  high  school.  A  proper 
comparison  would  be  between  the  best  fourth  of  the  Ameri- 
can secondary-school  pupils  and  the  average  pupil  in  the 
German  higher  school.2  It  must  further  be  noted  that  the 
last  years  of  the  German  higher  school  take  the  place  of  a 
part  of  our  college  course,  which  is  itself  essentially  second- 
1  Kerschensteiner,  G.,  op.  cit.,  p.  14.  2  Cf.  Table  XCVII. 


230      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ary  in  character.  In  this  connection  attention  may  be  called 
to  the  fact  that,  while  the  theoretic  age  of  graduation  from 
the  German  higher  school  for  boys  is  eighteen,  the  median 
age  is  eighteen  years  and  seven  months.  Figures  for  candi- 
dates taking  the  leaving  examination  of  the  higher  schools 
of  Prussia  in  1908  indicate  that  more  candidates  were  twenty 
years  of  age  or  older  than  were  eighteen  years  of  age  or 
younger,  and  that  the  largest  age  group  was  that  of  the 
nineteen  year  olds.1 

(6)  In  the  secondary  education  of  girls  is  found  one  of  the 
most  noticeable  differences  between  the  secondary  schools 
of  Germany  and  those  of  the  United  States.   Attention  has 
already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  in  Prussia  public  higher 
schools  for  girls  is  a  matter  of  development  within  the  past 
decade.    Again  exact  comparison  in  figures  is  out  of  the 
question  because  of  differences  in  organization,  but  we  may 
note  that  in  all  the  higher  schools  for  girls  in  Germany  in 
1911  there  were  234,461  girls  distributed  over  twelve  or 
thirteen  grades,  while  in  the  public  high  schools  alone  of  the 
United  States  in  1910  there  were  551,624  girls,  distributed 
over  four  grades.   Attention  has  also  been  called  to  the  fact 
that  coeducation  is  all  but  unknown  in  Germany. 

(7)  Probably  one  of  the  greatest  factors  contributing  to 
the  character  of  the  German  higher  school  is  found  in  the 
character  of  the  teacher,  who,  on  the  average,  is  far  superior 
to  the  American  high-school  teacher.  This  is  due  to  a  num- 
ber of  factors  —  the  superior  character  of  the  material 
available  (due  in  part  to  the  prestige  of  the  teaching  profes- 
sion in  Germany),  the  high  standards  set,  the  training  which 
the  prospective  teacher  receives,  and  the  high  professional 
spirit  manifest.    These  standards  and  conditions  are  not 
paralleled  in  America.    In  this  connection,  however,  it  is 
well   to  note  some  circumstances  sometimes  overlooked. 

1  Monroe,  P.,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  vol.  in,  p.  85. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  231 

The  most  important  of  these  is  the  fact  that  the  unparalleled 
development  of  secondary  education  in  America  and  the 
great  increase  in  the  number  of  secondary-school  pupils 
during  the  past  quarter-century  created  a  demand  for 
secondary-school  teachers  which  far  exceeded  the  available 
supply  of  well-prepared  men  and  women.  With  the  high 
school  now  well  established  and  conditions  somewhat  set- 
tled, with  better  facilities  provided  for  training  secondary- 
school  teachers,  and  with  the  establishment  of  standards 
which  are  now  being  formulated,  the  secondary-school 
teacher  of  America  should  in  the  near  future  assume  a  more 
favorable  position  for  comparison  with  his  German  colleague. 
(8)  Back  of  all  the  various  points  of  difference  in  the 
American  and  German  school  systems  lie  fundamental 
differences  in  social  ideals  which  must  always  be  kept  in 
mind  when  comparing  the  two  systems  or  when  examining 
either.  In  both  cases  the  character  of  secondary  education 
is  determined  fundamentally  by  social  ideals  which  are 
buried  deep  in  the  lives  and  customs  of  the  two  peoples. 
The  efficiency  of  either  system  must  be  interpreted  in  terms 
of  the  dominant  social  ideals  and  the  form  of  social  organi- 
zation which  determine  the  character  of  the  State  itself. 

II.  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE 

81.  The  system  of  education  in  France.  Of  all  important 
countries  France  possesses  the  most  highly  centralized  form 
of  educational  control  and  administration.  In  that  country 
the  entire  system  of  public  education  is  under  the  charge 
of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and  Fine  Arts  and  his 
subordinate  officials  or  bureaus.  By  them  the  final  control 
and  administration  of  the  schools  is  determined,  the  pro- 
grams of  study  organized,  the  schools  inspected,  the  quali- 
fications of  teachers  prescribed,  and  the  examination  of 


232      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

pupils  controlled.  Little  is  left  for  local  participation  in  the 
affairs  of  education  except  a  certain  amount  of  initiative 
in  establishing  schools,  the  administration  of  certain  routine 
matters,  and  the  payment  of  funds  in  support  of  the  schools. 
The  local  community  may  decide  whether  or  not  a  school  is 
wanted  in  some  cases.  They  may  provide  for  the  construc- 
tion, equipment,  and  maintenance  of  a  school,  but  once  such 
a  school  is  established  its  control  and  administration  passes 
out  of  their  hands  into  the  hands  of  the  Ministry  of  Public 
Instruction  and  Fine  Arts. 

France,  like  Prussia,  maintains  three  separate  systems 
of  schools:  (a)  schools  for  boys  and  girls  of  the  common 
people,  of  which  the  basis  is  the  "primary  school"  (ecole 
primaire);  (6)  "secondary  schools"  for  boys  (lycee  de  gar- 
Qons  and  college  de  garqons);  (c)  "secondary  schools"  for 
girls  (lycee  de  jeunes  files,  college  de  jeunes  files,  and  cours 
secondaire  de  jeunes  filles) .  Boys  and  girls  of  the  common 
people  enter  the  "primary  school"  proper  at  the  age  of  five 
or  six  (many  have  previously  attended  the  ecole  maternelle), 
where  they  remain  in  the  ecole  primaire  elementaire  up  to  the 
age  of  about  thirteen  or  in  the  ecole  primaire  superieure  up 
to  the  age  of  about  fifteen.  Some  enter  the  ecole  practique 
(vocational  school) .  Boys  of  higher  social  or  economic  stand- 
ing enter  the  "secondary  school"  (lycee  or  college)  proper 
at  about  the  age  of  ten  and  remain  there  (for  the  full  course) 
up  to  the  age  of  about  seventeen.  To  the  "secondary 
school"  proper,  however,  there  is  attached  a  preparatory 
division  (division  prSparatoire)  for  boys  of  ages  six  to  seven, 
and  an  elementary  division  (division  elementaire)  for  boys 
of  ages  eight  to  nine.  In  some  cases  an  "infant  class"  pre- 
cedes the  preparatory  division.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the 
French  "secondary  school"  for  boys  is  an  institution  com- 
plete in  itself,  being  neither  dependent  on  the  "primary 
school"  for  its  supply  of  pupils  nor  leaving  education  other 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  233 

than  professional  for  later  study  in  college  or  university. 
Theoretically  pupils  may  pass  from  the  "primary  school" 
to  the  lycee  or  college  and  "secondary  education  is  coordi- 
nated with  primary  education  in  such  a  way  as  to  follow  a 
course  of  primary  studies  normally  four  years  in  length."  1 
Practically  there  is  no  such  articulation  between  the  two 
systems  and  few  "primary-school"  pupils,  except  those 
receiving  Government  scholarships  through  competitive 
examinations,  pass  from  the  ecole  primaire  to  the  ecole 
secondaire.  The  selection  of  the  school  which  a  boy  may 
enter  in  France  is  determined  almost  entirely  by  social  and 
economic  factors. 

Girls  of  the  higher  social  and  economic  classes  enter  the 
"secondary  school"  proper  (lycee,  college,  or  cours  secon- 
daire) at  the  age  of  about  twelve.  They  enter  the  "primary 
classes"  of  that  school,  however,  at  the  age  of  nine,  and  the 
"infant  class"  which  precedes  it  at  the  age  of  eight.  They 
remain  hi  the  "secondary  school"  (for  the  full  course)  up 
to  the  age  of  about  seventeen  or  eighteen. 

From  this  limited  preliminary  description  of  the  three 
school  systems  of  France  it  is  apparent  that,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Prussian  systems,  the  so-called  "secondary  schools" 
must  be  considered  to  include  both  elementary  and  second- 
ary education  in  the  American  sense  of  those  terms  and  that 
the  "primary  school"  of  France  is  not  to  be  considered  as 
corresponding  completely  to  the  "elementary  school"  of 
America.  In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
a  plan  for  a  unified  national  school  system  was  presented 
before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  a  bill  introduced  in  1913: 

The  professed  intention  of  the  bill  is  to  establish  equality  of 
opportunity  for  all  children.  For  this  purpose  its  author  would 
put  an  end  to  the  dualism  of  the  existing  system  which  provides 

1  Decret  du  31  Mai,  1912.  Cf.  Plan  d'Etudes  et  Programmes  de  I'En- 
seignement  Secondaire  des  Garqons  (llth  edition),  p.  1. 


234      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDAEY  EDUCATION 

for  one  kind  of  school  for  the  masses  and  another  for  those  favored 
of  fortune,  and  substitute  "the  national  school,"  organized  in 
three  cycles.  In  the  plan  outlined  by  M.  Buisson,  the  first  cycle  is 
devoted  to  elementary  primary  education  to  be  given  uniformly 
to  all  children  five  to  eleven  years  of  age;  the  second  cycle  is  for 
children  from  eleven  to  fourteen  years  of  age;  in  this  cycle  the 
education  will  be  varied  according  to  the  requirements  or  aptitudes 
of  the  pupils,  but  hi  spite  of  these  pedagogic  differences  perfect 
social  equality  will  be  maintained;  in  the  third  cycle  education 
will  be  distinctly  vocational  (prqfessionelle),  the  term  being  used 
in  the  widest  sense.1 

Whatever  may  be  the  likelihood  that  education  in  France 
will  be  developed  along  these  lines  in  the  near  future,  it  is 
nevertheless  true  that  the  intent  of  the  bill  represents  the 
attitude  of  many  people  in  France  toward  the  existing  tri- 
partite system  of  schools,  with  distinctions  based  largely 
on  social  and  economic  considerations. 

82.  Types  of  "  secondary  schools  "  for  boys  in  France. 
The  system  of  "secondary  education"  for  boys  in  France 
at  the  present  time  is  that  inaugurated  by  the  regulations 
of  May  31,  1902,  as  modified  by  the  regulations  of  Novem- 
ber 15,  1912,  which  went  into  effect  in  October,  1913. 
According  to  those  regulations,  two  types  of  "secondary 
schools"  are  recognized,  the  lycee  and  the  college.  These 
differ  not  so  much  in  the  character  of  their  courses  nor 
in  their  general  organization,  but  in  the  manner  of  their 
establishment  and  support.  The  lycee  is  entirely  a  state 
school,  established,  directed,  and  financed  by  the  National 
Government.  The  college  is  a  secondary  school  of  the  same 
character  in  general  established  and  supported  by  a  com- 
mune (municipality),  but  under  the  surveillance,  direction, 
and  control  of  the  central  authorities.  Thus  schools  of  both 
types  are  under  the  direction  and  administration  of  the 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1913),  vol.  i, 
p.  799.  Cf.  Revue  Universitaire  (March  15,  1913),  pp.  5252-55. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  235 

state  and  conform  to  the  same  general  regulations  as  to 
curriculum,  organization,  administration,  etc.  While  the 
two  institutions  are  nominally  of  equal  rank  and  are  de- 
signed to  provide  similar  education,  the  lycee  stands  higher 
in  popular  estimation  and  commonly  is  superior  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  done.  Theoretically  at  least,  uniformity  is 
the  rule  in  the  lycee  and  college  and  the  same  standards  obtain 
in  all  parts  of  the  Republic,  conf  orming  to  the  particular  and 
minute  regulations  of  the  central  authorities. 

The  "secondary"  school  proper  consists  of  two  depart- 
ments called  cycles,  one  (premier  cycle}  of  four  grades,  the 
other  (seconde  cycle)  of  three  grades,  —  the  two  (which  are 
sequentially  related)  providing  education  for  boys  of  ages 
about  ten  to  seventeen  or  eighteen.  To  the  first  cycle  are 
commonly  attached  a  preparatory  department  (division 
preparatoire)  of  two  grades  (ages  six  and  seven)  and  an 
elementary  department  (division  elementaire)  of  two  grades 
(ages  eight  and  nine).  In  the  first  cycle,  comprising  grades 
sixth  to  third,  pupils  have  a  choice  of  two  sections  (A  and 
B),  Division  A  studying  Latin  and  Division  B  not.  In  the 
second  cycle,  comprising  the  second,  first,  and  philosophy- 
mathematics  classes,  a  choice  is  offered  in  classes  second  and 
first  of  four  sections  (A,  B,  C,«  D).  Roughly  those  sections 
may  be  classified  as:  Section  A  —  Classical  Course;  Section 
B  —  Latin-Modern  Language  Course;  Section  C  —  Latin- 
Scientific  Course;  Section  D  —  Science-Modern  Language 
Course.  In  the  Philosophy-Mathematics  "form"  pupils 
are  divided  into  two  general  groups,  one  concentrating  on 
philosophy,  the  other  on  mathematics,  each  of  these  groups 
being  divided  into  Sections  A  and  B.  The  general  scheme 
may  be  seen  from  the  plan  of  organization  outlined  on 
page  236.1 

In  addition  to  these  regular  divisions  and  sections  there 
1  Plan  d'£tudea,  etc.,  previously  cited,  p.  x  jf. 


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IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  237 

may  be  special  sections  in  the  lycee  preparing  boys  for  the 
military  school  at  Saint-Cyr,  the  polytechnique,  and  the 
ecole  centrale.  In  some  cases  also  there  may  be  a  fifth  section 
or  subsection  with  a  course  of  three  or  four  years  correspond- 
ing roughly  to  the  Realschule  course  in  Prussia. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  a  much  greater  amount  of  flexibility 
is  to  be  found  in  the  French  higher  school  for  boys  than  in 
the  German.  The  feature  of  flexibility  was  established  in 
the  reorganization  of  the  curriculum  of  the  school  in  1902, 
and  its  introduction  in  part  may  have  been  due  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  elective  system  in  the  American  secondary 
school.  Speaking  of  the  curriculum  established  in  1902, 
M.  Gabriel  Compayre,  former  Inspector  General  of  Public 
Instruction  in  France,  said: 

The  most  striking  feature  is  that,  in  place  of  one  single  and 
uniform  course  for  all  pupils,  several  are  provided  for  their  selec- 
tion. Here  is  obvious  the  influence  of  the  elective  courses  common 
in  the  United  States,  whose  existence  and  success  were  noticed  by 
the  present  writer  in  the  Report  on  American  Secondary  Education, 
presented  after  his  return  from  the  World  Exposition  at  Chicago  to 
the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  France  in  1893. 1 

More  detailed  analysis  of  the  French  lycee  is  presented 
on  page  238. 

83.  Other  forms  of  secondary  education  in  France. 
While  the  term  "secondary  education"  (enseignement 
secondaire)  is  applied  in  France  exclusively  to  the  lycee  and 
college,  certain  types  of  schools  also  found  in  France  must 
be  considered  as  furnishing  education  more  or  less  secondary 
in  the  American  sense.  The  necessity  of  providing  for  an 
extension  of  school  facilities  for  the  common  people  some- 
what beyond  the  primary  schools  and  with  special  reference 
to  their  industrial  needs  was  recognized  as  early  as  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Law  of  1833  (the  Guizot  Law)  authorizing  the 
*  Cf.  Monroe,  P.,  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  vol.  n,  p.  663. 


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Section  

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IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


239 


establishment  of  higher  primary  schools  (I'Scole  primaire 
superieure).  The  law  had  little  effect  until  money  was 
appropriated  by  the  Government  (beginning  in  1878).  The 
real  development  of  the  higher  primary  schools  began  in 
earnest  after  the  passage  of  the  law  of  1892  which  estab- 
lished two  different  types  of  such  schools,  the  higher  prim- 
ary schools  and  practical  schools  of  commerce  and  industry. 
These  higher  grade  schools  may  retain  pupils  up  to  fifteen 
years  of  age,  who  for  admission  have  obtained  the  primary- 
school  certificate.  The  higher  primary  schools  are  not  voca- 
tional though  offering  special  courses  in  drawing,  manual 
training,  and  elementary  science.  The  vocational  schools 
proper  (ecoles  pratiques)  provide  for  commerce  and  industry. 
The  extent  of  these  two  types  of  schools  in  1911-12  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  table. 

TABLE  XCIX.  PUPILS  m  HIGHER  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  AND 
VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS,  1911  * 


Boys 

Girl* 

Total 

Higher   primary   schools  and  continuation 
classes  

51  057 

51  630 

102  687f 

Practical  schools  of  commerce  and  industry  .  . 
National  technical  schools  

10,102 
1,588 

2,687 

12,789 
1,588 

Total  :  

62,747 

54  317 

117  064 

*  Data  from  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1913),  vol.  I,  p.  791, 
corrected  from  data  given,  ibid.  (1914),  vol.  I,  p.  722. 

t  About  one  half  of  these  were  in  continuation  classes  (court  complementaires). 

"Thus,  altogether,  about  118,000  young  people  of  the 
industrial  classes  were  continuing  their  studies  in  schools 
comparable  with  the  upper  grades  and  junior  high  schools 
of  the  United  States."  l 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1914),  vol.  I, 
p.  722. 


240      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

84.  Secondary  education  of  girls  in  France.   Previous  to 
1880  there  existed  no  public  secondary  schools  for  girls  in 
France.    In  that  year  a  comprehensive  system  of  public 
secondary  schools  for  girls  was  established  comprising  na- 
tional lycees,  communal  colleges,  and  secondary  courses,  the 
last  being  but  a  temporary  expediency,  paving  the  way  for 
the  later  establishment  of  a  secondary  school  proper.    As 
in  Germany,  "secondary  schools"  for  boys  and  "secondary 
schools"  for  girls  are  separate  institutions,  and  in  France 
they  are  of  a  radically  different  nature. 

The  "secondary  schools"  for  girls  comprise  a  five-year 
course  divided  into  two  departments,  the  first  of  three  grades 
and  the  latter  of  two  grades.  Preceding  the  regular  five- 
year  course,  however,  there  are  commonly  attached  to  the 
"secondary  school"  proper  a  one-year  infant  class  and  three 
elementary  classes.  In  addition  there  exists  a  special  class 
in  some  of  the  most  important  lycees  designed  to  prepare 
girls  for  the  normal  school  at  Sevres. 

The  curriculum  and  general  organization  of  the  secondary 
schools  for  girls  may  be  seen  from  Table  C. 

85.  Statistics  of  "  secondary  schools  "  in  France.    The 
figures  presented  in  Table  CI  will  indicate  the  number  of 
secondary  schools  and  secondary  school  pupils  in  France 
in    1912-13  —  enrollment  for   lycees,   colleges,   and   cours 
secondaires  only. 

While  the  differences  in  organization  make  comparisons 
difficult,  it  may  be  noted  that  in  1912  there  was  one  "sec- 
ondary school"  to  every  74,579  of  the  total  population  as 
compared  with  one  public  high  school  for  every  8657  of  total 
population  in  the  United  States:  that  in  France  in  1912  one 
person  out  of  every  291  of  total  population  was  in  some 
secondary  school,  while  in  the  United  States  in  1911-12  one 
person  in  every  88  was  in  a  public  high  school.  The  com- 
parison is  all  the  stronger  when  it  is  remembered  that  in  the 


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242     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  CI.   FRENCH  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  AND  PUPILS  IN 
1912-13  * 


Schools 

Pupils 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

Lyc6es  

112 

53 

165 

62,092 

19,898 

81,990 

Colleges  

230 

79 

309 

36,796 

11,882 

48,678 

Secondary  courses  

57 

57 

5,565 

5,565 

Total  

342 

189 

531 

98,888 

37,345 

136,233 

*  Figures  taken  from  Annuaire  Statistique,  vol.  32,  pp.  26-31,  24  *. 

French,  secondary  schools  for  boys  seven  grades  or  more  are 
included  and  in  the  secondary  schools  for  girls  eight  or  more 
grades  are  included,  whereas  in  the  American  high  school  but 
four  grades  are  considered.  It  cannot  be  considered  that  the 
needs  for  secondary  education  in  France  are  being  met  in  any 
adequate  manner.  This  is  in  part  due  to  the  social  distinc- 
tions already  referred  to,  in  part  to  the  inadequate  provision 
for  secondary  schools,  and  in  part  to  the  fact  the  secondary 
education  in  France  is  not  free.  Combined  with  those  fac- 
tors is  the  fact  that  the  French  lycees  and  colleges  are  in  part 
boarding-schools,  a  fact  which  seriously  affects  the  matter 
of  popular  education.  Approximately  one  third  of  the  pu- 
pils in  the  lycees  and  colleges,  for  boys  are  boarders  or  half 
boarders.  This  fact  indicates  clearly  that  schools  are  not 
numerous  enough  nor  located  centrally  enough  to  meet  the 
needs  of  many,  and  that  the  cost  of  living  away  from  home 
prevents  many  boys  from  receiving  the  benefits  of  a  second- 
ary education.  The  actual  fees  charged,  however,  are  not 
large  from  the  American  viewpoint.  In  the  provincial  lycees 
the  range  of  fees  is  from  40  francs  ($8)  per  annum  for  day 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  243 

pupils  to  700  francs  ($140)  per  annum  for  boarders  in  the 
infant  classes  and  from  320  francs  ($64)  per  annum  for  day 
pupils  to  1250  francs  ($250)  per  annum  for  boarders  in  the 
highest  classes.  In  Paris  and  the  larger  lycees  the  fees  are 
somewhat  higher. 

86.  The  secondary-school  teacher  in  France.  As  in 
Germany  so  in  France  the  character  of  the  teaching  staff 
stands  out  in  strong  contrast  to  the  character  of  the  teaching 
staff  of  the  American  secondary  school.  This  is  due  to  sev- 
eral factors,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  training  which 
the  secondary  school  teacher  in  France  must  undergo,  the 
relatively  small  number  of  teachers  required,  and  the  esteem 
and  honor  hi  which  the  profession  is  held.  Due  in  part  to 
the  two  last  factors  the  competition  for  secondary  school 
positions  is  so  severe  that  the  best  material  for  teachers 
is  secured  through  the  elimination  of  the  poorer. 

In  point  of  professional  requirements  the  minimum 
qualifications  of  a  candidate  to  teach  in  the  secondary 
school  are:  (a)  the  bachelor's  degree  from  a  lycee  or  college; 
(6)  two  or  three  years  of  university  or  normal-school  study. 
This  accomplished  the  candidate  receives  a  licence.  The 
holder  of  a  licence  may  then  become  a  candidate  for  the  title 
of  agrege  which  requires  the  passing  of  a  severe  competitive 
examination  necessitating  at  least  two  years'  preparation. 
Holders  of  this  title  only  are  appointed  to  positions  in  the 
lycees  where  the  professeur  agrege  has  a  legal  right  to  a  posi- 
tion as  professor  with  practically  life  tenure.  The  standards 
for  teachers  in  the  college  are  distinctly  inferior  to  those  for 
teachers  hi  the  lycee,  a  fact  which  to  some  extent  explains 
the  acknowledged  inferiority  of  the  work  done  in  the  former. 
In  the  college,  in  addition  to  some  professeurs  agreges  and 
those  holding  the  master's  degree,  are  found  some  teachers 
holding  the  bachelor's  degree  only  or  those  with  special 
certificates. 


244      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Again  as  in  Germany  the  salaries  paid  appear  small  to  the 
American  teacher.  All  teachers  in  the  secondary  schools  are 
divided  into  six  classes.  The  teacher  must  have  been  at  least 
two  years  in  service  before  he  is  eligible  for  promotion  from 
the  sixth  class  (the  lowest)  into  the  next  class.  He  must 
have  been  nineteen  years  in  the  service  before  he  can  be 
promoted  into  the  first  (highest)  class.  For  full  professors 
in  the  lycees  (who  receive  the  highest  salaries  for  teaching 
alone)  the  pay  ranges  in  the  provincial  schools  from  3700 
francs  ($740)  to  6700  francs  ($1340).  In  Paris  the  salary 
for  the  regular  professor  ranges  from  5500  francs  ($1100) 
to  9000  francs  ($1800),  professeurs  agreges  each  receiving 
500  francs  ($100)  additional. 

Women  teachers  in  the  secondary  schools  for  girls  secure 
appointments  by  completing  the  work  of  the  secondary 
school  and  securing  its  diploma  and  by  securing  the  agrega- 
tion.  Ordinarily  the  certificate  to  teach  in  the  girls  secondary 
school  is  obtained  after  completing  the  second  year  of  work 
in  the  normal  school  and  passing  competitive  examinations. 

87.  Secondary  education  and  the  social  organization  in 
France.  France  in  the  not  very  distant  past  has  at  different 
periods  been  a  monarchy,  an  empire,  and  a  republic,  and 
each  of  those  stages  through  which  French  society  has 
passed  has  left  its  mark  on  the  secondary  schools  of  France 
at  the  present  time.  The  social  distinctions  manifest  in  the 
differentiation  between  "elementary  schools"  and  "second- 
ary schools"  is  in  part  at  least  a  result  of  the  days  of  the 
monarchy  and  aristocratic  prestige.  The  high  degree  of 
centralized  control  shows  the  effect  of  Napoleon's  admin- 
istration during  the  First  Empire.  Recent  reorganization 
and  numerous  separate  movements  indicate  an  attempt 
(rather  than  its  fulfillment)  to  adapt  the  secondary  schools 
to  the  demands  of  a  modern  republic. 

A  form  of  secondary  education  adapted  to  a  republican 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  245 

or  democratic  form  of  social  organization  would  appear  to 
postulate  at  least  three  important  characteristics:  (1)  schools 
free  to  all  children  and  open  to  all  classes  on  an  equal  basis; 

(2)  schools  sufficient  in  number  to  afford  adequate  means 
for  educating  as  many  children  as  can  attend  and  so  located 
that  undue  expense  is  not  to  be  incurred  by  their  parents; 

(3)  schools  and  courses  so  diversified  as  to  meet  the  needs 
of  all  classes  of  children.   In  no  one  of  those  three  important 
respects  can  the  French  Republic  be  said  to  have  approached 
the  solution  of  democratic  or  republican  education.    Fees 
are  regularly  charged;  secondary  schools  are  quite  insuffi- 
cient in  number  and  not  satisfactorily  distributed;  while  the 
curricula  established  in  1902  did  much  to  provide  flexibility 
of  studies  adapted  to  the  diversified  needs  of  pupils,  insuffi- 
cient provision  has  as  yet  been  made  for  many  forms  of 
education,  and  in  the  case  of  girls  unjust  discrimination  has 
been  made  with  regard  to  provision  for  education  leading  to 
the  university. 

88.  Secondary  education  in  France  and  America.  Much 
that  has  been  said  in  comparing  secondary  education  in 
Germany  and  in  America  may  also  be  said  in  comparing 
secondary  education  in  France  and  America.  Thus  second- 
ary education  in  France  and  in  Germany  differs  from  that 
in  America  in  the  following  important  respects:  (a)  the 
triple  school  systems  running  more  or  less  parallel  and  with- 
out effective  articulation;  (6)  the  separation  of  those  sys- 
tems along  lines  of  social  and  economic  cleavage;  (c)  the 
separation  of  secondary  education  for  boys  and  girls;  (d)  the 
earlier  beginning  of  secondary  education  hi  the  schools;  (e) 
the  absence  of  administrative  division  between  elementary 
and  secondary  education  in  the  American  sense  of  those 
terms,  and  the  gradual  transition  from  lower  to  higher 
forms  of  education;  (/)  the  complete  separation  of  vocational 
schools  from  other  schools;  (gr)  the  intensive  education  pro- 


246     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

vided  in  the  higher  schools  leading  directly  to  professional 
work  in  the  university  without  the  interposition  of  college; 
(K)  the  existence  of  uniform  courses  of  study  for  all  schools 
of  the  same  type;  (i)  the  high  character  of  the  teaching 
staffs;  (j)  the  fact  that  the  number  of  "higher  schools"  is 
relatively  small  and  that  a  relatively  small  number  of  boys 
and  girls  are  enrolled  in  higher  schools  other  than  special 
vocational  schools,  etc. 

Go vernmen tally  France  is  republican  or  democratic: 
educationally  it  is  aristocratic.  In  many  respects  France 
and  America  have  common  fundamental  problems  to  solve 
through  education  and  in  no  small  degree  through  secondary 
education.  As  at  present  organized  the  secondary  schools  of 
France  are  better  suited  to  a  non-democratic  form  of  society 
than  to  a  republic,  are  more  comparable  to  those  of  mon- 
archal states  of  Europe  than  to  those  of  America,  and  in 
organization  and  administration  have  little  to  offer  to  the 
student  of  secondary  education  in  America. 

III.  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND 

89.  Organization  of  secondary  education  in  England. 
In  Germany  and  in  France  the  State  control  of  secondary 
education  was  early  assumed  and  at  present  is  practically 
complete,  with  the  result  that  secondary  education  in  those 
countries  may  be  interpreted  in  terms  of  organized  systems 
wherein  uniformity  and  standardization  are  the  rule.  In 
England,  on  the  other  hand,  there  has  always  been  manifest 
a  reluctance  on  the  part  of  the  State  to  assume  the  respon- 
sibility for  a  real  public  system  of  education.  Thus  it  was 
not  until  1870  that  any  real  system  of  elementary  schools 
was  inaugurated  and  it  was  not  until  1902  that  any  real 
progress  was  made  in  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  public 
secondary  schools.  Even  at  present  it  is  scarcely  possible 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  247 

to  speak  of  a  system  of  secondary  schools,  but  several  differ- 
ent types  or  systems  must  be  considered. 

In  England  more  than  in  any  other  country  private  initia- 
tive has  controlled  education  and  particularly  secondary 
education.  From  the  beginning  of  secondary  education  in 
that  country  dominant  control  in  the  field  of  secondary 
education  has  been  exercised  by  the  clergy,  by  corporations 
(independent  foundations,  guilds,  etc.),  and  by  individuals. 
During  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  municipal- 
ities assumed  more  and  more  influence.  Only  within  the 
past  few  years  has  any  serious  attempt  been  made  to  organ- 
ize national  control  over  any  part  of  secondary  education. 

In  the  following  sections  two  general  classes  of  secondary 
schools  of  England  will  be  considered  briefly:  (1)  Endowed 
and  private  schools,  with  particular  attention  to  the  "great 
public  schools"  of  the  "first  grade";  (2)  secondary  schools 
which  have  to  some  extent  come  within  the  supervision  of 
the  Government  and  are  on  the  "grant  list"  or  the  list  of 
"efficient"  schools. 

90.  The  "Great  Public  Schools"  of  England.1  For  more 
than  five  centuries  after  their  beginning  in  1382  the  "great 
public  grammar  schools"  were  the  dominant  institution  for 
secondary  education  in  England  and  then*  unchallenged 
preeminence  continues  at  the  present  time.  In  1867  the 

1  The  reader  familiar  with  the  nomenclature  of  American  schools  must 
beware  of  misinterpreting  the  nomenclature  of  the  English  schools.  The 
term  "public"  is  applied  in  England  to  the  endowed  schools  here  mentioned 
which  are  just  the  reverse  of  the  "public  schools"  of  the  United  States. 
Since  the  majority  of  those  schools  are  boarding-schools,  the  American 
reader  is  likely  also  to  misinterpret  the  term  "board  schools,"  which  is 
regularly  applied  in  England  to  schools  under  the  control  of  school  boards 
and  has  nothing  to  do  with  boarding-schools.  The  term  "grammar  schools" 
is  to  be  understood  from  the  old  Latin  grammar  school  and,  of  course,  has 
no  reference  to  the  term  as  employed  in  the  United  States  for  the  "gram- 
mar" grades  of  the  elementary  school.  Further,  "preparatory  schools"  in 
England  prepare  for  the  "great  public  schools,"  not  for  the  university  as 
the  "preparatory  schools"  in  America  prepare  for  college. 


248     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

British  Schools  Inquiry  Commission  placed  those  schools 
in  an  exclusive  class  comprising  the  "first-grade"  secondary 
schools,  a  distinction  which  obtains  informally  at  present. 
In  this  group  the  following  (and  no  others)  were  included: 
Winchester  (founded  in  1382),  Eton  (1440),  Shrewsbury 
(1552),  Westminster  (1560),  Rugby  (1561),  Harrow  (1571), 
Charterhouse  (1611),  St.  Paul's  (1509),  Merchant  Taylors' 
(1561).  Of  these  all  except  the  two  last-mentioned  are 
boarding-schools.  The  historic  importance  of  these  schools, 
the  selected  class  of  their  patronage,  and  the  superior  char- 
acter of  the  education  provided  has  given  them  a  preeminent 
position  among  the  secondary  schools  not  only  of  England 
but  of  the  world,  and  justifies  the  view  which  regards  them 
as  national  institutions.  They  occupy  a  position  in  England 
that  is  paralleled  by  no  other  institution  for  secondary  edu- 
cation in  any  other  country  and  their  influence  on  English 
history  and  on  English  society  has  probably  been  greater 
than  any  other  institution.  Any  complete  analysis  of  their 
place  among  the  schools  of  England  would  carry  us  far 
beyond  the  limitations  of  our  present  purpose.  We  may 
note,  however,  certain  material  points.  Schools  of  that 
type  cannot  properly  be  considered  as  an  important  part 
of  a  system  of  public  secondary  schools  which  is  designed 
for  boys  in  general.  The  opportunity  for  secondary  educa- 
tion in  such  schools  must  perforce  be  limited,  highly  selec- 
tive, and  restricted.  Although  they  are  termed  "public 
schools,"  they  are  essentially  private,  and  stand  in  strong 
contrast  to  the  secondary  schools  of  Germany,  France, 
and  America.  It  may  well  be  questioned  whether  the  exist- 
ence of  such  highly  selective  schools  not  directly  controlled 
by  the  State  have  not  acted  as  a  serious  check  on  the  develop- 
ment of  a  system  of  real  public  secondary  schools. 

Needless  to  say,  schools  of  this  type  are  conservatively 
classical  and  are  dominated  by  preparation  for  entrance  to 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  249 

the  university.  Programs  of  study  and  organizations  differ 
for  the  several  schools  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  present 
even  a  typical  program.  Language,  especially  the  ancient 
languages,  and  mathematics  all  but  monopolize  the  cur- 
riculum. According  to  the  specialist  in  education  in  foreign 
countries  (United  States  Bureau  of  Education)  a  typical 
program  comprises  the  following  subjects:  1 

Classical  side:  Religion,  English,  Latin,  Greek,  French,  his- 
tory, geography,  arithmetic,  mathematics, 
natural  sciences,  drawing,  singing. 

Modern  side:  Mathematics,  English,  Latin,  French,  German, 
history  and  geography,  natural  science,  draw- 
ing, singing. 

Boys  enter  these  schools  at  the  age  of  thirteen  or  fourteen 
after  a  "preparatory"  course  in  one  of  the  numerous  pri- 
vate "preparatory  schools"  which  exist  almost  solely  for  the 
purpose  of  preparing  boys  for  admission  to  the  endowed 
schools.  Nominally  there  are  six  "forms "  or  grades,  though 
the  lowest  is  frequently  omitted  and  in  some  schools  other 
forms  are  missing.  Grading  and  promotion  are  flexibly 
organized  and  administered  and  it  is  possible  for  each  boy 
to  pass  through  the  school  much  according  to  his  individual 
ability  and  application.  However,  if  he  reaches  the  sixth 
form  early  he  commonly  remains  in  that  grade  until  about 
the  age  of  eighteen  or  nineteen  when  he  enters  the  univer- 
sity. 

91.  Other  endowed  and  private  secondary  schools.  In 
addition  to  the  nine  "great  public  schools,"  comprising  the 
group  of  "first-grade  secondary  schools,"  there  is  a  very 
large  number  of  other  endowed,  proprietary,  and  private 
secondary  schools.  Some  of  these  endowed  schools  are  of 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  I, 
pp.  676-77. 


250      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

a  character  quite  comparable  to  that  of  the  "first-grade" 
schools  except,  perhaps,  in  historical  and  social  prestige. 
Proprietary  and  private  schools  controlled  by  individuals, 
stock  companies,  etc.,  range  all  the  way  from  very  good  to 
very  bad.  Their  varied  character  prevents  anything  like 
satisfactory  analysis  in  small  space.  In  general  these  schools 
all  imitate  the  great  public  schools.  Some  of  the  best  in 
every  important  respect  should  be  ranked  on  a  par  with  the 
"first-grade"  schools.  At  the  other  extreme  are  schools 
which  must  be  considered  as  commercial  ventures  of  a  per- 
nicious character.  Between  the  two  extremes  are  found 
schools  of  all  sorts  and  grades. 

92.  The   old   municipal    "  board "    secondary   schools. 
While  there  was  no  serious  attempt  to  develop  a  national 
system  of  secondary  schools  in  England  until  the  period 
1899-1902,  and  while  the  numerous  endowed  and  private 
secondary  schools  dominated  the  field,  many  municipalities 
throughout  the  country  had  established  public  "board" 
schools  under  the  control  of  local  authorities.   Their  char- 
acters varied  widely  according  to  the  different  communities, 
and  uniformity  was  not  to  be  found.    With  the  beginning 
of  the  development  of  a  national  system  in  1899-1902  those 
"board"  schools  were  merged  into  schools  of  the  type  con- 
sidered in  the  following  section. 

93.  "  Grant-list  "  and  "  efficient  "  secondary  schools. 
The  beginning  of  a  system  of  public  secondary  schools  in 
England  is  found  in  the  creation  of  a  Board  of  Education 
for  England  and  Wales  in  1899  which  provided  a  centra! 
agency  for  educational  affairs.    By  the  law  of  1902  the  con- 
trol of  non-private  secondary  schools  was  taken  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  older  school  boards  and  placed  in  the  hands  of 
county  and  county-borough  councils.  That  act  provided : l 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1914),  vol.  i, 
pp.  C8G-87. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  251 

The  local  education  authority  shall  consider  the  educational 
needs  of  their  area  and  take  such  steps  as  seem  to  them  desirable, 
after  consultation  with  the  board  of  education,  to  supply  or  aid 
the  supply  of  education  other  than  elementary,  and  to  promote  the 
general  co-ordination  of  all  forms  of  education. 

In  accordance  with  this  law  new  schools  of  secondary 
character  supported  by  public  funds  have  been  established 
and  others  brought  within  the  scope  of  State-aided  second- 
ary education.  The  Board  of  Education  has  adopted  a 
scheme  of  granting  national  funds  to  local  schools  as  a  means 
of  bringing  the  secondary  schools  under  its  supervision  and 
to  some  extent  under  its  control.  The  acceptance  of  aid 
from  the  Board  of  Education  and  submission  to  its  super- 
vision is  voluntary  on  the  part  of  the  school  authorities,  but 
when  the  school  accepts  grant  aid  it  must  meet  the  require- 
ments and  submit  to  the  supervision  of  the  national  author- 
ities. This  method  of  increasing  the  State  control  of  second- 
ary education  has  been  successful  in  American  States  and 
bids  fair  to  establish  a  real  system  of  secondary  schools  in 
England  and  Wales.  Within  about  a  dozen  years  after  the 
beginning  of  the  movement  its  success  has  been  great. 
According  to  the  latest  official  returns  (before  the  war)  the 
number  of  secondary  schools  in  England  receiving  grants 
was  898,  including  402  controlled  by  local  authorities,  424 
endowed  schools,  26  schools  belonging  to  the  Girls'  Public 
Day  School  Trust,  and  46  controlled  by  Roman  Catholic 
orders  or  communities.  These  schools  enrolled  158,832 
pupils  (85,110  boys,  73,722  girls)  and  employed  9126  full- 
time  teachers  and  about  3000  part-time  instructors.1  These 
are  known  as  "grant-list"  schools.  In  addition  there  are 
a  number  of  private  secondary  schools  which  invite  the 
inspection  of  and  a  certain  amount  of  supervision  by  the 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1914),  vol.  i, 
pp.  687-88. 


252      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Board  of  Education  but  which  do  not  conform  entirely  to 
the  requirements  for  grant  aid.  These  are  known  as  "effi- 
cient" schools.  Altogether  in  1913-14  there  were  1176 
secondary  schools  in  England,  with  an  enrollment  of  about 
222,275  pupils,  in  some  relation  to  the  Board  of  Education.1 
However,  the  majority  of  private  schools  do  not  come  within 
this  system. 

The  reader  will  not  fail  to  note  that  the  situation  in  Eng- 
land at  the  present  day  is  somewhat  analogous  to  the  situa- 
tion in  the  United  States  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  when  the  public  high  school  was  in  the  midst  of 
its  struggle  for  supremacy  with  the  private  academy.  He 
should  note  also  that  the  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation provide  that  a  certain  proportion  of  places  in  the 
grant-aided  secondary  school  (ordinarily  about  twenty-five 
per  cent)  must  be  open  free  to  the  class  of  children  that 
attend  the  public  elementary  school.  Thus,  although  falling 
far  short  of  thoroughly  democratic  ideals  of  free  public 
education,  the  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education  have 
greatly  improved  the  opportunities  of  the  common  people 
for  secondary  education. 

94.  The  curricula  of  English  secondary  schools.  It  is 
totally  impossible  to  speak  of  the  curriculum  of  the  English 
secondary  school  in  the  definite  sense  in  which  one  may 
speak  of  the  curriculum  of  German  or  French  higher  schools. 
In  the  more  prominent  endowed  and  private  schools  there 
is  a  certain  amount  of  uniformity  determined  by  the  fact 
that  they  have  a  common  aim  —  preparation  for  the  uni- 
versity. The  conservative  character  of  the  older  schools 
will  probably  change  only  as  the  spirit  of  modernism  affects 
the  universities.  In  the  lesser  private  schools  the  curricula 
vary  more  or  less  according  to  the  particular  classes  of 
patronage  invited  or  given.  In  the  grant-list  schools  there  is 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  i, 
p.  677. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  253 

manifest  a  tendency  to  develop  greater  uniformity,  although 
that  is  far  from  having  been  consummated  at  present. 

The  Board  of  Education  defines  a  secondary  school  as 
one  which 

offers  to  each  of  its  pupils  a  progressive  course  of  instruction  ...  in 
subjects  necessary  to  a  good  general  education,  upon  lines  suitable 
for  pupils  of  an  age  range  as  wide  as  from  twelve  to  seventeen. 

If  such  a  school  is  to  receive  "grant  aid"  the  following 
subjects  must  be  offered  and  are  obligatory:  English  lan- 
guage and  literature,  at  least  one  language  other  than  Eng- 
lish, geography,  history,  mathematics,  science,  and  draw- 
ing. A  curriculum  including  two  languages  other  than 
English,  but  making  no  provision  for  instruction  in  Latin, 
will  only  be  approved  where  the  board  are  satisfied  that  the 
omission  of  Latin  is  for  the  educational  advantage  of  the 
school.  Instruction  in  science  must  include  practical  work 
by  the  pupils.  Adequate  provision  must  be  made  for  organ- 
ized games,  physical  exercises,  manual  instruction,  and  sing- 
ing. Schools  for  girls  must  offer  practical  instruction  hi 
domestic  subjects,  such  as  needlework,  cookery,  laundry 
work,  housekeeping,  and  household  hygiene.  Considerable 
latitude  is  allowed  the  local  authorities  to  adapt  the  cur- 
riculum to  special  local  needs. 

95.  The  secondary  education  of  girls  in  England.  As  in 
all  countries  of  Europe  the  education  of  girls  was  long  de- 
layed in  England.  There,  too,  as  in  America,  Germany, 
France,  and  other  countries,  secondary  education  for  girls 
began  as  a  result  of  private  initiative.  The  movement  was 
particularly  noticeable  in  the  decade  or  so  preceding  1892 
when  endowments  had  been  established  for  about  forty- 
five  girls'  schools.  The  Girls'  Public  Day  School  Company 
(Trust),  one  of  those  semi-private,  semi-public  school 
societies  which  have  been  so  active  in  the  educational  his- 


254     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

tory  of  England,  established  thirty-four  schools  between 
1873  and  1897.  Many  of  those  schools,  together  with 
others,  came  under  the  regulations  of  1902  regarding  grant 
aid,  and  thus  came  more  or  less  into  the  public  "system" 
in  the  sense  previously  suggested. 

While  coeducation  is  by  no  means  the  usual  practice  in 
secondary  schools  in  England  (quite  the  opposite,  of  course, 
in  endowed  and  private  schools)  economic  factors  have 
affected  the  situation  in  many  smaller  communities  and 
even  in  some  of  the  larger  towns.  Of  the  928  schools  in 
England  and  Wales  which  were  recognized  by  the  Board 
of  Education  as  "efficient"  in  1909-10,  there  were  150 
schools  in  which  boys  and  girls  were  taught  together 
throughout  the  school  and  23  in  which  they  were  taught 
together  in  some  classes. 

96.  Secondary  schools  and  other  departments  of  educa- 
tion. The  absence  of  an  organized  system  of  education 
in  England  necessarily  means  a  lack  of  close  articulation 
between  the  various  departments.  The  more  prominent 
en<Jowed  and  private  schools  recruit  their  pupils  from  the 
"preparatory  schools"  which  are  designed  almost  exclu- 
sively to  prepare  boys  for  the  examinations  via  which  they 
may  pass  into  the  secondary  schools.  In  1910  there  were 
about  360  schools  of  that  type  with  an  average  enrollment 
of  thirty-seven  pupils.  Each  important  "public"  school  has 
its  own  group  of  fitting  schools. 

With  regard  to  the  public  elementary  schools: 1 

The  official  regulations  declare  it  to  be  "an  important  though 
subsidiary  object  of  the  elementary  school  to  discover  individual 
children  who  show  promise  of  exceptional  capacity,  and  to  develop 
their  special  gifts  —  so  that  they  may  be  qualified  to  pass  at  the 
proper  age  into  secondary  schools,  and  be  able  to  derive  the 

1  Cf.  Smith,  A.  T.,  in  Monroe,  P.  (Editor),  A  Cyclopedia  of  Education, 
vol.  n,  p.  473. 


IN   OTHER   COUNTRIES  255 

maximum  of  benefit  from  the  education  there  offered  them." 
The  transfer  of  pupils  from  elementary  to  secondary  schools 
should  take  place  not  later  than  the  twelfth  year  or  age,  but  an 
earlier  age  is  encouraged  by  a  grant  paid  on  transferred  pupils 
between  the  ages  of  ten  and  twelve  years.  The  main  grant  in 
secondary  schools,  however,  is  paid  in  respect  to  pupils  between 
the  ages  of  twelve  and  eighteen  years. 

For  children  of  ordinary  ability  who  leave  the  elementary  school 
at  twelve  or  thirteen  years  of  age,  evening  schools  offer  opportu- 
nity for  continued  training,  and  as  these  schools  are  classed  under 
the  head  of  higher  education,  there  are  two  diverging  roads  leading 
upward  from  the  elementary  schools.1 

For  public  schools  the  general  scheme  of  articulation  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  table  which  approximately 
represents  the  situation. 

TABLE  CII 

Age  in  years             7  8      9      10      11      12      13      U      15      IS      17      18      19 

Elementary  "standard".../  11   111    IV     V      VI     VII 

Secondary  school 1        2         3        4        5 

Higher  elementary  school..  12         2      (4) 

Continuation  school    1        2         S        4        5 

Higher  institutions 

It  may  be  seen  from  this  rough  table  that  the  articu- 
lation between  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  is 
loose  or  flexible  according  to  one's  viewpoint.  The  over- 
lapping of  the  last  grades  of  the  elementary  school  and  the 
earlier  grades  of  the  secondary  school  is  noticeable.  The 
draft  which  the  "grant-list"  schools  make  on  the  public 
elementary  schools  may  be  observed  from  Table  CIII. 

Admission  of  students  to  the  college  or  university  is  al- 
ways through  examinations.  To  the  universities  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  boys  are  commonly  admitted  via  exami- 
nations from  the  endowed  and  private  schools.  Modern 
regional  universities,  such  as  those  of  London,  Manchester, 
etc.,  draw  their  students  from  a  less  restricted  class. 
1  Board  of  Education  Report  (1911-12),  pp.  48,  60. 


256      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

TABLE  CIII.    ENROLLMENT  OF  PUPILS  IN  ENGLAND  AND 
WALES,  1911-12* 

Elementary  schools 6,041,921 

Secondary  schools  on  grant-list 165,617 

Technical,  art,  and  evening  schools  on  grant-list 843,738 

Higher  elementary  schools 9,360 

*  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1913),  vol.  I,  pp.  738-39. 

97.  Secondary  schools  and  the  social  organization  in 
England.  For  centuries  the  greater  part  of  secondary  edu- 
cation in  England  has  been  carried  on  by  private  and  en- 
dowed institutions,  the  great  majority  of  which  were  board- 
ing-schools. In  no  other  country  has  the  private  or  semi- 
private  school  played  so  large  a  part  in  secondary  education, 
and  probably  in  no  other  country  has  the  boarding-school 
played  so  important  a  role,  though  common  throughout 
Europe.  In  its  dependence  on  private  secondary  schools 
England  stands  in  marked  contrast  with  Germany,  France, 
America,  and  most  important  states.  Objections  to  the  non- 
public  school  in  England  are  many  and  its  weaknesses  are 
evident.  It  has  prevented  or  at  any  rate  delayed,  the  devel- 
opment of  free  public  and  universal  secondary  education. 
It  has  prevented  many  children  from  receiving  the  benefit 
of  higher  education.  It  has  fostered  conservatism  and  tra- 
dition. It  has  prevented  a  desirable  degree  of  uniformity 
and  standardization  in  secondary  education.  It  has  been 
a  system  of  education  which  was  well  adapted  to  the  needs 
and  opportunities  of  a  few,  but  it  has  neglected  the  needs  of 
the  many.  It  has  fostered  a  spirit  of  class  distinction  of 
great  social  significance.  All  these  strictures  are  justified 
and  are  recognized  in  England  as  well  as  elsewhere.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  theory  dominant  in  English  education 
up  to  the  present  be  accepted,  if  it  be  granted  that  second- 
ary education  for  the  purpose  of  developing  leaders  is  a  ten- 
able theory,  then  many  advantages  can  be  shown  to  have 
resulted  from  the  English  secondary  schools. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  257 

To  the  selected  group  of  boys  who  are  able  to  attend  such 
schools  as  are  represented  by  the  better  class  of  endowed 
and  private  institutions  there  is  afforded  an  education,  a 
training  which  is  far  more  than  instruction  with  emphasis 
on  the  intellectual  side.  Whatever  faults  may  be  attributed 
to  English  secondary  schools  of  the  type  considered  here, 
they  must  certainly  be  balanced  in  part  by  the  character  of 
the  moral,  social,  and  physical  training  which  the  endowed 
schools  of  the  better  class  undoubtedly  afford.  To  that 
training  certain  elements  evidently  contribute  much:  the 
athletic  and  out-of-door  life  which  is  even  more  extensive 
than  hi  America;  the  intimate  social  relations  between  the 
students  and  between  students  and  teachers;  the  high  tra- 
ditional ideals  which  permeate  the  whole  atmosphere  of  the 
schools.  All  this  has  had  its  effect  and  has  made  the  en- 
dowed schools  of  England  a  powerful  force  affecting  English 
society  and  public  life.  For  instance,  Eton  alone  has  fur- 
nished England  with  ten  prime  ministers,  twenty-two  gov- 
ernor-generals of  India,  and  innumerable  cabinet  ministers 
and  other  public  men. 

While  the  secondary  education  afforded  by  the  endowed 
and  private  schools  of  England  has  been  satisfactory  for  the 
higher  classes  —  probably  superior  to  that  which  will  ever 
be  afforded  by  purely  public  schools  —  secondary  education 
for  the  other  classes  of  society  has  been  quite  inadequate. 
The  movement  inaugurated  by  the  act  of  1902  was  the  result 
of  a  recognition  of  the  inadequacy  of  existing  forms  of  sec- 
ondary education  with  reference  to  the  needs  of  the  middle 
and  lower  classes.  If  the  plans  of  the  Board  of  Education 
and  of  educators  in  general  succeed,  a  real  approximation 
to  equality  of  opportunity  in  secondary  education  may  be 
expected  in  England  in  the  not-distant  future.  Such  a  move- 
ment should  mean:  (1)  an  extension  of  truly  public  second- 
ary schools;  (2)  the  elimination,  or  at  any  rate  the  reduc- 


258      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

tion,  of  tuition  fees  now  regularly  charged  even  in  the  "  grant- 
list"  secondary  schools;  (3)  the  greater  extension  of  courses 
adapted  to  the  differentiated  needs  of  boys  and  girls;  (4) 
a  great  reduction  in  the  number  of  privately  and  ecclesiasti- 
cally controlled  secondary  schools;  (5)  a  change  in  the  atti- 
tude of  the  people  toward  social  distinctions  in  secondary 
education. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  Consider  the  dominant  ideals  of  Prussian   society  as  affecting  her 
secondary  schools. 

2.  Consider  the  .dominant  social  ideals  of  France  as  affecting  her  second- 
ary schools. 

8.  Consider  the  dominant  ideals  of  England  as  affecting  her  secondary 
schools. 

4.  Compare  the  articulation  of  secondary  education  with  other  depart- 
ments of  education  in  France,  Germany,  England,  and  the   United 
States.  Make  a  chart  correlating  age,  grade,  and  type  of  school. 

5.  Compare  the  curricula  of  French,  Prussian,  and  American  secondary 
schools  with  special  reference  to:  (a)   rigidity  or  flexibility;  (6)  the 
proportionate  amounts  of  time  devoted  to  special  subjects  or  groups  of 
subjects;  (c)  distribution  and  concentration;  (d)  amount  of  time  in 
weekly  schedule,  etc. 

6.  Compare  the  facilities  for  the  secondary  education  of  girls  in  Europe 
and  in  America. 

7.  Compare  the  status  of  private  or  semi-private  secondary  schools  in 
Germany,  France,  England,  and  America. 

8.  Consider  the  relation  of  ecclesiastical  influence  to  secondary  education 
in  Germany,  France,  England,  and  America. 

9.  Compare  the  training,  qualifications,  teaching  efficiency,  social  status, 
salary,  etc.,  of  secondary  school  teachers  in  Germany,  France,  England, 
and  the  United  States.   Russell,  Farrington,  J.  F.  Brown.1 

10.  Compare  opportunities  for  free  and  universal  secondary  education  in 
Germany,  France,  England,  and  America. 

11.  Compare  the  teaching  of  special  subjects  of  study  in  German,  French, 
and  American  secondary  schools.   Russell,  Farrington.1 

12.  Compare  the  facilities  for  vocational  schools,  trade  schools,  continua- 
tion schools,  in  Germany,  France,  England,  and  the  United  States. 
How  are  they  related  to  secondary  education? 

13.  Make  a  special  study  of  the  school  system  of  Sweden  as  reorganized 

1  Cf.  the  references  in  the  following  bibliography. 


IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES  259 

in  1904.    (Cf.  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
(1913),  vol.  i,  pp,  76S/.) 

14.  Make  a  special  study  of  the  Folk  High  Schools  of  Denmark.  (Cf.  Bul- 
letins of  the  Bureau  of  Education  (1913),  no.  58;  (1914),  no.  5. 

15.  Make  a  special  study  of  the  movement  toward  a  "national  system" 
of  education  in  England  with  special  reference  to  the  laws  of  1902, 
1906,  et  seq. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

I.  General: 

Farrington,  F.  E.,  "Secondary  Education  in  Europe,"  chap.m  of 

Monroe,  P.  (Editor),  Principles  of  Secondary  Education. 
Hughes,  R.  E.,  The  Making  of  Citizens;  A  Study  in  Comparative 

Education. 
Monroe,  P.  (Editor),  A  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  articles  for  each 

foreign  country. 
Russell,  W.  F.,  Economy  in  Secondary  Education,  pp.  4-10, 17-26, 

48-53. 
Sadler,  M.  E.,  The  Unrest  in  Secondary  Education  in  Germany  and 

Elsewhere:  Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects,  Great  Britain, 

Board  of  Education,  vol.  ix. 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of 

Education,  especially  those  since  1910:  1901,  vol.  i,  pp.  939-1136; 

1902,  vol.  i,  pp.  667-1068;  1903,  vol.  i,  pp.  585-667;  1904,  vol.  I, 

pp.  767-861;  1905,  vol.  i,  pp.  57-110;  1906,  vol.  I,  pp.  1-90; 

1907,  vol.  i,  pp.  73-255J  1908,  vol.  i,  pp.  145-81;  1909,  vol.  I, 

pp.  323-549;  1910,  vol.  i,  pp.  301-578;  1911,  vol.  I,  pp.  455-589; 

1912,  vol.  i,  pp.  459-615;  1913,  vol.  i,  pp.  679-900;  1914,  vol.  I, 

pp.  655-788;  1916,  vol.  I,  pp.  513-688. 
II.  Germany: 

Bolton,  F.  E.,  The  Secondary  School  System  of  Germany. 
Brown,  J.  F.,  The  Training  of  Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools  in  Ger- 
many and  the  United  States. 
Great  Britain,  Board  of  Education,  Special  Reports  on  Educational 

Subjects,  vols.  i-m,  ix,  xx. 
Giildner,  H.,  Die  hoheren  -Lehranstalten  fur  die  weibliche  Jugend  in 

Preussen. 

Lexis,  W.,  Das  Unterrechtswesen  im  Deutschen  Reich,  vol.  n. 
Paulsen,  F.  (translation  by  Lorentz,  T.),  German  Education :  Past 

and  Present. 
Prettyman,  C.  W.,  "Higher  Girls'  Schools  of  Prussia,"  Teachers 

College  Record,  May,  1911. 
Russell,  J.  E.,  German  Higher  Schools. 
Simmons,  L.  V.  T.,  "The  Problem  of  Vocational  Education  as 


260      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Carried  Out  in  the  German  School  System,"  School  and  Society, 

vol.  v,  pp.  639-46. 
Lehrpldne  und  Lehraufgaben  fiir  die  hoheren  Schulen  in  Preussen 

(1901). 

Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  hdheren  Schiden.   Published  annually. 
Centralblatt  fur  die  gesamte  Unterrichts-Verwaltung  in  Preussen. 
Verhandlungen  ilber  Fragen  des  hdheren  Unterrichts  (1910). 
Cf.  also  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  cited 

above. 

III.  France: 

Farrington,  F.  E.,  French  Secondary  Schools. 

Girard,  D.  de,  Questions  d' enseignement  secondaire. 

Great  Britain,  Board  of  Education,  Special  Reports  on  Educational 
Subjects,  vol.  xxiv. 

Langlois,  C.  V.,  La  Question  de  I'enseignement  secondaire  en  France 
et  d  V Stranger. 

Perkins,  H.  A.,  "The  Educational  System  of  France,"  Educational 
Review,  March,  1911, 

Ribot  Commission,  Report  of,  Enquete  sur  I'enseignement  secondaire. 

Plan  d 'etudes  et  programmes  de  I 'enseignement  dans  les  lycees  et  col- 
leges des  jeunes  fittes  (1913). 

Plan  d' etudes  et  programmes  de  I 'enseignement  secondaire  des  gargons 
(1913). 

Annuaire  Statistique,  vol.  xxxn,  pp.  26-31,  24  *. 

Cf.  also  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education, 
cited  above. 

IV.  England: 

Balfour,  G.,  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Board  of  Education,  Annual  Reports. 

Board  of  Education,  Great  Britain,  Special  Reports  on  Educational 

Subjects,  vols.  i,  xxn. 

Burgstall,  S.  A.,  and  Douglas,  M.  A.,  Public  Schools  for  Girls. 
Kandel,  I.  L.,  "Educational  Tendencies  in  England,"  School  and 

Society,  vol.  v,  pp.  631-39. 
Minchin,  J.  G.  C.,  Our  Public  Schools:  Their  Influence  on  English 

History. 

Montmorency,  J.  E.  G.,  National  Education  and  National  Life. 
Norwood,  C.,  and  Hope,  A.  H.,  Higher  Education  of  Boys  in  England. 
Sandiford,  P.,  The  Training  of  Teachers  in  England  and  Wales. 
Staunton,  H.,  The  Great  Schools  of  England. 
Yoxall,  J.  H.,  and  Gray,  E.,  The  Red  Code.  An  annual  publication 

containing  the  official  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education. 
Public  Schools  Yearbook.  Published  annually. 
Cf.  also  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education, 

cited  above. 


CHAPTER  VII 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  RELATION  TO 
ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

I.  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

98.  Factors  involved  in  making  distinctions.  The  division 
of  the  system  of  education  in  the  United  States  into  the  two 
administrative  departments  of  the  elementary  school  and 
the  secondary  school  is  more  the  result  of  chance  than  of 
any  attempt  to  build  up  a  properly  articulated  system  of 
schools.   The  fact  that  present  conditions  have  not  always 
obtained  in  this  country  and  the  fact  that  systems  of  educa- 
tion hi  other  countries  differ  radically  from  that  in  America 
suggest  that  our  present  distinction  between  elementary 
and  secondary  education  and  the  existing  relation  between 
the  two  divisions  of  education  may  possibly  be  improved  by 
an  examination  of  the  factors  which  should  determine  the 
character  of  the  system.   The  first  step  in  such  an  examina- 
tion is  the  consideration  of  distinctions  which  have  been 
made  between  elementary  and  secondary  education. 

Apart  from  distinctions  based  on  administrative  divisions 
of  the  system  of  education,  elementary  and  secondary  edu- 
cation have  been  distinguished  in  numerous  ways:  on  the 
basis  of  the  chronological  age  of  the  children  concerned;  on 
the  basis  of  stages  of  physiological  or  psychological  develop- 
ment, with  special  reference  to  the  phenomena  of  puberty; 
on  the  basis  of  social  factors;  and  on  the  basis  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  studies  pursued. 

99.  Distinctions  based  on  chronological  age.    When  an 
attempt  is  made  to  define  elementary  education  and  second- 


262      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ary  education  in  terms  of  the  chronological  ages  of  the 
children  taught,  it  is  found  that  such  a  criterion  is  a  crude 
measure  as  applied  to  the  actual  situation.  Theoretically 
in  the  United  States  the  system  of  secondary  education  is 
in  part  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  children  in  attend- 
ance at  the  elementary  schools  and  secondary  schools  are 
of  ages  conforming  roughly  to  the  standard  illustrated  in 
the  following  table. 

TABLE  CIV 

Elementary  school  High  school 

Grade 12345678          I          II        III        IV 

Age 6-7    7-8   8-9    9-10  10-11  11-12  12-13  13-14  14-15  15-16  16-17   17-18 

How  far  the  actual  distribution  of  children  is  from  the 
standard  set  may  be  seen  from  the  figures  given  in  Tables 
II,  III,  and  XXV.  In  most  school  systems  a  larger  number 
of  fourteen-  and  fifteen-year-old  children  is  found  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  than  in  the  secondary  school,  and  in  all  cases 
the  variability  of  age  with  reference  to  grade  and  of  grade 
with  reference  to  age  is  so  great  as  to  make  chronological 
age  but  an  approximate  criterion  of  the  delimitation  of  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  education.  In  a  general  sense  only 
is  chronological  age  to  be  used  as  a  measure  of  school  prog- 
ress. It  can  never  afford  a  line  of  clear  demarcation. 

100.  Distinctions  based  on  development.  The  distinction 
between  elementary  education  and  secondary  education  has 
been  based  on  stages  in  the  physiological  and  psychological 
development  of  children  more  frequently  and  more  persist- 
ently than  on  any  other  one  factor.  In  general  it  is  a  fact 
which  may  be  accepted  that  the  majority  of  boys  and  girls 
in  the  elementary  school  have  not  yet  reached  the  stage  of 
adolescence  and  that  the  majority  of  boys  and  girls  in  the 
high  school  have  reached  that  stage.  It  is  nevertheless  true 
that  adolescent  boys  and  girls  are  found  in  the  elementary 
schools  in  practically  as  large  numbers  as  in  the  high  schools. 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     263 

of  most  school  systems.  It  is  further  true  that  a  significant 
proportion  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  early  grades  of  the  sec- 
ondary school  have  not  yet  reached  the  stage  of  adolescence. 
It  must  be  recognized  that  in  American  schools  pupils  in 
the  later  grades  of  the  secondary  school  are  predominantly 
adolescent  or  pubescent  and  that  pupils  in  the  earlier  grades 
of  the  elementary  school  are  predominantly  immature.  In 
the  later  grades  of  the  elementary  school,  however,  and  the 
earlier  grades  of  the  high  school  (especially  in  the  first  year) 
non-adolescent  pupils  and  adolescent  pupils  are  intermingled 
to  such  an  extent  that  any  clear  distinction  between  ele- 
mentary education  and  secondary  education  is  impossible 
at  the  very  point  where  distinction  is  important.  In  gen- 
eral (but  only  in  general)  we  may  say  that  pupils  in  grades 
one  to  five  or  six  of  the  elementary  school  form  a  group 
roughly  homogeneous  with  respect  to  the  phenomena  of 
adolescence  (being  predominantly  immature),  that  pupils 
in  grades  seven  and  eight  of  the  elementary  school  and  in 
the  first  grade  of  the  high  school  form  a  group  widely  vari- 
able, and  that  pupils  in  the  last  three  grades  of  the  high 
school  form  a  group  roughly  homogeneous  with  respect  to 
adolescence  (being  predominantly  mature).  The  bearing 
of  theories  of  periodic  or  concomitant  development  and  of 
saltatory  or  gradual  development  on  this  problem  has  al- 
ready been  discussed. 

Somewhat  allied  to  the  distinction  based  on  the  difference 
between  immature  (non-pubescent)  pupils  and  maturing  or 
mature  (pubescent  and  postpubescent)  pupils  is  that  sug- 
gested in  the  following  quotation: 

There  is  a  stage  in  mental  development,  above  the  empirical 
stage  and  below  the  philosophical,  which  we  may  call  the  "scien- 
tific." The  grade  of  education  corresponding  to  this  intermediate 
stage  may,  quite  naturally,  be  called  secondary,  that  below  it  being 
called  primary,  and  that  above  it,  higher.  The  primary  or  ele- 


264     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

mentary  division  deals  mainly  with  things  in  their  unessential 
relationships,  their  resemblances  and  differences,  their  collocation 
in  space,  and  their  orderly  arrangement  in  temporal  series.  It 
rises,  to  be  sure,  to  general  ideas,  but  hardly  arrives  at  logical 
definition  of  its  ideas.  The  secondary  division  deals  with  ideas 
more  clearly  defined;  and  it  comes  to  an  understanding  of  things 
as  organized  into  coherent  systems  through  the  operation  of  such 
principles  as  those  of  mechanical  causation  and  human  imitation. 
These  principles  have  already  become  familiar,  to  be  sure,  in  the 
earlier  stage,  but  not  in  their  larger  significance.1 

As  Indicating  a  general  truth  concerning  the  intellectual 
processes  of  the  immature  and  the  mature  pupil  such  a  sug- 
gestion may  be  accepted.  The  statements  cannot,  however, 
be  taken  as  indicating  any  clear  distinction  between  ele- 
mentary education  and  secondary  education  as  far  as  the 
transition  point  between  the  two  is  concerned.  The  ob- 
vious relation  of  the  definitions  to  theories  of  serial  or 
periodic  and  saltatory  development  will  not  escape  the 
reader. 

101.  Distinctions  based  on  social  factors.  Distinctions 
between  lower  and  higher  education  based  on  social  factors 
are  more  common  and  much  more  important  hi  European 
states  than  in  America.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out 
that  lower  and  higher  education  in  Germany  and  France  are 
separated  by  lines  of  social  and  economic  cleavage  and  have 
but  little  articulation.  It  has  also  been  pointed  out  that  the 
terms  elementary  education  and  secondary  education,  ele- 
mentary schools  and  secondary  schools,  should  be  inter- 
preted with  great  caution  when  any  comparison  is  attempted 
between  foreign  and  American  schools. 

Social  distinctions  between  elementary  education  and 
secondary  education  have  not  been  entirely  wanting,  how- 
ever, in  America.  Then*  basis  is  found  in  the  conception  that 

1  Brown,  E.  E.,  The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,  p.  3.  Quoted  with 
the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     265 

elementary  education  is  appropriate  for  all  children  while 
secondary  education  (of  necessity  in  practice  if  not  of  choice 
or  theory)  is  limited  to  a  relatively  small  proportion  of  chil- 
dren. Such  a  conception  is  more  or  less  manifest  in  com- 
pulsory education  laws  and  at  times  has  been  to  some  extent 
effective  in  determining  educational  theory  and  practice. 
It  is,  for  instance,  involved  in  the  following  statement  by 
Hadley:1 

Secondary  education,  under  the  definition  which  I  would  sug- 
gest, includes  all  those  studies  which  are  regarded  by  the  public  as 
too  far  advanced  to  be  a  part  of  the  compulsory  education  which 
it  strives  to  furnish  to  all  citizens,  and  which  are  at  the  same  time 
not  sufficiently  specialized  in  their  purpose  to  be  considered  part 
of  the  technical  preparation  of  different  groups  of  citizens  for  their 
several  callings  hi  life.  It  is  distinguished  on  the  one  hand  from 
primary  education  by  being  less  universal.  It  is  distinguished  on 
the  other  hand  from  technical  education  in  its  object;  ha  fitting 
the  student  to  be  a  better  man  rather  than  a  more  expert 
producer.  Speaking  roughly,  primary  education  aims  to  secure  the 
necessary  level  of  general  intelligence;  technical  education  aims  to 
secure  the  necessary  level  of  professional  intelligence;  secondary 
education  aims  at  something  in  excess  of  the  necessary  minima. 

While  such  a  distinction  between  the  three  divisions  of 
the  system  of  education  may  by  some  be  considered  valid 
"speaking  roughly,"  it  is  obvious  that  no  clear  line  of  de- 
marcation can  be  determined  by  the  criteria  suggested,  the 
point  (grade)  at  which  the  "level  of  general  intelligence" 
ends  and  "  something  in  excess  of  the  necessary  minima"  be- 
gins being  still  undetermined. 

102.  Distinctions  based  on  studies.  As  late  as  1912  in 
schedules  sent  out  by  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Education  a 
secondary-school  student  was  defined  as  follows: 2 

1  Hadley,  A.  T.,  "The  Meaning  and  Purpose  of  Secondary  Education," 
School  Review,  vol.  x,  p.  732. 
8  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1912),  no.  22,  p.  5. 


266     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Secondary  student  (or  high-school  student)  should  be  taken 
as  meaning  a  student  who  has  completed  an  elementary-school 
course  of  at  least  seven  years  in  length  (ordinarily  eight  years)  or 
its  equivalent,  and  has  pursued  within  the  past  year  at  least  two 
recognized  high-school  studies,  e.g.,  Latin,  French,  German, 
algebra,  geometry,  physical  geography,  physics,  general  history. 

Any  such  definition  of  secondary  education  is,  of  course, 
totally  arbitrary  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  is  already  out  of 
harmony  with  present-day  theory  and  practice.  The  his- 
tory of  education  shows  clearly  that  no  criterion  could  be 
more  untrustworthy  than  one  dependent  for  its  meaning  on 
specific  subjects  of  study.  This  is  particularly  true  since  the 
development  of  vocational  secondary  education. 

A  distinction  offering  a  nearer  approach  to  criteria  of  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  education  is  that  which  defines  the 
work  of  the  elementary  school  as  primarily  involving  the 
training  of  children  in  the  fundamental  tools  of  education 
such  as  that  now  forming  the  bulk  of  the  work  of  our  ele- 
mentary schools.  That  training  in  the  fundamental  tools  of 
education  and  of  life  is  a  primary  function  of  elementary 
education  must  be  recognized.  Few  would,  however,  admit 
that  such  training  is  the  sole  function  of  the  elemen- 
tary school.  Few  likewise  would  be  willing  to  admit  that 
even  all  the  fundamental  tools  can  adequately  be  ac- 
quired in  the  elementary  school.  Here  language  offers  a 
good  example.  The  mechanics  of  reading,  writing,  spelling, 
and  other  forms  of  language  work  can  doubtless  be  acquired 
in  a  relatively  short  time.  Surely,  however,  the  development 
of  ability  to  employ  the  language  tool  is  not  completed  by 
such  attainments.  The  proper  relation  of  reading,  writing, 
spelling,  and  the  like  to  the  development  of  ability  to  use 
language  as  an  instrument  for  thinking  and  for  the  expres- 
sion of  thought  is  not  established  within  the  period  of  ele- 
mentary education  as  now  constituted.  Only  on  the  suppo- 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     267 

sition  that  we  can  establish  definitely  the  point  at  which 
studies  cease  to  be  "fundamental  tools"  and  become  some- 
thing else  could  we  distinguish  between  elementary  educa- 
tion and  secondary  education  on  such  a  basis. 

103.  The  fallacy  of  sharp  distinctions.  When  elementary 
education  as  a  whole  is  compared  with  secondary  education 
as  a  whole,  all  the  points  of  distinction  considered  in  the 
preceding  sections  are  valid.  Pupils  in  the  secondary  school 
are  of  an  average  older  age  than  those  in  the  elementary 
school.  Likewise  they  are  predominantly  pubescent  or  post- 
pubescent  while  pupils  in  the  elementary  school  are  pre- 
dominantly immature.  Pupils  hi  the  secondary  school  are 
a  more  select  group  socially  and  economically  than  those  in 
the  elementary  school.  Studies  in  the  secondary  school  are 
different  in  kind  and  require  higher  degrees  of  mental  abil- 
ities than  those  in  the  elementary  school.  However,  when 
such  general  distinctions  are  made  the  basis  of  lines  of  sharp 
demarcation  between  the  two  divisions  of  education,  the 
dangers  of  the  "group  fallacy"  become  very  great.  Having 
once  classified  pupils  by  total  groups  hi  the  elementary  or 
secondary  school  we  tend  to  become  the  victims  of  our  own 
classifications,  assuming  that  what  is  true  of  the  group  as  a 
whole  is  true  of  the  various  sub-groups  or  individuals  of  that 
group.  Hence  we  tend  to  think  of  pupils  hi  the  last  grade  of 
the  elementary  school  and  pupils  in  the  first  grade  of  the 
secondary  school  as  manifesting  the  same  differences  as 
those  found  between  elementary-school  pupils  as  a  whole 
and  secondary-school  pupils  as  a  whole.  Such  procedure 
is  fallacious  in  the  extreme. 

The  primary  criterion  of  the  relation  between  the  various 
parts  of  the  school  system  is  found  in  the  character  of  the 
development  of  boys  and  girls.  This  factor  was  considered 
at  some  length  in  Chapters  I  and  II.  There  the  conclusion 
was  reached  that  no  abrupt  change  in  education  is  justified 


268     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

at  any  point  in  the  school  system,  but  that  the  development 
of  the  individual  being  essentially  a  gradual,  continuous, 
and  unitary  process.,  demands  a  gradually  changing,  con- 
tinuous, and  unitary  process  of  education.  Hence  on  this 
basis  the  school  system  should  be  without  points  of  abrupt 
transition  and  the  change  from  what  is  characteristically 
elementary  to  what  is  characteristically  secondary  education 
must  be  gradual. 

While  the  character  of  the  development  of  children  de- 
mands that  the  transition  from  elementary  education  to 
secondary  education  be  gradual  and  continuous,  it  must  be 
recognized  that  the  exigencies  of  school  organization  and 
administration  necessitate  changes  at  some  point  or  points 
which  must  to  some  extent  interfere  with  the  transition  of 
pupils  from  division  to  division  of  the  school  system.  Some- 
where in  the  course  of  the  pupil's  progress  he  must  be  trans- 
ferred to  a  different  building.  Somewhere  the  change  must 
be  made  from  the  single  common  course  typical  of  elemen- 
tary education  to  the  field  of  differentiated  courses  of  the 
secondary  school,  from  the  single-teacher-per-group  system 
to  the  departmental  system,  from  the  administrative  regime 
of  the  elementary  school  to  that  of  the  secondary  school. 
Under  our  present  organization  the  majority  of  those 
changes  are  made  abruptly  and  at  the  same  point.  This  is 
neither  necessary  nor  desirable.  It  should  be  an  aim  of 
organization  and  administration  to  see  to  it  that  the  neces- 
sary changes  be  made  in  such  a  way  that  the  transition  of 
the  pupil  shall  be  gradual  and  continuous  as  far  as  may  be 
possible. 

The  point  should  be  emphasized  that,  however  clearly 
we  may  distinguish  between  elementary  education  as  a 
whole  and  secondary  education  as  a  whole,  any  attempt 
to  draw  a  sharp  dividing  line  between  the  two  is  contrary 
to  the  dictates  of  sound  pedagogy.  There  is  no  clear  line 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION    269 

of  demarcation  between  elementary  and  secondary  educa- 
tion. The  former  merges  into  the  latter  by  imperceptible 
degrees. 

II.    HISTORICAL  AND  COMPARATIVE  CONSIDERATIONS 

104.  Historical  development.  The  sequential  relation  of 
elementary  and  secondary  education  (wherein  secondary  ed- 
ucation is  conceived  as  a  continuation  of  training  following 
and  dependent  on  elementary  education)  represents  a  rela- 
tively recent  stage  of  development  and  one  found  in  com- 
plete form  only  in  America  and  in  countries  more  or  less 
affected  by  American  practice.  When  we  examine  the  ear- 
lier forms  of  education  in  Europe  (to  go  back  no  farther  than 
the  Renaissance  and  Reformation  periods),  we  find  existing 
two  different  types  of  schools,  the  so-called  secondary  school 
(gymnasium,  Latin  grammar  school,  etc.)  and  schools  of  a 
lower  type  in  which  were  taught  only  the  rudiments  of  read- 
ing and  writing.  Schools  of  the  former  type  were  designed 
for  the  education  of  the  higher  classes.  Schools  of  the  lower 
type  afforded  a  rudimentary  education  (it  can  scarcely  be 
called  an  elementary  education)  for  a  few  of  the  less  fortu- 
nate class.  Between  these  two  types  of  schools  there  existed 
no  recognized  articulation,  as  there  existed  little  opportunity 
for  change  from  one  class  of  society  to  the  other.  It  is  quite 
misleading  in  many  respects  to  differentiate  these  schools  as 
elementary  and  secondary  schools.  Rather  we  should  say 
that  there  existed  during  the  Renaissance  and  Reformation 
periods  one  rather  complete  system  of  schools  designed  for 
the  higher  classes  and  another  type  of  school  (it  can  scarcely 
be  called  system)  for  some  of  the  lower  classes.  This  is  all 
the  more  true  since  the  higher  type  of  school  either  provided 
its  own  "elementary  education"  or  depended  on  home  or 
tutorial  training  for  reading  and  writing  instruction. 


270     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Out  of  those  two  types  of  schools  have  developed  the  mod- 
ern "elementary"  and  "secondary"  schools  of  Europe  which 
only  in  the  most  recent  times  have  been  brought  into  very 
incomplete  articulation  and  which  still  manifest  clearly  the 
lines  of  social  distinction  inherited  from  earlier  days. 

105.  The  development  of  articulation  in  America.  The 
American  system  of  articulated  elementary  and  secondary 
education  stands  in  marked  contrast  with  the  more  or  less 
parallel  systems  of  Germany,  France,  and  other  European 
countries,  where  social  and  economic  lines  in  large  part  de- 
termine the  differentiation.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  how- 
ever, that  the  American  system  of  articulated  schools  origi- 
nated in  anything  like  its  present  form.  The  first  secondary 
schools  in  this  country,  the  colonial  Latin  grammar  schools, 
were  in  no  definite  way  articulated  with  the  "reading  and 
writing"  schools,  "dame  schools,"  etc.,  which  constituted 
the  lower  schools  of  the  period,  but  were  complete  in  them- 
selves, being  connected  only  with  the  college  for  which  they 
were  designed  to  prepare.  The  earliest  laws  did,  indeed, 
provide  both  for  elementary  schools  and  for  secondary 
schools,  but  those  provisions  included  no  plan  or  suggestion 
for  articulation  between  them.  It  was  not  until  the  rise  of  the 
high  school  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century 
that  there  developed  any  sort  of  organized  articulation 
between  the  two  departments,  though  it  should  be  noted 
that  various  comprehensive  schemes  for  state  systems  of 
education  which  provided  for  a  well-articulated  system  of 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  had  been  proposed  and 
in  part  adopted  before  that  time. 

The  Latin  grammar  school  was  confessedly  designed  solely 
to  prepare  boys  for  college  and  hence  in  part  reflected  the 
mark  of  social  distinction  found  in  European  secondary 
schools  of  the  period.  Such  boys  did  not  attend  the  "com- 
schools."  It  was  only  with  the  establishment  of.  the 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION      271 

high  school,  which  aimed  to  provide  secondary  education 
for  boys  and  girls  who  did  not  intend  to  go  to  college,  that 
boys  and  girls  who  had  gone  to  the  common  schools  were  pro- 
vided with  a  means  of  secondary  education.  The  need  for 
articulation  then  became  important.  Thus  the  Boston 
English  Classical  (High)  School  was  established  "with  the 
design  of  furnishing  young  men  of  the  city  who  are  not  in- 
tended for  a  collegiate  course  of  study  and  who  have  enjoyed 
the  usual  advantages  of  the  other  public  schools  with  the  means 
of  completing  a  good  English  education." 

The  first  high-school  law  in  the  country  (Massachusetts, 
1827)  made  no  provision  for  the  articulation  between  the 
secondary  school  and  the  elementary  school  but  rather  inter- 
fered with  any  close  articulation  by  providing  for  a  certain 
amount  of  elementary  education  in  the  high  school  proper. 
This  led  to  a  considerable  amount  of  confusion  which  per- 
sisted for  several  years.  However,  the  law  did  allow  the  local 
school  committees  to  determine  the  regulations  regarding 
the  qualifications  for  admission  to  the  high  school  and  in  the 
larger  and  better  school  systems  there  soon  developed  cer- 
tain standards  for  admission  to  the  high  school  which  regu- 
larly involved  satisfactory  completion  of  the  elementary 
school  studies.  This  is  specifically  so  stated  in  the  report  of 
the  school  committee  of  Worcester  (Massachusetts)  as  early 
as  1844,  but  the  standard  had  in  fact  been  established  rather 
generally  in  practice  before  that.  The  transfer  was  regu- 
larly made  on  the  basis  of  examinations  which  were  made 
quite  formal,  even  to  the  extent  of  printing  the  examina- 
tion questions.  Nevertheless  the  greatest  confusion  between 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  was  found  until  well  into 
the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  a  condition  whicb 
may  be  appreciated  from  the  fact  that,  while  there  were 
certainly  not  more  than  eighteen  high  schools  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1840,  out  of  304  towns  reporting  at  that  date,  104 


272     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

claimed  to  offer  algebra  in  their  schools,  181  claimed  to  offer 
natural  philosophy  (physics),  116  mental  science,  41  chem- 
istry, and  various  other  subjects  belonging  to  the  secondary 
school  curriculum  —  some  of  them  required  by  law  as  high- 
school  subjects. 

In  this  connection  we  must  not  fail  to  note  the  lack  of 
well-graded  elementary  schools  in  this  country  until  well  on 
into  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  many 
States  the  "district  system,"  whereby  a  large  number  of 
small  and  to  some  degree  independent  political  districts, 
with  corresponding  education  units  (school  districts),  mili- 
tated strongly  against  the  development  of  well-graded 
schools.  This  undoubtedly  had  its  influence  in  delaying  the 
articulation  of  elementary  and  secondary  schools  in  the 
United  States,  and  particularly  in  New  England. 

From  these  facts  it  is  clear  that  the  present  form  of  articu- 
lation between  elementary  and  secondary  schools  in  the 
United  States  is  of  relatively  recent  development  and  repre- 
sents the  result  of  attempts  to  bring  into  relation  two  insti- 
tutions, which  had  grown  up  more  or  less  independently. 
The  present  situation  is  the  result  of  a  gradual  growth  rather 
than  a  system  logically  developed  in  theory  and  applied 
directly  through  legislative  or  administrative  action,  the 
result  of  an  evolution,  not  the  result  of  a  logically  con- 
structed organization. 

106.  Practice  in  foreign  countries.  An  examination  of 
systems  of  education  in  foreign  countries  discloses  a  number 
of  facts  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  relation  between 
elementary  and  secondary  education.  Among  those  facts 
may  be  mentioned  the  following. 

(1)  In  many  foreign  countries,  e.g.,  Germany  and  France, 
the  division  of  schools  is  based  on  the  groupings  of  pupils 
(social  and  economic)  rather  than  on  the  basis  of  school 
progress,  the  "higher  schools"  including  both  elementary 


RELATION  TO   ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     273 


and  secondary  education  in  the  American  sense  of  those 
terms. 

(2)  In  such  countries  there  is  no  definite  point  at  \vbich 
one  can  say  elementary  education  ends  and  secondary  edu- 
cation begins.  In  whatever  school  a  boy  or  girl  enrolls  he 
proceeds  without  abrupt  transition  from  grade  to  grade  or 

Age  in  Years  6         78         9        10      11      12      18       14     15      16      17       18      19 


United  States          I       Elenentary  School 


[Secondary  School      | 


fieraany* 


Preparatory    :  llohore  Ha'dehenschule       .  * 

Vollcsschule                              :  Vortbiidungs-schuie.etCi 
Vorsohule         • Hohere  Knabensehule . _1 


Trance 


feole  Prinaire 


Lyneg  or  College   (Olrls=)  _  _  J 


•  lyc^e  or  Coll^se  (Boys) 


Sngland 


I  Elepentary  School  'Higher  Elementary  ,ete« 

Secondary  School 


Pen-lark 


Sweden 


Italy 


rolkesxole  j"  "  Cont  inuatlon"  8cliooV,e?cr  "  " 

~)  '  tle'l'lem  'skoie"'"r  Gyana's'i'u 


I    Middle  School         | 
~ 


1  Infant     ;      Elementary  ~  Cont  ruat  on  School,  etc. 

|  Realskolor  ' 

|       Oynmasiioi 


Eleaentary  School  I 


Priory  SehooT 


gher  Prinaryj 


_ 
mddle  Schoo  [Hitf.  School   ~\ 


Scotland          llnfan       ;  Primry 

*•  -  - 


atp  [Seoondaryj 


Greece 


|  Eler.entary 


Hellenic  |     Gyrcnasium 


FIGURE  U.   ILLUSTRATING  THE  RELATION  OF  VARIOUS  SCHOOLS  IN 
DIFFERENT  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 


274     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

from  division  to  division.  Nothing  could  be  more  misleading 
than  the  statement  commonly  made  that  the  German  boy 
begins  his  secondary  education  at  the  age  of  nine  when  he 
enters  the  "higher  school, "  or  that  the  French  boy  begins  his 
secondary  education  at  the  age  of  ten  when  he  enters  the 
lycte  or  college.  In  both  cases  elementary  education  merges 
into  secondary  education  (in  the  American  sense  of  both 
terms)  so  gradually  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  dissociate 
the  two.  This  continuity  and  gradualness  of  educational 
progress  is  in  fact  one  of  the  outstanding  characteristics  of 
German  and  French  education. 

(3)  Subjects    which    are   confined    to    secondary-school 
study  in  America  are  begun  at  a  much  earlier  stage  in  most 
foreign  countries,  e.g.,  in  the  "higher  schools"  of  Germany 
and  in  the  French  lycSe.  * 

(4)  Some  amount  of  differentiated  education  is  provided 
earlier  in  Germany  and  France  than  in  America  —  in  Ger- 
many at  the  age  of  nine  and  in  France  at  the  age  of  ten. 

Some  of  these  facts  will  appear  more  clearly  from  the 
diagram  illustrating  the  relation  of  various  schools  in  differ- 
ent countries.  (Figure  U.) 

III.  THE  PRESENT  STATUS  OF  THE  ARTICULATION  BE- 
TWEEN ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES 

107.  The  eight-four-system.  In  discussing  the  present 
status  of  articulation  between  elementary  and  secondary 
education  in  this  country  the  normal  situation  will  be  con- 
sidered as  that  in  which  a  four-year  high-school  course 
is  sequentially  related  to  an  eight-year  elementary-school 
course.  In  some  localities,  especially  in  New  England,  the 
elementary-school  course  comprises  nine  grades,  but  in  such 
cases  younger  children  enter  the  first  grade  of  the  school, 


RELATION   TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION      275 

which  is  to  be  considered  in  some  respects  as  taking  the 
place  of  a  kindergarten  grade,  and  the  relation  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  to  the  high  school  is  not  seriously  affected. 
High  schools  with  courses  shorter  than  four  grades  are  nu- 
merous, constituting  approximately  one  third  of  all  high 
schools  in  the  country  and  enrolling  about  one  tenth  of  the 
total  number  of  high-school  pupils.  With  the  exception  of 
high  schools  established  in  recent  years  hi  the  form  of  junior- 
senior  high  schools,  or  as  six-year  high  schools  (to  be  consid- 
ered separately  below),  variations  from  the  four-grade  high 
school  are  due  to  their  situation  in  sparsely  populated  dis- 
tricts and  are  mainly  of  the  partial  high-school  type,  con- 
sidered as  incomplete  and  preparing  pupils  for  the  comple- 
tion of  then*  courses  in  other  nearby  high  schools.  Their 
number  is  constantly  decreasing  as  consolidation  improves, 
and  they  involve  no  important  separate  problem  affecting 
the  matter  of  articulation. 

108.  The  age  of  pupils  transferred.  Theoretically  pupils 
in  the  last  grade  of  the  elementary  school  are  about  thirteen 
or  fourteen  years  of  age  and  those  of  the  first  grade  of  the 
high  school  are  about  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age.  It  has 
already  been  pointed  out  that  there  is  a  great  amount  of 
overlapping  between  grades  in  the  chronological  ages  of 
pupils  in  any  school  system.  In  the  majority  of  school  sys- 
tems pupils  twelve,  thirteen,  or  fourteen  years  of  age  will 
be  found  scattered  all  the  way  from  the  first  grade  of  the 
elementary  school  well  into  the  high  school  and  pupils  fif- 
teen, sixteen,  even  seventeen  years  of  age  will  be  found  in 
almost  every  grade  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest.  Thus  it 
appears  from  the  data  presented  in  Table  III  that  in  the 
cities  considered  45.2  per  cent  of  all  thirteen-year-old  pupils 
were  found  located  below  the  seventh  grade,  46.2  per  cent 
of  all  fourteen-year-old  pupils  below  the  eighth  grade,  45.1 
per  cent  of  all  fifteen-year-old  pupils  below  the  first  grade 


276     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

of  the  high  school.  In  many  school  systems  there  are  more 
fifteen-year-old  pupils  in  the  elementary  school  than  in  the 
high  school. 

The  large  number  of  over-age  pupils  found  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  raises  some  serious  questions  concerning 
methods  of  promotion  in  the  later  grades  of  that  school. 
The  problem  will  be  considered  at  greater  length  in  later  sec- 
tions dealing  with  the  junior  high  school.  It  may  be  sug- 
gested here,  however,  that  the  practice  hitherto  obtaining 
of  retaining  pupils  chronologically,  physiologically,  and 
socially  mature,  in  the  lower  grades  of  the  school  system  and 
making  the  complete  accomplishment  of  prescribed  amounts 
of  elementary-school  work  the  sole  criterion  for  the  admis- 
sion of  pupils  to  other  forms  of  education  is  a  practice  harm- 
ful both  to  the  school  and  to  the  pupils.  Pupils  who  are 
more  mature  and  who  can  secure  greater  benefit  through 
other  forms  of  education  than  those  usually  provided  in  the 
elementary  school  as  at  present  organized  must,  wherever 
possible,  be  provided  the  opportunity  to  engage  in  such 
education  as  they  can  do  rather  than  be  required  over  and  over 
to  engage  in  forms  of  education  for  which  they  have  already 
manifested  their  inability.  Suggested  means  for  accom- 
plishing this  reform  will  be  considered  in  later  sections. 

109.  The  pedagogical  age  of  pupils  transferred.  To 
describe  the  stage  of  pedagogical  development  of  pupils 
making  the  transition  from  the  elementary  school  to  the 
secondary  school  is  a  practical  impossibility.  To  state  that 
the  pupils  have  progressed  through  eight  grades  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  having  performed  the  duties  required  by  the 
course  of  study  and  the  administration  with  a  certain  degree 
of  success  is  to  afford  but  little  evidence  of  the  ability  and 
achievement  of  such  pupils.  We  know  that  the  pupils  have 
met  the  minimum  requirements  of  the  elementary  school 
in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  nature 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     277 

study,  drawing,  etc.  We  know  that  they  have  been  subjected 
to  certain  forms  of  social  education  and  to  certain  forms  of 
discipline.  We  know  that  each  of  those  factors  has  had  its 
measure  of  effect  in  determining  the  nature  of  the  children 
entering  the  secondary  school.  Measures  of  the  definite 
status  of  the  mental  ability,  of  interests  and  attitudes,  even 
of  achievement,  are  almost  completely  lacking.  Until  such 
measures  are  supplied  we  must  rest  content  hi  describing  the 
previous  training  of  pupils  entering  the  secondary  school  in 
general  terms  indicating  that  they  have  received  such  train- 
ing as  is  afforded  by  eight  years  of  education  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools,  under  the  conditions  obtaining  there,  and  have 
acquired  a  certain  amount  of  facility  in  the  employment  of 
such  tools  of  education  as  are  involved  in  language  work, 
numerical  calculation,  a  certain  number  of  facts  of  geog- 
raphy, nature  study,  history,  etc.,  and  certain  attitudes 
toward  the  work  of  the  school  and  toward  society.  That 
the  pupils  coming  to  the  secondary  school  from  the  elemen- 
tary school  should  represent  even  a  fairly  homogeneous 
group  in  achievement  is  not  to  be  expected.  Still  less  is  it  to 
be  expected  that  the  group  will  be  homogeneous  in  capac- 
ity and  ability.  The  same  amount  of  "exposure"  to  the  ed- 
ucational forces  of  the  elementary  school  does  not  decrease 
original  differences  in  capacity  nor  in  achievement:  rather 
it  tends  to  increase  such  original  differences,  and  one  may 
confidently  expect  to  find  among  pupils  entering  the  second- 
ary school  after  essentially  the  same  amount  and  form  of 
training  in  the  latter,  differences  fully  as  great  as  those 
exemplified  in  Tables  XXIII  and  XXIV. 

no.  Evidences  of  defects  in  articulation.  For  a  number 
of  years  it  has  been  recognized  that  defects  exist  in  the  artic- 
ulation between  elementary  schools  and  secondary  schools 
in  the  United  States.  Transition  from  one  institution  to 
another  or  from  one  division  of  the  same  institution  to 


278     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

another  must  always  involve  the  necessity  for  a  certain 
degree  of  readjustment  to  changed  conditions.  The  more 
different  the  two  institutions  or  divisions  the  greater  is  the 
degree  of  readjustment  necessary.  Important  differences 
are  found  between  the  elementary-school  situation  and  the 
high-school  situation,  and  the  pupil  called  upon  to  make 
the  change  from  one  division  to  the  other  is  required  to 
make  important  and  difficult  readjustments.  Some  of  those 
readjustments  necessary  deserve  attention. 

(1)  The  transition  from  the  elementary  school  to  the  high 
school  ordinarily  involves  the  breaking  up  of  established 
social  groups  among  pupils  who  have  been  associated  for 
some  years  and  the  establishment  of  new  social  groups. 
The  resulting  readjustments  are  as  difficult  in  many  cases 
as  those  which  face  the  college  freshman  or  the  boy  whose 
family  moves  to  a  strange  town  or  district. 

(2)  The  transition  from  the  elementary  school  to  the  high 
school  ordinarily  means  a  transfer  from  one  institution  to 
another  quite  different,  to  one  in  which  almost  every  phase 
of  the  organization  and  administration  is  radically  different 
to  those  obtaining  in  the  institution  to  which  he  has  become 
accustomed.   The  resulting  readjustments  necessary  are  by 
no  means  easily  made  and  sometimes  the  necessity  for  such 
readjustments  is  not  recognized  until  extensive  damage  has 
been  done  to  the  boy  or  girl. 

(3)  The  pupil  on  passing  from  the  elementary  school  to 
the  high  school  ordinarily  passes  from  a  situation  in  which 
practically  all  his  study  in  any  one  grade  (or  even  several 
grades)  has  been  under  the  direction  and  guidance  of  a  single 
teacher  who  has  learned  to  know  him  in  all  his  activities  — 
to  know  the  whole  child  —  to  a  situation  in  which  his  activ- 
ities are  divided  in  such  a  way  as  to  involve  a  number  of 
different  individuals  as  teachers  and  guides,  no  one  of  whom 
knows  the  pupil  as  a  whole  and  can  coordinate  his  various 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     279 

activities  connected  with  the  school  work.  Such  an  abrupt 
transition  from  one  situation  to  a  far  different  one  involves 
an  extremely  difficult  readjustment  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 
This  situation,  however,  is  rapidly  being  remedied  in  part 
by  extending  some  forms  of  departmental  teaching  down 
into  the  eighth,  seventh,  or  even  the  sixth  grade  of  the  ele- 
mentary school,  and,  when  such  departmental  work  is 
gradually  introduced  and  its  amount  increased  grade  by 
grade,  the  transition  from  the  one  school  to  the  other  per- 
mits a  gradual  readjustment.  In  1913  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education  sent  out  a  questionnaire  to  superin- 
tendents in  cities  of  5000  population  or  over,  of  which  there 
were  1245  enumerated  in  the  census  of  1910.  Of  813  replies 
received,  461  reported  departmental  teaching  hi  the  elemen- 
tary school  in  some  form  in  the  later  grades.  The  complete 
data  summarized  were  as  indicated  in  the  following  table. 

TABLE  CV  * 

Yea     No  No  data 

Is  departmental  teaching  in  operation? 461   352 

Is  the  percentage  of  failures  less?    240     78       143 

Do  a  larger  percentage  enter  the  high  school? 250      61       150 

Are  pupils  better  able  to  do  high-school  work? 302     34       125 

*  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1913),  vol.  i,  pp.  139-10. 

(4)  Transfer  from  the  elementary  school  to  the  secondary 
school  commonly  means  a  noticeable  change  in  the  char- 
acter of  studies.  Those  of  the  last  grades  of  the  elementary 
school  are  almost  exclusively  subjects  which  have  been 
studied  for  many  years  and  are  familiar  to  the  pupil  in  their 
general  associations  because  they  are  but  different  phases 
of  such  subjects  as  arithmetic,  language,  geography,  and 
the  like.  On  entrance  to  the  high  school  the  pupil  is  con- 
fronted by  a  group  of  studies  nearly  all  of  which  are  un- 
familiar in  character  or  attacked  from  a  viewpoint  and  by 
methods  which  are  unfamiliar.  Obviously  new  subjects 


280     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

of  study  must  be  encountered  by  the  pupil  in  his  progress 
through  the  school.  The  difficulty  lies  not  in  the  necessary 
introduction  of  new  studies  but  in  the  fact  that  they  are 
encountered  en  bloc  in  the  first  grade  of  the  high  school. 
The  necessity  for  abrupt  adjustment  to  this  group  of  new 
subjects  is  a  severe  strain  on  the  pupil.  This  is  further  em- 
phasized by  the  fact  that  the  increased  responsibility  for 
undirected  study  and  the  removal  of  conditions  favoring 
a  coordination  of  studies  and  habits  of  study  make  a  sudden 
demand  for  self  direction  for  which  previous  provision  has 
not  been  made.  Finally,  when  to  these  factors  is  added  a 
third  —  the  responsibility  for  choice  and  election  of  studies 
and  curricula  —  the  difficulties  of  adjustment  and  orienta- 
tion are  tremendously  enhanced. 

(5)  Teachers  in  the  elementary  school  regularly  have 
received  their  training  in  the  normal  school.  Teachers  in  the 
high  school  regularly  have  received  their  training  —  such 
as  it  is  —  in  the  college.  The  former  have  received  a  pro- 
fessional training  which  has  emphasized  method  and  the 
pupil.  The  latter  have  received  no  professional  training 
in  most  cases  and  in  their  higher  education  have  tended 
to  become  specialists  in  subject  matter.  In  the  elementary 
schools  only  17.6  per  cent  of  the  teachers  are  men  and  it 
is  not  by  any  means  an  exceptional  case  for  the  boy  or  girl 
to  reach  the  high  school  without  ever  having  come  into 
contact  with  a  man  as  his  teacher.  In  the  high  school  on 
the  average  43.6  per  cent  of  the  teachers  are  men  and 
sooner  or  later  the  high-school  pupil  is  to  have  nearly  one 
half  of  his  work  and  training  under  men  teachers.  Ordi- 
narily the  change  is  not  so  great  as  that  implied  by  the  fig- 
ures since  the  majority  of  men  teachers  in  the  elementary 
schools  are  found  as  teachers  in  the  later  grades  of  those 
schools.  The  change  is  not  without  importance,  however, 
for  pupils  of  either  sex. 


RELATION   TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     281 

(6)  As  a  result  of  the  factors  mentioned  in  the  two  para- 
graphs preceding  important  differences  are  found  in  the 
methods  of  teaching  employed  in  the  elementary  and  sec- 
ondary schools.     The  abrupt  changes  in  the  methods  of 
teaching  employed  constitute  one  more  factor  demanding 
readjustment  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  entering  the  high 
school  for  the  first  time. 

(7)  Closely  related  to  this  factor  is  the  fact  that  methods 
of  discipline  and  methods  of  treating  pupils  differ  quite 
widely  in  the  elementary  school  and  the  secondary  school. 
As  children  mature  forms  of  discipline  and  of  treatment 
must  and  should  change.    No  justification  can  be  found, 
however,  for  the  sudden  and  abrupt  change  within  four 
months  from  the  maternalism  of  the  elementary  school  to 
individualism  of  the  secondary  school.   When  conditions 
call  for  such  a  change  the  pupil  is  bewildered  by  the  great 
readjustment  necessary. 

(8)  Finally  we  may  note  that  the  whole  atmosphere  in 
the  high  school  differs  from  that  of  the  elementary  school. 
The  thousand  and  one  forms  of  readjustment  demanded  of 
the  boy  or  girl  entering  the  high  school  for  the  first  time 
postulate  a  capacity  for  adaptation  not  always  found. 

In  general  we  may  draw  one  important  conclusion  from 
all  these  forms  of  readjustment  involved  —  that  the  present 
form  of  articulation  between  elementary  and  secondary 
education  violates  the  most  important  laws  of  unity  and 
continuity  demanded  by  the  unitary,  continuous,  and 
gradual  development  of  children.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
every  one  of  the  changes  mentioned  is  necessary.  The 
danger  lies  in  the  fact  that  all  those  changes  come  at  the 
same  time  and  are  sudden  and  abrupt,  so  that  the  difficul- 
ties of  adjustment  are  cumulative. 

in.  Retardation  and  elimination  as  evidence.  While 
the  phenomena  of  retardation  and  elimination  are  complex 


282     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

and  difficult  of  interpretation,  they  may  afford  some  evi- 
dence of  the  difficult  readjustments  which  face  the  pupils 
when  they  pass  from  the  elementary  school  to  the  secondary 
school.  Figures  for  retardation  indicate  a  large  proportion- 
ate amount  of  non-promotion  in  the  first  year  of  the  high 
school  and  in  the  majority  of  high  schools  it  is  recognized 
that  the  first  grade  is  the  critical  point  in  the  school.  Failure 
there  is  not  only  greatest  but  also  more  likely  to  result  in 
discouragement  and  withdrawal  from  school. 

In  Chapter  IV  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  greatest  pro- 
portionate amount  of  elimination  is  found  in  the  first  grade 
of  the  high  school  or  between  the  first  and  second  high-school 
grades.  The  interpretation  of  that  fact  is  not  altogether 
clear,  but  we  are  at  least  safe  in  saying  that,  so  far  as  the 
evidence  goes,  it  would  corroborate  the  belief  that  the 
difficulties  of  adjustment  facing  the  pupil  on  entrance  to 
the  high  school  result  in  failure,  discouragement,  and  with- 
drawal. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  malarticulation 
between  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  is  evidenced 
not  only  by  the  fact  that  pupils  entering  the  high  school  fail 
and  leave  in  large  numbers,  but  also  by  the  fact  that  large 
numbers  of  pupils  leave  school  at  the  close  of  the  elementary 
period.  In  other  words  the  high  school  not  only  fails  to  re- 
tain pupils  entering,  but  it  also  fails  to  attract  many  pupils 
who  should  enter. 

112.  Instruction  in  later  elementary-school  grades. 
Directly  or  indirectly  the  character  of  the  instruction  pro- 
vided in  the  later  grades  of  the  elementary  school  seriously 
affects  the  articulation  between  that  school  and  the  second- 
ary school.  Some  of  the  factors  here  involved  have  already 
been  considered.  It  remains  to  point  out  that  the  unsatisfac- 
tory education  provided  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
tends  both  to  eliminate  pupils  in  those  grades  and  to  dis- 


RELATION   TO   ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION      283 

courage  them  from  proceeding  into  the  secondary  school. 
In  the  following  table  are  presented  figures  indicating  the 
average  number  of  minutes  per  week  devoted  to  various  ele- 
mentary-school studies  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
of  about  fifty  typical  cities  in  the  country. 

TABLE  CVI* 

Studies  Grade  7  Grade  8 

Reading 98  97 

Language 134  142 

Spelling 52  51 

Penmanship 39  37 

Arithmetic 140  142 

Geography 98  76 

History 91  117 

Science 45  57 

Drawing 50  49 

Music 45  44 

Manual  training 72  74 

Physical  training 38  39 

Opening  exercises 31  31 

Recess 66  66 

Miscellaneous 78  87 

*  On  this  whole  question  see  the  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Stud) 
yf  Education,  Part.  I.  Table  from  p.  26.     See  also  Sixteenth  Yearbook,  Part  I. 

Reading,  language,  spelling,  penmanship,  arithmetic, 
geography  engage  pupils  during  more  than  sixty  per  cent 
of  their  recitation  time  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 
In  many  cases  all  studies  of  the  elementary  school  are  of  a 
highly  formal  character,  containing  much  obsolete  and  use- 
less material,  and  including  a  great  amount  of  review  work.1 
Few  elementary  schools  provide  any  opportunity  for  pupils 
to  vary  their  study  in  any  appreciable  degree  by  election  of 
subjects.  Shorn  of  useless  material  and  with  a  reduction  of 
reviews  the  elementary-school  course  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  could  better  meet  the  needs  of  education  and 
of  articulation. 

1  On  the  review  work  of  those  grades  see  Hill,  C.  M.,  Missouri  State 
Normal  School  Bulletin  (1915),  no.  3. 


284     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

IV.  REFORMS  IN  THE  ARTICULATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  AND 
SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

113.  Further  objections  to  present  conditions.    In  the 
preceding  section  were  pointed  out  evidences  of  a  malad- 
justment of  elementary  and  secondary  education  in  this 
country  because  of  the  difficulties  involved  in  the  transition 
from  the  former  to  the  latter.    That  "gap"  between  the 
two  divisions  is  not,  however,  the  sole  objection  which  has 
been  raised  against  the  present  form  of  articulation  between 
the  two  schools.    More  fundamental  objections  are  to  be 
found.    They  may  be  grouped  under  three  general  heads: 
(a)  psychological  considerations,  with  special  reference  to  the 
factors  of  development  with  maturity  and  the  distribution  of 
individual  differences  among  pupils;  (6)  social  and  economic 
considerations,   with  special  reference  to  the  factors  of 
economy  of  time  and  money  in  education,  prevocational 
education  and  the  differentiated  needs  of  society,  elimination 
and  retardation;  (c)  administrative  considerations.    Need- 
less to  say,  these  factors  are  all  closely  interrelated.   How- 
ever, for  purposes  of  analysis  they  may  be  considered 
separately  in  the  following  sections. 

114.  Psychological  considerations.   Two  important  psy- 
chological factors  affect  the  problem  of  articulation  between 
elementary  and  secondary  education,  one  involving  the 
adjustment  of  the  different  divisions  of  the  educational 
system  to  the  development  of  children  in  mental  traits,  'the 
other  involving  recognition  of  the  existence  and  distribution 
of  individual  differences  among  pupils  and  the  adaptation 
thereto  of  the  education  afforded. 

(1)  The  factor  of  development  with  maturity:  For  some  time 
*Jie  theory  has  obtained  in  American  education  that  a  rather 
Bidden  and  abrupt  change  from  elementary  to  secondary 
education  is  justified  on  the  assumption  that  the  develop- 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION       285 

ment  of  children  with  maturity  is  saltatory  and  that  at 
adolescence  particularly  a  marked  change  takes  place  in  the 
boy  or  girl  which  justified  a  correspondingly  marked  diff- 
erentiation between  elementary,  and  secondary  education. 
From  the  material  presented  in  Chapter  II  it  would  appear: 
(a)  that  the  theory  of  gradual  development  seems  more  cor- 
rect than  the  theory  of  saltatory  development;  and  (6)  that, 
even  on  the  assumption  of  a  theory  of  saltatory  develop- 
ment for  individuals,  among  groups  of  pupils  variability  is 
so  great  and  the  influence  of  other  factors  so  strong  that 
points  of  abrupt  transition  between  any  two  successive 
divisions  of  the  system  of  education  are  quite  unjustifiable. 
Essential  continuity  and  gradual  change  should  mark  the 
articulation  between  elementary  and  secondary  education 
whether  a  theory  of  saltatory  development  or  a  theory  of 
gradual  development  is  assumed. 

In  this  connection  attention  may  be  recalled  to  the  facts 
disclosed  by  figures  in  Tables  XI  to  XVIII.  Those  figures 
indicate  that  as  our  school  system  is  at  present  organized 
pupils  in  grades  1-6  are  predominantly  immature  physio- 
logically, in  grades  II-TV  (high  school)  pupils  are  predom- 
inantly mature  physiologically,  and  that  the  stage  from 
the  seventh  grade  of  the  elementary  school  to  the  first  grade 
of  the  high  school,  pupils  are  in  a  markedly  transitional 
period  as  far  as  the  factor  of  pubescence  is  concerned.  At 
the  age  of  twelve  less  than  five  per  cent  of  the  pupils  are 
post-pubescent,  and  the  age  of  sixteen  more  than  four  fifths 
are  post-pubescent.  Ages  thirteen  to  fifteen  mark  the 
transitional  period. 

(#)  The  factor  of  individual  differences :  While  the  factor 
of  individual  differences  is  involved  in  all  departments  and 
at  all  stages  in  education,  it  fails  to  receive  recognition  in 
important  respects  until  the  stage  of  secondary  education 
begins.  In  the  majority  of  school  systems  under  existing 


286     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

conditions  any  sort  of  adaptation  of  courses,  studies,  and 
methods  of  teaching  to  the  differentiated  capacities,  inter- 
ests, and  needs  of  boys  and  girls  is  deferred  to  the  beginning 
of  the  high  school  where  pupils  are  on  the  average  approx- 
imately fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age.  The  psychology 
of  individual  differences  indicates  that  this  date  is  too  late 
and  that  provision  should  be  made  earlier  in  the  school 
system  for  the  adaptation  of  the  work  of  the  schools  to  the 
differentiated  capacities,  interests,  and  needs  of  pupils  as 
well  as  to  the  differentiated  needs  of  society.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  failure  to  meet  this  demand  in  the  past  has 
led  to  ineffective  work  on  the  part  of  the  school,  has  ham- 
pered the  administration  of  the  school  system,  and  has  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  forces  of  retardation  and  elimination. 

115.  Social  and  economic  principles  involved.  Closely 
related  to  the  factors  considered  in  the  preceding  section, 
and  certainly  no  less  important,  are  those  which  arise  out  of 
certain  social  and  economic  considerations. 

(1)  Economy  of  time  in  education :  Within  the  past  half- 
century  or  less  the  ages  at  which  the  successive  stages  of 
education  are  begun  and  are  completed  have  gradually  been 
extended  upward  until  serious  questions  have  arisen  con- 
cerning the  economy  of  time  in  our  educational  system. 
When  we  consider  the  system  of  education  as  a  whole,  we 
find  that  those  who  enter  professional  careers  do  so  at  a  rela- 
tively late  age  when  compared  with  their  fellows  in  other 
countries.  Likewise,  when  we  consider  the  attainments  of 
graduates  of  our  secondary  schools  and  colleges  we  find  that 
they  are  not  equal  to  the  attainments  of  students  in  other 
countries  with  respect  to  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to 
their  education.  Recognizing  those  facts  many  American 
educators  have  turned  their  attention  to  the  problem  of 
economy  of  time  in  our  schools,  their  attention  focusing  on 
the  length  of  the  elementary-school  course  (with  special 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION        287 

reference  to  the  last  two  grades  of  that  school),  the  length 
of  the  secondary-school  course,  and  the  form  of  articulation 
between  the  two.  Among  the  many  suggested  changes  that 
recommended  by  the  Committee  of  the  National  Council 
of  Education  on  "Economy  of  Time  in  Education"  perhaps 
best  illustrates  the  problem.  That  committee  has  presented 
a  provisional  time  schedule  in  which  the  articulation 
between  the  various  divisions  of  the  system  of  education 
would  be:  elementary  education,  6-12  years;  secondary 
education  (two  divisions  —  four  years  and  two  years),  12- 
18;  college,  18-20  or  16-20 ;  university  (graduate  and  pro- 
fessional schools),  20-24. 1  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  most 
important  reform  herein  suggested  is  one  involving  the  last 
two  grades  of  the  elementary  school  which  have  long  been 
recognized  as  the  part  of  the  school  system  most  open  to 
criticism  on  the  ground  of  the  questionable  character  of  the 
work  done  there. 

(2}  The  factors  of  elimination  and  retardation :  If  the 
problem  of  economy  of  time  in  education  and  the  resulting 
problems  affecting  the  general  spread  of  educational  prod- 
ucts were  confined  to  those  completing  the  high-school  course 
or  higher  courses,  its  importance,  while  great,  would  not 
assume  the  proportions  which  it  otherwise  assumes.  How- 
ever, figures  previously  presented  in  Tables  LV  to  LVII 
indicate  that  while  approximately  ninety  per  cent  of  the 
children  in  the  country  remain  in  school  up  to  the  age  of 
twelve  or  thirteen  and  approximately  four  fifths  remain  in 
school  up  to  the  age  of  fourteen,  only  a  little  over  two  thirds 
remain  in  school  up  to  the  age  of  fifteen,  about  one  half  up 
to  the  age  of  sixteen,  only  a  little  over  one  third  up  to  the 
age  of  seventeen,  and  less  than  one  quarter  up  to  the  age 
of  eighteen.  With  respect  to  the  grade  reached  more  than 
three  quarters  of  the  pupils  who  enter  reach  the  sixth  grade 
1  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1913),  no.  38,  p.  10. 


288     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

and  about  one  half  complete  the  work  of  the  elementary 
school.  About  one  third  only,  however,  enter  the  first  grade 
of  the  high  school,  and  about  one  eighth  or  one  ninth  com- 
plete the  high-school  course.  The  resulting  social  and  eco- 
nomic loss  (positive  or  negative)  is  tremendous.  For  th« 
boy  or  girl  who  leaves  school  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  grade 
little  has  been  provided  along  the  line  of  education  specially 
adapted  to  meet  his  special  needs  in  life.  For  those  who 
remain  through  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  same  is 
true  though  (theoretically  at  least)  a  further  general  educa- 
tion has  been  provided.  For  those  who  fail  to  reach  the  high 
school  (two  thirds  of  those  entering  the  school)  any  form 
of  differentiated  education  adapted  to  meet  their  special 
needs,  or  in  fact  to  discover  their  special  needs,  is  the  excep- 
tion rather  than  the  rule  in  our  public  schools.  .This  is  a 
situation  to  be  accepted  as  a  fact  and  the  factors  of  elimi- 
nation and  retardation  must  be  considered  as  legitimate 
grounds  for  so  modifying  our  educational  system  as  to  pro- 
vide a  more  adequate  training  for  the  large  number  of  chil- 
dren who  leave  school  early.  One  way  of  accomplishing  this 
is  to  provide  for  more  appropriate  forms  of  education  in 
what  are  now  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  with  the  expec- 
tation that  thereby  those  at  present  eliminated  in  those 
grades  may  be  afforded  a  more  efficient  form  of  education 
and  the  hope  that  by  providing  for  differentiated  courses 
to  some  extent  in  the  last  part  of  the  elementary  school 
pupils  may  be  encouraged  to  carry  their  education  further. 
(3)  Vocational  and  prevocational  education:  The  fact  that 
such  a  large  percentage  of  boys  and  girls  leave  school  before 
entering  the  high  school  and  enter  the  field  of  industry  with- 
out definite  aim  and  with  no  conception  of  the  job,  trade,  or 
work  which  they  enter,  has  led  to  an  emphasis  by  some 
educators  on  the  necessity  of  certain  forms  of  vocational 
or  prevocational  work  in  the  last  grades  of  the  elementary 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     289 

school,  coordinated  where  possible  with  such  work  in  the 
secondary  school.  Emphasis  attaches  here  also  to  the  fact 
that  the  close  of  the  present  elementary  school  comes  at  the 
close  of  the  period  of  compulsory  education  set  by  law  in 
most  States  and  the  undoubted  fact  that  elimination  in  the 
seventh,  eighth,  and  first-year  high-school  grades  is  closely 
correlated  with  the  close  of  the  compulsory  attendance 
period. 

1 1 6.  Administrative  factors  involved.  Numerous  factors 
involved  in  the  administration  of  the  schools  are  of  impor- 
tance in  connection  with  reforms  of  the  articulation  between 
elementary  and  secondary  education.  These  are  of  such 
varied  character  that  they  defy  generalization,  but  among 
them  may  be  mentioned  several  factors,  for  the  most  part 
related  to  the  considerations  previously  adduced,  (a)  It 
has  long  been  recognized  that  certain  reforms  are  desirable 
in  the  studies  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  Such 
reforms  include  the  elimination  of  some  obsolete  and  useless 
material,  the  reduction  of  review  work,  and  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  studies  so  as  to  include  educational  means  more 
suitable  for  the  activities  of  lives  which  the  pupils  will  later 
lead.  Much  pruning  is  desirable  in  the  studies  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  as  at  present  organized.1  (6)  The  work  of 
the  high  school  under  existing  conditions  is  crowded,  es- 
pecially for  those  pupils  who  are  destined  to  enter  college. 
An  earlier  beginning  of  some  subjects  now  confined  to  the 
secondary-school  program  would  do  much  to  relieve  the 
congested  work  of  the  high  school  for  some  groups  of  pupils, 
(c)  The  number  of  retarded  and  over-age  pupils  now  found 
in  the  lower  grades  of  the  elementary  school  demands  atten- 
tion and  calls  for  some  form  of  reorganization  which  will 

1  Cf.  Part  I  of  the  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education,  "-Minimum  Essentials  in  Elementary  School  Subjects." 
Cf.  also  Sixteenth  Yearbook,  Part  I. 


290     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

permit  those  pupils  to  enter  on  work  which  they  can  do 
rather  than  perpetually  review  work  for  which  they  have 
manifested  their  ineptitude.  This  means  provision  for  some 
different  forms  of  education  in  the  later  grades  of  the 
elementary  school  than  those  now  found  there,  (d)  It  is 
imperative  that  some  amount  of  differentiated  work  be 
provided  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  grades.  This  cannot  be 
accomplished  under  the  existing  organization.  The  adap- 
tation of  school  work  to  the  needs  of  individual  differences 
in  capacities,  interests,  and  probable  future  activities  on 
the  part  of  pupils  is  economically  impossible  where  small 
groups  of  pupils  are  involved.  If  differentiated  work  is  to 
be  provided,  for  example  in  the  eighth  grade,  pupils  of  that 
grade  must  be  assembled  in  larger  groups  than  are  now 
commonly  found  in  separated  elementary  schools.  Differ- 
entiated work  quite  impossible  in  the  small  school  becomes 
feasible  in  the  large  school,  (e)  Provision  must  be  made  to 
afford  more  contentful  studies  in  the  later  grades  of  the 
elementary  school  both  for  the  sake  of  those  who  must 
leave  school  early  and  for  the  encouragement  of  those  who 
can  be  led  to  continue  their  education  into  the  secondary 
school.  (/)  The  acceleration  of  brighter  pupils  is  at  present 
handicapped  by  the  methods  of  promotion  regularly  found 
in  the  elementary  school.  Promotion  by  subjects  rather 
than  by  grades  must  be  instituted  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades,  (g)  In  many  larger  communities  crowded  high 
schools  offer  serious  social  and  administrative  problems. 
A  group  of  junior  high  schools  articulated  with  senior  high 
schools  would  do  much  to  relieve  the  crowding  of  pupils 
in  a  central  high  school.  (K)  In  rural  communities  high 
schools  of  the  present  type  are  frequently  uneconomical 
and  sometimes  impossible.  In  many  such  cases  the  earlier 
beginning  of  some  forms  of  secondary  education  would 
make  possible  some  degree  of  acquaintance  with  second- 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     291 

ary-school  work  for  many  children  who  otherwise  would 
go  without  contact  with  any  other  school  influences  than 
those  now  found  in  the  elementary  school. 


V.  THE  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 

117.  The  six-grade  course  of  secondary  education.  The 
present  movement  toward  the  development  of  a  six-grade 
course  of  secondary  education  had  its  beginning  in  the  last 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Certain  suggestions  made 
by  President  Eliot  at  the  meeting  of  the  Department  of 
Superintendence  in  1888  called  attention  to  defects  in  our 
school  system,  primarily  affecting  the  relation  between  the 
high  school  and  the  college,  but  incidentally  affecting  the 
relation  between  elementary  and  secondary  schools.  In 
1893  the  "Committee  of  Ten"  introduced  in  its  report  cer- 
tain recommendations  involving  the  articulation  between 
elementary  and  secondary  education.  Of  particular  inter- 
est is  that  portion  of  the  report  which  states: 

In  the  opinion  of  the  Committee,  several  subjects  now  reserved 
for  high  schools,  —  such  as  algebra,  geometry,  natural  science, 
and  foreign  languages,  —  should  be  begun  earlier  than  now,  and 
therefore  within  the  schools  classified  as  elementary;  or,  as  an 
alternative,  the  secondary  school  period  should  be  made  to  begin 
two  years  earlier  than  at  present,  leaving  six  years  instead  of  eight 
for  the  elementary  school  period.  Under  the  present  organization, 
elementary  subjects  and  elementary  methods  are,  in  the  judgment 
of  the  Committee,  kept  in  use  too  long.1 

Numerous  suggestions  were  made  for  a  readjustment  of 
the  grades  of  the  school  system  subsequent  to  the  report 
of  the  "Committee  of  Ten."  In  particular  the  "Committee 
of  Five"  of  the  National  Education  Association  in  1907, 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Secondary  School  Studies,  p.  45  (Bureau  of 
Education  edition). 


292     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

1908,  and  1909  recommended  an  equal  division  of  the 
grades  between  elementary  and  secondary  education.  Li 
1902  the  "Pettee  Committee"  recommended  the  following 
scheme: 1 

Division  School  Grades  Ages 

p  .                      ( Lower  or  Primary  School  1-8  6-9 

I  Upper  or  Grammar  School  4-6  9-12 

«^    ,               ( Lower  High  School  7-  9  12-15 

1  Upper  High  School  10-12  15-18 

T    . .                  (  College  or  Technical  School  . . .  18-21 

iary            ^  Professional  or  Graduate  School  . . .  21-24 

Up  to  1910  the  development  of  six-grade  high  schools  was 
slow,  only  about  twenty-two  cities  in  that  year  reporting 
six-year  high-school  courses  of  study  to  the  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation. By  that  time,  however,  the  movement  toward  the 
reorganization  of  the  last  grades,  of  the  elementary  school 
and  of  the  secondary  school  had  assumed  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent form  which  marked  the  beginning  of  the  junior  high 
school  or  intermediate  school. 

118.  The  junior  high-school  movement.  While  numerous 
attempts  had  been  made  previously  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  to  reorganize  the  work  of  the  late  grades  of  the  ele- 
mentary, the  real  beginning  of  the  present  junior  high  school 
or  intermediate  school  movement  is  probably  to  be  found  in 
the  reorganization  of  the  school  systems  in  Columbus,  Ohio 
(1908),  Berkeley,  California  (1910),  Concord,  New  Hamp- 
shire (1910),  and  Los  Angeles,  California  (1911).  Reorgan- 
ization developed  rapidly  thereafter  in  several  lines.  Thus 
of  cities  included  in  an  incomplete  list  making  returns 
to  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  1914-1915,  cities  reported 
school  systems  organized  in  such  combinations  of  elemen- 
tary, intermediate,  and  high-school  grades  as  6-1-5,  6-2-4 

1  For  that  report  in  condensed  form  and  with  proposed  curriculum 
attached  cf.  Hanus,  P.,  A  Modern  School,  pp.  105-09. 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     293 

(thirty-five  cities),  6-3-3  (twenty-six  cities),  6-4-2,  5-3-4. l 
As  a  result  of  his  study  Douglass  reported  in  1916  that  of 
184  school  systems,  11  were  organized  on  a  5-3-4  plan,  77 
Dn  a  6—2-4  plan,  64  on  a  6-3-3  plan,  10  on  a  6-6  plan,  and 
22  according  to  various  other  plans.2  On  the  whole  the  plan 
which  seems  likely  to  receive  ultimate  recognition  is  the 
six-grade  elementary  school,  followed  by  a  junior  high  school 
of  three  grades,  followed  by  a  senior  high  school  of  three 
grades.  Of  systems  now  organized  on  the  6-2-^4  plan  many 
are  to  be  considered  as  in  a  stage  of  transition.  While  the 
present  is  noticeably  a  period  of  experimentation  and  such 
reorganized  systems  of  education  must  be  considered  as  on 
trial,  there  is  evidence  that  the  movement  is  destined  to 
develop  rapidly  within  the  next  decade.  Its  status  is  at 
present  difficult  to  determine  both  because  of  the  lack  of 
fixed  standards  and  because  the  rapid  changes  which  are 
taking  place  make  it  difficult  to  secure  accurate  data.  Re- 
ports received  by  Douglass  indicate  that  between  three  and 
four  hundred  junior  high  schools  or  intermediate  schools 
were  claimed  to  be  in  operation  in  1916.3 

119.  The  purposes  of  the  junior  high  school.  The  pur- 
poses of  the  junior  high  school  organization  are  to  correct 
the  defects  now  found  in  our  school  system.  They  involve, 
therefore,  the  following  factors. 

(1)  Provision  for  a  better  coordination  and  articulation 
between  elementary  and  secondary  education  and  provision 
for  gradual  transition  from  earlier  to  later  grades  in  the 
school  system.  This  demands:  (a)  the  close  relationing  of 
each  successive  grade  with  the  preceding  grade  as  far  as 
teaching  material  and  teaching  method  are  concerned; 

1  Briggs,  T.  H.,  in  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion (1914),  vol.  i,  pp.  135-57. 

2  Douglass,  A.  A.,  "The  Junior  High  School,"  Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the 
National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  part  in,  p.  88. 

3  Douglass,  A.  A.,  op.  cit.,  p.  27. 


294     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

(6)  gradual  change  from  the  one-teacher  plan  of  the  elemen- 
tary school  to  the  many-teacher  plan  of  the  secondary  school; 

(c)  gradual  change  from  largely  supervised  work  in  the 
earlier  grades  to  more  independent  work  involving  initia- 
tive, self-reliance,  and  responsibility  in  the  later  grades; 

(d)  the  gradual  introduction  of  new  subject  matter  and  its 
relationing  to  old  subject  matter;  (e)  the  gradual  introduc- 
tion of  "election";  (f)  gradual  change  in  teaching  methods 
and  in  methods  of  treating  children. 

(2)  Provision  earlier  in  the  school  system  to  adapt  the 
work  of  the  school  to  individual  differences  among  pupils 
in  capacities,  aptitudes,  interests,  and  future  activities,  as 
well  as  to  the  differentiated  needs  of  society.  This  demands : 
(a)  the  earlier  introduction  of  some  differentiated  studies 
for  different  groups  of  pupils;  (6)  promotion  of  pupils  by 
subjects  rather  than  by  grades;  (c)  increased  flexibility  in 
the  administration  of  education  in  the  intermediate  grades; 
(d)  provision  for  the  introduction  of  some  forms  of  instruc- 
tion which  may  give  pupils  an  opportunity  to  explore  and 
test  out  their  capacities,  aptitudes,  and  interests;  (e)  provi- 
sion for  some  forms  of  educational  diagnosis  and  direction; 
(/ )  recognition  of  the  needs  of  those  leaving  school  early;  (g) 
provision  for  economy  of  time  in  the  case  of  brighter  pupils. 

(3)  Recognition  of  the  importance  of  the  factors  of  retar- 
dation and  elimination.  This  involves :  (a)  reorganization  of 
the  subject  matter  of  the  present  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
so  as  to  provide  a  more  contentful  and  effective  form  of 
education  for  those  who  must  leave  school  early;  (6)  the 
introduction   of   some  prevocational   education   for  those 
pupils;  (c)  provision  for  the  reduction  of  retardation  and 
elimination  by  improved  methods  of  controlling  progress 
through  the  grades;  (d)  the  encouragement  of  larger  num- 
bers of  pupils  to  continue  their  education  into  the  senior 
high  school. 


RELATION   TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     295 

(4)  Reorganization  of  teaching  materials  and  teaching 
methods.  The  belief  is  growing  stronger  that  subjects  of 
study  in  the  junior  high  school  should  be  organized  prima- 
rily with  reference  to  the  capacities  and  needs  of  the  pupils 
and  with  reference  to  their  activities  in  life  after  the  school, 
and  not  primarily  in  terms  of  the  logical  organization  de- 
manded by  the  subject  considered  as  a  logically  arranged 
field  of  knowledge.  The  study  of  subjects  as  logically  organ- 
ized units  or  fields  of  knowledge  should  be  reserved  for  the 
work  in  the  senior  high  school. 

120.  Difficulties  to  be  met.  No  such  comprehensive  reor- 
ganization as  that  contemplated  by  the  junior  high  school 
movement  can  be  accomplished  without  involving  many 
readjustments  and  difficulties  at  least  temporary.  Many 
of  those  difficulties  may  be  dismissed  at  once  on  the  ground 
that  they  are  but  temporary  problems  incidental  to  any 
effective  form  of  reorganization.  Such  are  those  arising 
in  some  states  from  established  laws  or  regulations  affecting 
the  distribution  of  public  funds,  the  certification  of  teachers, 
taxation,  etc.,  the  necessity  of  readjusting  college  entrance 
requirements  in  terms  of  reorganized  education,  the  bicker- 
ings and  political  maneuvers  of  disgruntled  principals  and 
teachers,  wranglings  over  the  location  of  schools,  etc.  When 
these  objections  to  the  establishment  of  junior  high  schools 
have  been  dismissed,  however,  there  remain  at  least  four 
important  problems  to  be  considered. 

(1)  If  all  pupils  were  destined  to  continue  in  school 
throughout  the  full  twelve-year  course  and  if  the  exigencies 
of  administration  made  it  possible,  it  would  be  advisable  to 
have  one  undivided  system  consisting  of  grades  one  to 
twelve.  Neither  of  those  assumptions  hold,  however,  and  it 
is  probable  that  they  never  can  hold.  Divisions  in  the  school 
system  are  made  necessary  by  the  exigencies  of  administra- 
tion. They  are  to  some  extent  made  desirable  by  the  fact 


296     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

that  many  pupils  leave  school  before  the  complete  course  is 
covered.  The  division  of  the  school  system  into  three  de- 
partments as  contemplated  by  the  junior  high  school  plan 
involves  the  danger  of  creating  two  critical  points  in  the 
jchool  system  instead  of  the  one  now  found  between  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  education.  Great  care  is  necessary 
that  evils  now  found  at  the  one  point  of  division  may  not  be 
increased  by  the  creation  of  two  points  of  division.  The 
second  divisional  point  in  the  school  system  (between  the 
junior  and  senior  high  schools)  will  doubtless  improve  the 
retention  of  pupils  up  to  the  age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen.  It  will 
doubtless  also  have  some  tendency  to  encourage  elimination 
at  that  point.  Whether  or  not  the  general  stimulus  provided 
by  its  organization  will  encourage  retention  beyond  that 
limit  so  as  to  outweigh  a  certain  amount  of  elimination 
fostered  there  remains  to  be  seen.  Experience  to  date  would 
appear  to  give  an  affirmative  answer  to  this  problem. 

(2)  The  fundamentally  important  point  has  been  raised 
by  Bagley1  that  while  "the  advantages  are  clearly  on  the 
side  of  a  'six-six'  organization  from  the  point  of  view  of 
administrative  expediency  and  to  a~  large  extent  from  the 
standpoint  of  educational  theory"  the  early  introduction  of 
the  factor  of  .differentiation  may  serve  to  limit  the  factor  of 
integration  providing  "  a  common  basis  of  certain  ideas  and 
ideals  and  standards  which  go  a  long  way  toward  insuring 
'  social  solidarity '  —  a  basis  of  common  thought  and  common 
aspiration  which  is  absolutely  essential  to  an  effective  democ- 
racy." This  objection  to  the  reorganized  system  is  a  serious 
one  if  valid.  Two  facts,  however,  suggest  that  Bagley's 
position  is  open  to  question.  The  first  is  that  a  basis  of  com- 
mon thought  and  common  aspiration  must  be  retained  in 
the  junior  high  school  under  any  circumstances.  The  second 

1  Bagley,  W.  C.,  "The  'Six-Six'  Flan,"  School  arid  Home  Education, 
vol.  xxxiv,  p.  3. 


RELATION   TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     297 

is  that  the  integrating  function  of  education  and  the  differ- 
entiating function  of  education  must  be  considered  supple- 
mentary and  not  antagonistic.  On  this  theory  elementary 
education  is  not  to  be  considered  as  being  confined  exclu- 
sively to  integration,  nor  is  secondary  education  to  be  consid- 
ered as  confined  exclusively  to  differentiation.  Nevertheless 
Bagley  has  called  attention  to  a  danger  which  must  be 
avoided  carefully. . 

(3)  It  is  commonly  estimated  that  the  expense  of  educa- 
tion under  the  junior-senior  high  school  plan  will  increase 
the  cost  of  the  schools.    Of  thirty  cities  reporting  the  cost 
of  the  junior  high  school  instruction  to  the  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, seventeen  reported  that  the  junior  high  school  costs 
more  per  capita  than  the  elementary  school,  seven  reported 
that  the  cost  was  the  same,  and  six  qualified  their  answers. 
Comparing  the  cost  with  that  of  the  high  school,  ten  re- 
ported that  it  was  the  same,  and  twenty  that  it  was  less. 
On  general  grounds  it  has  been  estimated  that  the  per  capita 
cost  will  be  between  the  present  cost  of  elementary-school 
education  and  secondary-school  education.   On  the  surface 
at  least  this  means  added  expense  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  school  system.   It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  retardation,  if  brought  about 
through  the  reorganization  of  the  system,  may  altogether 
offset  the  added  expense  incurred.  It  must  further  be  re- 
membered that  economy  and  efficiency  may  be  attained 
by  increasing  both  expense  and  returns  for  that  expense, 
as  well  as  by  increasing  returns  for  the  same  expense  or 
decreasing  expense  for  the  same  returns.    A  broader  social 
and  educational  economy  may  well  justify  an  extended 
financial  outlay. 

(4)  Changes  in  the  form  of  organization,  changes  in  cur- 
riculum, changes  in  the  form  of  administration,  are  all  read- 
ily subject  to  the  fiat  of  educational  authorities.  For  reform 


298     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

in  the  effectiveness  of  the  school  system,  however,  such  ar- 
bitrary changes  depend  on  the  readiness  with  which  instruc- 
tion may  be  adapted  to  them.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the 
greatest  difficulties  must  always  be  found.  The  proposed 
reorganization  includes  the  introduction  into  earlier  grades 
of  certain  studies  previously  found  only  in  later  grades,  to- 
gether with  other  subjects  of  study  which  are  relatively 
new  in  any  department  of  public  education.  Around  older 
subjects  of  study  there  has  developed  a  body  of  teaching 
method,  embodied  in  textbooks,  incorporated  in  the  theory 
and  practice  of  teachers,  and  recognized  as  "standard" 
for  pupils  from  one  to  three  years  older  than  those  for 
whom  subjects  have  been  provided  heretofore.  Further, 
certain  studies  which  it  is  proposed  to  put  into  the  program 
of  the  junior  high  school  have  as  yet  no  established  body 
of  teaching  method  or  organization.  When  it  is  realized 
that  it  takes  more  than  a  generation  to  develop  a  body  of 
method,  to  train  teachers,  and  to  standardize  textbooks  in 
any  given  field,  it  must  be  recognized  that  the  changes  in 
teachers,  in  methods,  and  in  textbooks,  necessary  for  real 
reform  in  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades,  constitute 
one  of  the  greatest  problems  involved  in  the  reorganization 
of  the  schools. 

NOTE  :  Many  factors  involved  in  the  relation  between  elemen- 
tary and  secondary  education  and  certain  factors  involved  in  the 
junior-senior  high  school  plan  have  already  been  considered  in 
preceding  chapters.  All  matters  of  programs,  curricula,  and  or- 
ganization are  dealt  with  in  Part  III,  especially  in  Chapters  XX 
and  XXI. 

PROBLEMS   FOR   FURTHER   CONSIDERATION 

1.  Compare  the  curricula  of  any  related  elementary  and  secondary  school 
of  about  1890  with  the  curricula  of  any  such  system  after  1910. 

2.  Examine  the  curricula  of  elementary  schools  in  different  cities  and 
compare  the  studies  offered  and  the  relative  amount  of  time  devoted 


RELATION  TO  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION     299 

to  each.  (Cf .  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  pp.  21-27,  and  Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education,  part  in.) 

8.  Compare  the  programs  of  study  for  boys  from  nine  to  fourteen  years  of 
age  in  the  Prussian  higher  schools,  in  French  secondary  schools,  and  in 
the  four  last  grades  of  the  American  elementary  school. 

4.  Examine  and  criticize  available  data  concerning  the  relative  standing 
of  pupils  in  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools.    (Cf.  references  in 
bibliography  following.) 

5.  Compare  the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  8-4,  6-6, 
6-3-3,  6-2-4  plans  for  organization  of  the  public  schools. 

-  6.  What  would  be  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  a  single  twelve- 
grade  system  without  administrative  or  other  divisions? 

7.  Compare  and  evaluate  the  curricula  of  the  different  junior  high  schools 
presented  in  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
(1914),  vol.  i,  pp.  153-57.    (Cf.  also  Douglass,  A.  A.,  in  bibliography 
following.) 

8.  Assuming  that  the  transition  from  elementary  education  to  secondary 
education  should  be  gradual,  show  how  such  specific  factors  as  the 
introduction  of  subject  matter,  changes  in  teaching  method,  etc., 
might  be  arranged  to  contribute  toward  that  end. 

9.  Consider  the  problem  of  the  relation  between  integration  and  differen- 
tiation (common  elements  and  diversified  elements)  in  connection 
with  the  different  divisions,  actual  and  proposed,  of  the  public  school 
system.    (Cf.  Bagley,  W.  C.,  "The  'Six-Six'  Plan,"  School  and  Home 
Education,  vol.  xxxrv,  no.  4  (December,  1914),  pp.  119-31,  and  Inglis, 
A.  J.,  "The  Socialization  of  the  High  School,"  Teachers  College  Record, 
vol.  xvi,  no.  3  (May,  1915),  pp.  1-12  (205-16). 

10.  Assuming  that  the  per-pupil  cost  of  the  junior  high  school  would  be 
approximately  halfway  between  that  of  the  elementary  school  and  that 
of  the  high  school,  estimate  the  probable  added  cost  of  the  reorganized 
school  system  on  the  supposition  that  retardation  should  remain  con- 
stant; on  the  supposition  that  it  decreased  one  third  or  one  hah*;  on  the 
supposition  that  elimination  should  be  decreased  one  third.      (Cf. 
Springfield,  Illinois,  Survey,  pp.  96-97.) 

11.  Consider  the  problems  of  teachers  for  the  junior  high  school. 

12.  Consider  the  arrangement  of  the  course  of  study  in  any  one  subject  in 
a  reorganized  system  of  public  schools. 

13.  Consider  the  problem  of  economy  of  time  in  education  as  affected  by 
the  articulation  between  elementary  and  secondary  education.    (Cf. 
Russell,  W.  F.,  Economy  in  Secondary  Education.) 


300      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

NOTE:  The  literature  relating  to  the  articulation  of  elementary  and  secon- 
dary education  is  so  voluminous  that  any  extended  bibliography  is  here 
impossible.  Hence  there  are  included  below  such  references  only  as:  (a) 
represent  somewhat  comprehensive  treatments  of  the  field;  (b)  the  well- 
considered  reports  of  various  organization,  committees,  departments  of 
education,  etc. ;  (c)  special  articles  dealing  especially  with  the  most  recent 
phases  particularly  with  the  junior  high  school  movement;  (d)  articles  and 
reports  dealing  with  actual  experiments.  For  references  dealing  with  the 
questions  of  individual  differences  concerned  in  the  problem  see  the  bibli- 
ography for  Chapter  III.  For  those  dealing  with  questions  arising  out  of 
retardation  and  elimination  see  the  bibliography  of  Chapter  IV. 

I.  General  treatment: 

Josselyn,  H.  W.,  "The  Relation  of  the  High  School  to  the  Elemen- 
tary School,"  chap,  v  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  The  Modern 
High  School. 

Davis,  C.  O.,  "The  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education,"  chap, 
iv  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High  School  Education. 

Bunker,  F.  F.,    "  Reorganization  of  the  Public  School  System," 

Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1916),  no.  8. 
II.  Reports  of  committees,  organizations,  etc. : 

National  Education  Association,  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  on 
Secondary  School  Studies,  Proceedings  (1893). 

National  Education  Association,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the 
Equal  Division  of  the  Twelve  Years  in  the  Public  Schools  between 
the  District  and  High  Schools  (Morrison),  Proceedings  (1907), 
pp. 705  ff. 

National  Education  Association,  Report  of  Committee  on  Economy  of 
Time  in  Education,  Proceedings  (1914),  pp.  206-22.  Also  in 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1913),  no.  38. 

National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Reports  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Minimal  Essentials  in  Elementary-School  Subjects,  Four- 
teenth Yearbook,  part  i;  Sixteenth  Yearbook,  part  I. 

California  Teachers'  Association,  Report  of  the  Council,  Sierra  Edv 
cational  News,  September,  1912.  Summarized  in  School  and  Hon. 
Education,  vol.  xxxiv,  no.  8  (April,  1915),  pp.  279-80, 

Conference  of  Collegiate  and  Secondary  Instructors,  Report  of 
Committee,  November,  1902.  Condensed  report  (Pettee),  Hanus, 
P.  H.,  A  Modern  School,  pp.  105-09,  and  in  Brown,  J.  F.,  The 
American  High  School,  pp.  411-15. 

Meredith,  A.  B.,  "The  Six- Year  High  School,"  Annual  Report  of  the 
New  Jersey  State  Board  of  Education  (1913),  pp.  193-96. 


RELATION  TO   ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION       SOI 

Briggs,  T.  H.,  in  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion (1914),  vol.  i,  pp.  135-57.  Contains  lists  of  junior  high  schools 
established  up  to  1914  and  typical  curricula,  etc. 
III.  Special  studies  on  the  junior  high  school: 

Briggs,  T.  H.,  "The  Junior  High  School,"  Old  Penn  Weekly  Review 
(University  of  Pennsylvania),  vol.  xm,  no.  32,  pp.  1002-07.' 

Coffman,  L.  D.,  Bagley,  W.  C.,,and  Snedden,  D.  (Joint  discus- 
sion), "The  Minimum  Essentials  versus  the  Differentiated 
Course  of  Study  in  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades,"  National 
Education  Association,  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Super- 
intendence, vol.  iv  (1916),  no.  6,  pp.  63-86. 

Douglass,  A.  A.,  "The  Present  Status  of  the  Junior  High  School," 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  xxn,  no.  2,  pp.  252-74. 

Douglass,  A.  A.,  "The  Junior  High  School,"  Fifteenth  Yearbook  of 
the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  part  m.  The  most 
comprehensive  study  of  the  junior  high  school  movement  yet 
published.  Bibliography  of  175  titles  to  1916. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  "The  Junior  High  School,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxm, 
pp.  25-33.  (Rejoinder  by  Bagley,  W.  C.,  School  and  Home  Educa- 
tion, vol.  xxxiv,  pp.  212-16.) 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  various  articles  in  School  and  Home  Education,  vol. 
xxxiv,  pp.  1-5,  41,  79-80,  119-31,  212-16,  239-41,  279-80,  etc. 

Johnston,  C.  H.,  "Movement  toward  the  Reorganization  of  Second- 
ary Education,"  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision, 
vol.  I,  pp.  165-72. 

Inglis,  A.  J.,  "A  Fundamental  Problem  in  the  Reorganization  of  the 
High  School,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxin,  pp.  307-18. 

Bonser,  F.  G.,  "Democratizing  Secondary  Education  by  the  Six- 
Three-Three  Plan,"  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision, 
vol.  I,  pp.  567-76. 

Snedden,  D.,  "The  Character  and  Extent  of  Desirable  Flexibility 
as  to  Courses  of  Instruction  and  Training  for  Youths  of  12  to 
14  Years  of  Age,"  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision, 
vol.  n,  pp.  219-34. 

High  School  Masters'  Club  of  Massachusetts,  Report  of  Committee 

on  the  Junior  High  School.    (Contains  bibliography.) 
IV.  Special  experiments,  etc. : 

Carter,  R.  E.,  A  Study  of  the  Correlation  of  Elementary  and  High 
School  Grades  of  a  City  System,  Master's  Dissertation  (1911), 
University  of  Chicago.  (Cf.  Elementary  School  Teacher,  vol.  xn, 
PP-  109 /.) 

Johnson,  F.  W.,  "A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Grades  of  Pu- 
pils from  Different  Elementary  Schools  in  the  Subjects  of  the 
First  Year  in  High  School,"  Elementary  School  Teacher,  vol.  xi, 
pp.  63-78. 


302      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Miles,  W.  R., "  Comparison  of  Elementary  and  High  School  Grades," 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  xvii,  pp.  429-50. 

Clement,  J.  A.,  Standardization  of  the  Schools  of  Kansas,  Doctor's 

Dissertation  (1912),  University  of  Chicago. 
V.  Extended  Bibliographies: 

Douglass,  A.  A.,  in  reference  given  above;  Abelson,  J.,  A  Bibliog- 
raphy of  the  Junior  High  School,"  Education,  vol.  xxxvn,  pp. 
122-29;  Massachusetts  School  Masters'  Club,  Report  of  Committee 
on  the  Junior  High  School,  pp.  38-43. 


CHAPTER 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  RELATION  TO  HIGHER 
EDUCATION 

I.  HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT  AND  PRESENT  STATUS 

121.  Early  relations.  Until  within  a  relatively  recent 
period  the  articulation  between  secondary  education  and 
higher  education  (as  represented  by  the  college  or  university) 
has  always  been  closer  than  the  relation  between  elementary 
and  secondary  education.  Such  a  situation  was  largely  due 
to  the  fact  that  elementary  education,  especially  in  Europe, 
was  conceived  as  appropriate  for  the  lower  classes,  while 
both  secondary  education  and  higher  education  were  de- 
signed for  the  more  fortunate  classes  who  had  more  leisure 
for  education  and  more  need  of  it  in  the  leading  position 
which  they  occupied  in  society.  Hence  the  earlier  secondary 
schools  were  conceived  as  schools  whose  most  important 
function  was  preparation  leading  to  higher  education  for 
professions,  especially  the  ministry,  law,  and  medicine,  or 
for  that  degree  of  culture  deemed  suitable  for  the  upper 
classes.  This  conception  has  always  been  dominant  in 
European  countries,  was  dominant  in  this  country  until 
a  relatively  recent  period,  and  was  not  abandoned  when 
the  conception  developed  that  the  secondary  school  had 
other  important  functions  in  addition  to  the  legitimate 
function  of  preparation  for  higher  education.  The  essential 
forms  of  secondary  education,  which  had  developed  when 
the  main  function  of  the  secondary  school  was  preparation 
for  the  college  or  university,  continued  to  remain  in  force 
long  after  it  was  realized  that  other  functions  were  involved. 


304      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

The  justification  for  this  state  of  affairs  was  assumed  to  lie 
in  the  belief  that  the  sort  of  training  provided  in  preparation 
for  higher  education  was  that  best  suited  also  for  all  other 
activities  in  life,  and  as  long  as  such  a  conception  obtained 
little  change  was  made  in  the  general  economy  of  the  second- 
ary school  to  differentiate  the  work  of  the  school  for  pupils 
preparing  for  higher  education  and  those  who  were  destined 
not  to  enter  higher  institutions.  The  conception  that  the 
work  of  the  secondary  school  should  be  differentiated  to 
conform  to  the  needs  of  various  groups  of  pupils  was  a 
development  in  theory  during  the  nineteenth  century.  In 
France,  Germany,  and  America  it  was  the  central  issue  of  a 
century-long  struggle.  Its  fulfillment  in  practice  is  as  yet 
by  no  means  complete. 

122.  The  Latin  grammar  school  and  the  college.  The 
recognized  purpose  of  the  Latin  grammar  school  of  the 
American  colonies  was  preparation  for  admission  to  college. 
This  appears  from  the  law  passed  by  the  General  Court  of 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  in  1647  which  provided  for 
the  education  of  boys  "so  far  as  they  may  be  fitted  for  the 
university."  What  college  preparation  meant  at  that  time 
and  later  is  illustrated  by  the  requirements  for  entrance  to 
Harvard  College  in  1642:  1 

When  any  scholar  is  able  to  read  Tully  (Cicero)  or  such  like 
classical  author  extempore,  and  made  and  speake  true  Latin  in 
verse  and  prose,  suo  (ut  aiunf)  Marte,  and  decline  perfectly  the 
paragigms  of  nounes.and  verbes  in  ye  Greeke  tongue,  then  may  hee 
bee  admitted  to  ye  college,  nor  shall  any  claime  admission  before 
such  qualifications. 

Similar  requirements  of  proficiency  in  Latin  and  Greek 
remained  practically  the  sole  requirements  for  admission 

1  Translation  attached  to  the  Latin  version  of  The  Statutes,  Laws,  etc., 
of  Harvard  College,  College  Book  1.  Cf.  Broome,  E.  C.,  A  Historical  and 
Critical  Discussion  of  College  Admission  Requirements. 


RELATION   TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  305 

to  colleges  throughout  the  colonial  period,  and  the  relation 
between  college  and  grammar  school  did  not  change  mate- 
rially within  that  period.  In  Massachusetts  the  situation  was 
absurd.  By  the  law  of  1789  and  according  to  the  census  of 
1790  about  113  grammar  schools  were  required.  According 
to  the  census  of  1820  about  173  such  schools  were  required. 
As  late  as  1825  the  freshman  class  entering  Harvard  was 
only  seventy-one,  and  probably  not  more  than  one  hundred 
boys  from  Massachusetts  entered  college  at  all  in  any  one 
year.  Thus  there  were  more  schools  required  in  the  State 
than  there  were  boys  entering  college  in  any  one  year. 

123.  The  early  academy  and  the  college.   The  academy 
in  America  in  many  cases  originated  for  the  distinct  pur- 
pose of  emphasizing  the  education  of  boys  and  girls  who 
did  not  intend  to  enter  college.    It  has  ended  by  becoming 
the  "preparatory  school"  par  excellence  and  in  some  cases 
itself  developed  into  a  college.    It  is  not  to  be  supposed, 
however,  that  the  academy  did  not  provide  for  college  prep- 
aration in  its  early  days.    In  most  of  the  early  academies 
provision  was  regularly  made  for  those  who  intended  to  go 
to  college,  and  in  time  there  developed  a  large  number  of 
academies  which  were  designed  to  prepare  pupils  for  par- 
ticular colleges,  frequently  being  officially  connected  with 
the  college  itself.    Commonly  separate  courses  were  pro- 
vided for  those  going  to  college  and  for  those  not  going  to 
college,  so  that  in  the  academy  first  were  developed  differ- 
entiated courses  later  to  be  taken  over  in  part  by  the  public 
high  school.    It  is  not  necessary  here  to  emphasize  the  fact 
that  many  academies  more  or  less  encroached  on  the  field  of 
the  college  and  in  some  cases  became  serious  rivals  of  the 
poorer  colleges. 

124.  The  public  high  school  and  the  college.    The  first 
high  school  established  in  the  United  States  was  established 
hi  order  to  provide  secondary  education  for  boys  who  were 


306      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

not  intended  for  college.  For  this  reason  it  has  sometimes 
been  assumed  that  the  public  high  school  in  its  early  days 
confined  its  attention  to  education  other  than  for  college 
entrance  and  neglected  the  latter.  It  is  true  that  the  Eng- 
lish Classical  (High)  School  of  Boston  was  designed  for  the 
education  of  boys  who  did  not  intend  to  go  to  college  and 
that  it  ignored  college  preparation.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  college  preparation  was  already  provided  for 
in  the  Boston  Public  Latin  School  and  that  in  Boston  the 
English  High  School  was  established  to  supplement  the 
work  of  the  Latin  School,  not  to  replace  it.  Except  in  a  few 
scattered  cases  where  the  old  Latin  grammar  schools  sur- 
vived the  newly  established  public  high  school  provided 
secondary  education  both  for  boys  who  were  going  to  college 
and  for  boys  and  girls  not  so  destined.  While  it  is  true  that 
the  law  which  began  the  public  high-school  movement  in 
Massachusetts  (and  in  the  United  States)  provided  for  two 
types  of  secondary  schools,  the  lower  of  which  did  not  pro- 
vide an  education  adequate  for  admission  to  college,  it  is 
also  true  that  such  differentiation  existed  in  the  statutes  only 
and  that  when  a  high  school  of  any  type  was  established 
it  almost  never  failed  to  include  in  its  curriculum  those 
studies  necessary  for  admission  to  college  —  Latin,  Greek, 
mathematics,  etc.  Hence  from  its  beginning  the  public  high 
school  has  always  included  in  its  economy  provision  for 
preparing  its  pupils  for  admission  to  college.  In  fact  not 
until  within  the  past  few  decades,  if  even  now,  has  prepa- 
ration for  college  ceased  to  be  the  dominant  factor  affect- 
ing the  character  of  the  work  done  in  the  public  high 
school. 

The  specific  requirements  for  entrance  to  college  as  affect- 
ing the  public  secondary  school  will  be  considered  more 
fully  in  later  sections,  but  certain  general  conditions  may 
be  mentioned  here.  First,  many  studies  once  confined  to 


f: 

RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  307 

the  college  curriculum  have  gradually  backed  down  into  the 
curriculum  of  the  high  school.  Second,  the  general  scope  of 
the  subject-matter  of  the  academy  and  public  high  school 
has  always  far  transcended  the  requirements  for  admission 
to  college,  and  in  the  introduction  of  new  subjects  the  high 
school  has  constantly  anticipated  the  requirements  set  by 
the  college.  Third,  the  number  of  pupils  attending  the  high 
schools  has  increased  greatly  and  the  number  of  pupils  pre- 
paring for  college  has  increased  greatly,  but  the  propor- 
tion of  college  preparatory  pupils  has  constantly  decreased. 
Fourth,  the  probable  extent  to  which  the  public  high  school 
may  go  in  organizing  its  system  so  as  to  provide  specific 
preparation  for  college  has  assumed  importance  because 
of  the  difficulties  attendant  on  the  proper  coordination  of 
the  work  for  various  groups  attending  the  high  school  and 
the  necessity  of  consulting  the  interests  and  needs  of  the 
many  who  do  not  go  to  college  as  well  as  the  needs  of  the 
relatively  few  who  do. 

125.  The  rise  of  public  State  universities.  The  establish- 
ment of  State  colleges  and  universities,  particularly  in  the 
West  and  Middle  West,  did  much  to  simplify  and  improve 
the  relation  between  the  secondary  schools  and  colleges  in  this 
country.  As  long  as  colleges  were  private  or  semi-private 
institutions  the  articulation  between  secondary  and  higher 
education  was  determined  by  the  more  or  less  arbitrary 
requirements  imposed  by  the  college  authorities.  Confusion, 
imperfect  articulation,  and  lack  of  uniformity  were  the 
natural  results  of  such  a  situation.  But  with  the  rise  of 
State  colleges  and  universities  considered  as  integral  parts 
of  a  public  system  of  education  organically  related  to  the 
secondary  schools  a  new  element  was  introduced  and  a 
closer  coordination  between  the  two  institutions  was  ulti- 
mately required.  The  conception  of  a  complete  system  of 
education,  the  parts  of  which  should  be  closely  articulated 


308      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

with  each  other,  was  found  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  and  even  before.  Thus  it  found  its  way  into 
the  constitution  of  the  State  of  Indiana  adopted  in  1816 
providing  for  "a  general  system  of  education,  ascending  in 
regular  gradation  from  township  schools  to  a  state  univer- 
sity wherein  tuition  shall  be  gratis  and  equally  open  to  all."  l 
Nevertheless,  it  was  not  until  the  impetus  of  Federal  aid  was 
given  to  States  by  the  Morrill  Act  of  1862  that  the  move- 
ment began  in  earnest,  and  it  was  not  until  the  last  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  century  that  its  development  noticeably 
improved  the  relation  between  secondary  education  and 
college  education.  Still  more  recent  has  been  the  develop- 
ment of  municipal  colleges  which,  within  their  limited  fields, 
have  aided  the  closer  articulation  of  secondary  schools  and 
higher  institutions. 

126.  The  secondary  school  and  the  normal  school.  The 
relation  between  the  secondary  school  and  the  normal  school 
has  always  involved  confusion.  For  a  long  period  one  of  the 
important  functions  of  the  secondary  school  was  conceived  to 
be  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  elementary  school.  Even 
at  present  it  is  by  no  means  the  exception  to  find  teacher- 
training  courses  in  the  public  high  schools.  In  1914-15 
pupils  were  reported  to  be  enrolled  in  training  courses  for 
teachers  in  certain  public  high  schools  of  every  State  in  the 
Union  except  Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  Nevada,  and 
the  District  of  Columbia.  Such  pupils  in  1914-15  num- 
bered 25,721  (3501  boys  and  22,220  girls),  of  whom  sixty 
per  cent  were  enrolled  in  high  schools  of  the  North  Central 
States.  In  Kansas  nearly  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  girls  en- 
rolled in  public  high  schools  were  enrolled  in  teacher-train- 
ing courses.  In  many  States  the  demand  for  elementary- 
school  teachers  has  led  to  the  introduction  or  retention  of 
such  courses  largely  on  the  grounds  of  expediency.  It 
1  Constitution  of  the  State  of  Indiana  (1816),  art.  ix,  sec.  2. 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  309 

should  be  noted,  however,  that  such  a  practice  has  danger- 
ous tendencies  in  that  it  frequently  leads  toward  educa- 
tional in-breeding,  results  commonly  in  over-ambitious 
attempts  toward  higher  education  in,  the  high  schools,  and 
frequently  interferes  with  the  proper  development  of  normal 
schools  by  bringing  them  into  competition  with  the  public 
high  schools. 

As  the  public  high  school  in  some  cases  has  encroached  on 
the  field  of  the  normal  school,  so  has  the  normal  school  in 
many  cases  encroached  on  the  field  of  the  public  high  school. 
In  many  States  the  normal  school  has  occupied  itself  with 
education  essentially  secondary  in  character.  Even  at 
present  the  practice  is  by  no  means  uncommon  of  admitting 
students  to  the  normal  school  who  have  had  no  high-school 
education,  or  one  to  three  years  of  high-school  work.  Where 
normal  schools  were  essentially  private  institutions,  as 
formerly  in  Pennsylvania,  standards  of  admission  were  ex- 
tremely lax  and  the  normal  schools  frequently  became  actual 
competitors  of  the  public  high  school  for  purposes  of  second- 
ary education.  The  situation  is  thus  described  for  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1910  by  Holland: * 

The  Pennsylvania  State  normal  schools  and  the  public  high 
schools  are  to-day  in  direct  conflict.  In  previous  chapters  it  has 
been  shown  that  a  large  number  of  the  normal-school  students 
belong  to  the  high-school  period,  and  their  academic  preparation  is 
such  that  they  should  be  attending  the  secondary  schools  in  their 
own  neighborhood.  .  .  .  Strange  to  say  the  normal-school  princi- 
pals as  late  as  1910  agreed  upon  a  four-year  course  of  study  that 
possesses  many  characteristics  of  the  ordinary  high  school  and 
places  their  institutions  in  direct  competition  with  the  rapidly 
increasing  public  high  schools. 

As  a  general  principle  it  may  be  stated  that  normal  schools 
should  be  so  related  to  the  public  secondary  school  as  to 

1  Holland,  E.  O.,  The  Pennsylvania  State  Normal  Schools  and  Public 
School  System,  p.  80.  Cf.  also  ibid.,  pp.  2,  37-54,  80-90. 


310      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

receive  its  students  therefrom  and  continue  their  education, 
directed  along  special  lines  appropriate  to  their  later  voca- 
tion, from  the  point  at  which  the  secondary  school  closes. 
Any  departure  from  that  principle  must  be  considered  as  a 
temporary  expediency  to  be  abandoned  at  the  earliest  oppor- 
tunity. As  a  corollary  it  follows  that  training  courses  for 
teachers  should  not  have  a  place  in  the  public  secondary 
school  except  as  a  temporary  expediency. 

127.  The  overlapping  of  secondary  school  and  college. 
The  curriculum  of  the  public  high  school  has  always  tran- 
scended the  requirements  of  subject-matter  set  up  by  the 
colleges  for  admission  and  frequently  has  included  subjects 
regularly  included  in  the  college  curriculum.  Likewise  the 
college  curriculum  regularly  includes  subjects  of  study  which 
are  essentially  of  secondary-school  grade,  e.g.,  courses  in 
foreign  languages  for  beginners,  elementary  courses  in  the 
sciences,  etc.  Thus  there  is  always  a  certain  amount  of  over- 
lapping in  the  curricula  of  the  secondary  school  and  college. 
In  the  average  high  school  it  would  not  be  at  all  difficult  to 
map  out  a  one-  or  two-year  "post-graduate"  course  which 
(with  respect  to  the  subjects  studied  and  the  amount  of  time 
devoted  to  them)  would  be  quite  comparable  to  possible 
freshman  or  sophomore  courses  in  college. 

For  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  occasional  attempts 
have  been  made  to  extend  the  work  of  the  high  school  upward 
so  as  to  provide  what  might  be  called  "graduate"  work, 
more  or  less  comparable  to  the  earlier  part  of  the  college 
course.  In  certain  cities,  notably  in  Joliet,  Illinois,  such 
attempts  met  with  success.  It  was  not  until  1907,  however, 
that  any  comprehensive  organization  was  attempted  covering 
more  than  one  community.  In  that  year  the  State  Legisla- 
ture of  California  passed  a  law  providing: 

The  high-school  board  of  any  high-school  district,  or  trustees  of 
any  county  high  school  may  prescribe  post-graduate  courses  of 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION          311 

study  for  the  graduates  of  such  high  school  or  other  high  schools, 
which  course  of  study  shall  approximate  the  studies  prescribed  in 
the  first  two  years  of  university  courses.1 

The  first  city  to  take  advantage  of  this  opportunity  was 
Fresno,  which  established  such  a  post  graduate  high-school 
course  in  1910.  By  March,  1915,  more  than  twelve  "junior 
colleges"2  had  been  established  in  California,  and  about 
two  thousand  pupils  were  enrolled  in  post-graduate  courses 
in  that  State.  In  other  States  a  few  similar  institutions 
have  been  established  in  spite  of  the  difficulties  encountered 
in  existing  legal  technicalities,  lack  of  close  cooperation 
on  the  part  of  colleges  of  the  usual  type,  and  the  element  of 
increased  expense. 

Claims  for  the  values  of  the  junior  college  are  made: 

It  offers  peculiar  advantages,  first,  to  the  student  who  cannot 
afford  to  live  away  from  home;  second,  to  the  young  and  immature 
student  who  is  not  yet  ready  to  cope  with  the  problems  incident 
upon  life  at  a  large  university;  third,  to  the  student  who  has  failed 
to  get  his  recommendation  for  college  but  who,  by  faithful  and 
consistent  study,  may  prove  himself  ready  for  advanced  work; 
and  fourth,  to  the  student  who  does  not  intend  to  enter  college, 
but  who  desires  to  continue  his  study  along  certain  lines.' 

To  these  claims  may  be  added  the  claims  that  increased 
proportions  of  high-school  graduates  may  be  encouraged 
to  attempt  appropriate  forms  of  higher  education  and  the 
claim  that  in  the  larger  universities  (especially  State  uni- 
versities) work  is  being  done  at  public  expense  in  higher 

1  School  Law  of  California  (1915),  p.  151. 

2  The  use  of  the  term  "junior  college"  as  here  employed  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  its  use  as  employed  for  certain  institutions  in  Wisconsin, 
Missouri,  and  Virginia.    Cf.  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education  (1914),  vol.  I,  pp.  160-67. 

1  Announcement  of  the  Santa  Barbara  (California)  Junior  College, 
quoted  at  p.  22  of  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Secondary  Schools,  Califor- 
nia State  Board  of  Education,  1914. 


812      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

institutions  with  much  higher  cost  that  might  better  be  done 
in  junior  colleges  at  much  lower  cost.  Further  it  is  urged 
that  the  large  size  of  classes  entering  the  first  year  of  college 
or  university  work  render  impossible  that  degree  of  indi- 
vidual attention  most  desirable. 

At  present  the  movement  must  be  considered  as  in  the 
experimental  stage.  Numerous  difficulties,  especially  lack 
of  college  and  university  cooperation,  have  interfered  with 
its  development.  In  all  probability  the  dominant  factor 
determining  the  growth  and  status  of  the  junior  college  will 
be  the  increased  financial  outlay  necessary.  It  should,  how- 
ever, be  remembered  that  much  of  the  increased  expenditure 
on  the  extended  high  school  will  be  offset  by  the  reduced 
college  expenditure. 

128.  High-school  pupils  entering  higher  institutions. 
Opinions  frequently  expressed  concerning  the  number  and 
proportion  of  high-school  graduates  going  to  higher  insti- 
tutions commonly  err  in  one  of  two  ways,  either  overesti- 
mating or  underestimating  the  number  of  such  pupils.  In 
sections  42-^43  figures  have  already  been  presented  indicat- 
ing the  percentages  of  pupils  in  the  various  grades  of  the 
high  school  destined  to  enter  higher  institutions.  From 
those  figures  it  appears  that  those  pupils  constitute  an  im- 
portant portion  of  the  secondary-school  population  (one 
sixth  of  those  who  enter  the  secondary  school,  one  quarter 
of  those  in  the  second  year,  one  third  of  those  in  the  third 
year,  nearly  one  half  of  those  in  the  fourth  year,  one  half  of 
those  who  graduate,  and  more  than  one  quarter  of  all  pupils 
in  the  high  school  at  any  one  time).  This  group  represents 
one  of  the  largest  roughly  homogeneous  groups  of  pupils 
in  the  public  high  schools.  Nevertheless,  it  must  be  recog- 
nized that  it  represents  a  portion  only,  and  by  no  means  the 
largest  portion,  of  the  high-school  population.  More  numer- 
ous and  certainly  not  less  important  are  those  pupils  who 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION 


313 


either  will  not  complete  the  high-school  course,  dropping 
out  after  one,  two,  or  three  years  of  secondary  education, 
or  completing  the  high-school  course,  will  not  continue  their 
education  in  school  beyond  that  limit.  While  exact  figures 
are  not  available  whereby  the  relative  proportions  of  those 
two  general  groups  may  be  determined,  the  data  presented 
in  the  following  table  indicate  that  the  proportion  has 
changed  decidedly  even  within  the  past  two  decades. 

TABLE  CVII.  NUMBER  OF  COLLEGE  STUDENTS  TO  EACH 
1000  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS  1893-94  —  1913-14* 


Periods 

College  and 
university 
students 

High-school 
pupils 

College  and  uni- 
versity students 
to  each  1000 
high-school  pu- 
pils 

1893-94  

88,471 

289,274 

305 

1903-04-  

128,063 

635,808 

201 

1913-14         

216,493 

1,218,804 

173 

*  Compiled  from  data  given  in  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education 
(1914),  vol.  II,  pp.  192,  409. 

The  changing  population  of  the  public  high  school  has 
made  imperative  changes  in  its  economy.  In  the  past  the 
relatively  large  proportion  of  pupils  entering  the  high 
school  who  were  destined  for  higher  education  and  the 
somewhat  definite  and  tangible  goal  set  up  for  the  education 
of  those  pupils  in  the  high  school,  have  determined  the  cur- 
riculum and  general  economy  of  the  secondary  school. 
Within  recent  years  the  increased  proportion  of  high-school 
pupils  not  destined  for  higher  education  and  the  formula- 
tion of  more  definite  and  tangible  aims  for  the  education  of 
those  pupils,  have  demanded  the  subordination  of  college- 
admission  functions  to  more  diversified  aims  affecting  the 
larger  proportion  of  secondary-school  pupils.  To  a  certain 


314      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

extent  conditions  have  been  practically  reversed.  The 
former  problem  involved  the  question  of  how  the  public 
secondary  school  might  best  be  articulated  with  higher 
education:  the  present  problem  involves  the  question  of  how 
the  higher  institutions  may  best  be  articulated  with  the 
public  secondary  school.  The  former  theory  that  that  kind 
of  secondary  education  which  was  best  fitted  to  prepare  pu- 
pils for  college  was  also  well  fitted  to  educate  pupils  not  so 
destined  is  being  supplanted  by  the  theory  that  secondary 
education  has  its  various  functions  to  perform  and  higher 
education  must  take  its  origin  at  the  point  where  the  sec- 
ondary school  leaves  off. 

Assuming  that  the  preparation  of  pupils  for  admission  to 
higher  institutions  is  a  legitimate  function  of  public  secondary 
education,  but  that  such  propaedeutic  function  is  subordi- 
nate to  more  general  functions  of  secondary  education,  the 
problem  of  the  relation  of  secondary  education  to  higher 
education  becomes  a  question  largely  of  the  amount  and 
flexibility  of  college  entrance  requirements  and  the  methods 
by  which  high-school  graduates  are  selected  for  admission 
to  the  college  or  other  higher  institution.  These  factors  are 
considered  in  some  detail  in  following  sections. 

II.  COLLEGE  ADMISSION  REQUIREMENTS 

129.  Early  requirements  and  changes.  The  earliest 
requirements  for  admission  to  college  in  America  were  lim- 
ited to  the  classical  languages  and  literatures.  During  the 
eighteenth  century  in  some  cases  the  elements  of  arithme- 
tic were  added  to  the  requirements,  at  Yale  as  early  as  1745. 
Up  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  Latin,  Greek,  and 
arithmetic  were  the  only  subjects  required  for  admission 
to  the  existing  American  colleges.  As  long  as  the  dominant 
function  of  the  secondary  school  was  conceived  to  be  prep- 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  815 

aration  for  college  and  as  long  as  the  college  itself  aimed 
toward  a  single  uniform  course  of  study  with  special  refer- 
ence to  training  for  the  higher  professions,  little  change  was 
to  be  expected  in  the  admission  requirements.  However, 
when  the  character  and  scope  of  secondary  education  was 
changed,  as  in  the  case  of  the  academy  and  high-school 
movements,  the  enriched  curriculum  of  the  secondary  school 
made  it  possible  for  the  colleges  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  their 
admission  requirements,  and  some  of  the  newer  subjects 
were  added  to  those  requirements,  e.g.,  geography,  algebra, 
geometry,  and  history.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  first 
change  was  one  of  increase  in  the  amount  and  number 
of  requirements  rather  than  one  of  differentiation.  In 
general,  throughout  the  nineteenth  century,  there  was  a 
tendency  to  increase  constantly  the  number  of  subjects 
and  the  amount  of  preparation  required  for  entrance  to 
college. 

While  changes  in  the  scope  of  the  secondary  school  were 
occurring  somewhat  analogous  changes  were  taking  place 
hi  the  colleges  and  universities.  The  nineteenth  century 
brought  with  it  new  demands  on  the  colleges  as  well  as  on 
the  secondary  school  —  demands  for  changes  in  the  aims 
and  functions  of  college  education  which  finally  resulted  in 
differentiated  courses  of  study  and  differentiated  institu- 
tions. Throughout  the  seventeenth  century  the  main  pur- 
pose of  the  college  was  the  training  of  ministers,  more  than 
two  thirds  of  'college  graduates  entering  that  profession. 
During  the  eighteenth  century  the  proportion  of  graduates 
entering  the  ministry  decreased  while  the  proportions  of 
those  entering  the  professions  of  law  and  medicine  increased, 
the  three  professions  together  attracting  more  than  three- 
fifths  of  all  college  graduates  during  the  eighteenth  century 
and  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  period 
from  about  1850  to  the  present  has  been  one  of  constantly 


316      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


increasing    differentiation    of    the    college    student    body, 
These  changes  are  clearly  indicated  in  the  following  table. 

TABLE  CVIII.  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  COLLEGE  AND  UNIVER- 
SITY GRADUATES:  PERCENTS  ENTERING  VARIOUS  PROFES- 
SIONS * 


8 

e 

0 

| 

§ 

1 

B 

e    1 

I 

Periods 

T8 

•§ 

1 

g 

.1 

g 

"3-w"| 

^g 

a 

g 

"§ 

3 

g 

.0  v 

2> 

T 

^     M 

U 

1 

•5 

* 

1 

£  u 

1 

•5 

3  -S. 

b 

1643-1645  

70.0 

5.0 

5.0 

5.0 

15.0 

1696-1700  .... 

65.6 

1.6 

3.1 

4.7 

1.6 

9.4 

14.7 

1746-1750.    .. 

37.9 

7.5 

15.8 

4.2 

9.2 

6.2 

2.5 

16.7 

1796-1800  .    .  . 

21.4 

30.5 

8.4 

5.7 

5.6 

1.1 

.1 

2.4 

.1 

24.7 

1846-1850  .    .  . 

23.1 

25.8- 

10.8 

10.1 

10.0 

1.8 

1.5 

2.9 

1.9 

13.1 

1871-1875.    .. 

16.7 

28.1 

8.5 

13.2 

16.4 

1.2 

2.4 

2.4 

2.5 

8.4 

1896-1900.    .. 

5.9 

15.6 

6.6 

26.7 

18.8 

1.0 

3.5 

.7 

1.1 

18.9 

*  Burritt,  B.  B.,  Professional  Distribution  of  College  and  University  Graduates,  Bureau  of 
Education  Bulletin  (1912),  no.  19,  p.  144.  The  effect  of  the  development  of  higher  education 
for  women  may  be  observed  in  the  proportion  of  college  graduates  becoming  educators. 

With  the  introduction  of  differentiated  courses  in  the 
college  and  with  the  development  of  special  colleges,  such 
as  those  for  engineering  and  agriculture,  there  grew  up  differ- 
ent sets  of  admission  requirements  and  a  lack  of  uniformity 
therein.  Eventually  the  variation  in  admission  require- 
ments resulted  in  an  intolerable  burden  on  the  secondary 
schools. 

130.  The  amount  of  preparation  required.  Recent  at- 
tempts to  secure  a  certain  amount  of  uniformity  and  stand- 
ardization in  college  admission  requirements  have  led  to 
substantial  agreement  in  defining  those  requirements  in 
terms  of  "units."  "A  unit  represents  a  year's  study  in  any 
subject  in  a  secondary  school,  constituting  approximately 
a  quarter  of  a  full  year's  work."  l  This  assumes  that  the 
length  of  the  school  year  is  from  thirty-six  to  forty  weeks, 
that  a  period  is  from  forty  to  sixty  minutes  in  length,  and 
1  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1916),  no.  20,  p.  8. 


RELATION   TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION 


317 


that  the  study  is  pursued  for  four  or  five  periods  a  week; 
but  under  ordinary  circumstances,  a  satisfactory  year's 
work  in  any  subject  cannot  be  accomplished  in  less  than 
one  hundred  and  twenty  sixty-minute  hours,  or  their  equiv 
alent.1  A  large  proportion  of  colleges  and  universities  now 
state  their  requirements  in  terms  of  units  as  thus  defined. 
Current  practice  regarding  the  amount  of  preparation  re- 
quired by  standard  colleges  for  admission  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  table. 

TABLE  CIX* 


Number  of  units  required 

7     t  '1  il  ' 

Num- 

ber 

14 

14.5 

15 

15.5 

16 

16.5 

17 

17.5 

Aver- 
age 

Colleges  of  liberal  arts.  .  .  . 

204 

39 

31 

116 

5 

12 

0 

0 

1 

14.8 

Colleges  of  engineering  .  .  . 

85 

27 

5 

50 

0 

3 

0 

0 

0 

14.7 

Colleges  of  agriculture.  .  .  . 

31 

9 

1 

21 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

14.7 

Total  

320 

75 

37 

187 

5 

15 

0 

0 

1 

14.7 

*  Kingsley,  C.  D.,  College  Entrance  Requirements,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1913), 
DO.  7,  p.  7. 

It  will  be  noted  that  one  college  only  (Bryn  Mawr)  re- 
quires more  work  than  can  readily  be  accomplished  by 
the  high-school  pupil  in  his  four-year  course.  Hence,  with 
respect  to  admission  requirements,  such'  difficulties  as  may 
be  found  in  articulating  the  secondary  school  with  the  col- 
lege are  to  be  found  in  the  character  and  distribution  of  the 
units  required  rather  than  in  the  amount  of  preparation 
demanded. 

131.  "Prescribed,"  "Accepted,"  and  "Elective"  sub- 
jects. Much  more  important  than  the  question  of  the 
amount  of  preparation  for  admission  to  college  (where  the 
amount  is  reasonable)  is  the  question  of  the  amount  of  ri- 
gidity or  flexibility  found  in  those  requirements.  When  all 
1  Bureau  of  Eucation  Bulletin  (1916),  no.  20,  p.  8. 


318     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

subjects  required  for  admission  to  college  were  prescribed 
and  the  amounts  of  material  to  be  mastered  in  those  sub- 
jects were  fixed,  the  secondary  school  which  desired  to  fit 
any  of  its  pupils  for  admission  to  college  was  under  the 
necessity  of  determining  its  curriculum  on  the  basis  of  the 
college  admission  requirements,  to  the  detriment  of  those 
pupils  not  destined  for  a  college  education.  Such  rigidity, 
once  the  rule,  no  longer  obtains.  The  oldest  method  was  to 
prescribe  definite  subjects  for  admission  to  college  and  to 
demand  specific  amounts  of  those  subjects  of  all  candidates 
for  admission.  This  was  modified  during  the  last  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  in  such  a  way  as  to  prescribe  defi- 
nite amounts  of  work  in  certain  subject  groups,  —  English, 
mathematics,  foreign  languages,  science,  and  history,  — 
but  to  permit  the  election  of  the  particular  language,  sci- 
ence, and  history.  Later  still  this  method  was  further  mod- 
ified so  that  certain  amounts  of  prescribed  subjects  were 
specified  and  other  subjects  allowed  to  be  chosen  from  lists 
of  "accepted  subjects."  Finally  the  method  of  admission 
has  in  some  cases  been  so  modified  as  to  allow  a  "free 
margin"  of  "elective"  subjects  which  may  be  chosen  from 
any  of  the  subjects  accepted  by  an  approved  high  school 
toward  graduation.  In  a  few  cases  the  extreme  form  of  this 
method  has  been  adopted,  allowing  a  free  election  of  the 
entire  fifteen  units  required.  The  practice  of  allowing  a 
"free  margin"  is  not,  however,  the  rule  in  most  colleges, 
and  in  general  uniformity  is  lacking,  in  some  cases  subjects 
required  by  certain  colleges  not  even  being  accepted  in 
others  of  equal  rank.1 

132.  The  distribution  of  prescribed  units.    While  there 
is  wide  variation  in  the  manner  in  which  prescribed  units 
are  distributed,  there  is  also  at  present  considerable  uni- 
formity in  the  more  essential  elements  involved  and  in 
1  Kingsley,  C.  D.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  17-18. 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  319 

theory  agreement  is  general  that  the  high-school  course, 
where  preparation  for  admission  to  college  is  considered 
legitimate,  should  include  at  least  three  units  of  English, 
one  of  natural  science,  and  one  of  social  science. 

These  five  units,  together  with  two  or  two  and  one  half  units  of 
mathematics  almost  uniformly  included  constitute  one  half  of  the 
total  number  of  units  required  for  admission,  and  the  prescription 
of  these  units  has  comparatively  little  effect  in  reducing  flexibility 
except  when  the  college  specifies  some  particular  science  or  epoch 
of  history.1 

In  1899  the  Committee  of  Ten  on  College  Entrance 
Requirements  recommended  that  the  following  ten  units 
should  be  included  in  the  high-school  course  and  in  college 
entrance  requirements: 

Four  units  in  foreign  language  (no  language  accepted  in  less  than 
two  units),  two  units  in  mathematics,  two  in  English,  one  in  his- 
tory, and  one  in  science.2 

The  recommendations  of  that  committee  did  much  to 
reduce  the  variability  which  had  previously  existed,  but  it 
failed  to  produce  satisfactory  conditions,  largely  because  of 
the  requirements  in  mathematics  and  the  fact  that  many 
colleges  required  a  greater  amount  of  foreign  language  than 
that  recommended  by  the  committee. 

Certain  features  found  in  present  conditions  are  worthy 
of  note.  In  a  study  of  204  colleges  of  liberal  arts  Kingsley 
found  that  10  colleges  (in  1912)  did  not  prescribe  any  par- 
ticular subject  for  graduates  of  fully  approved  high  schools. 
All  colleges  that  prescribed  any  subject  prescribed  English 
and  in  some  cases  English  was  the  only  subject  prescribed. 
Every  college  that  prescribed  any  subject  other  than  Eng- 

1  Kingsley,  C.  D.,  op.  cit.,  p.  11. 

*  National  Education  Association.  Report  of  Committee  on  College  En- 
trance Requirements,  p.  32. 


320     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


lish  prescribed  mathematics.  In  the  case  of  foreign  lan- 
guages was  found  the  greatest  variation  in  prescribed  units. 
The  present  tendency  is  to  reduce  the  amount  of  foreign 
language,  both  in  high-school  courses  and  in  college  admis- 
sion requirements  and  to  permit  a  choice  between  ancient 
and  modern  languages.  A  student  who  can  offer  no  Latin 
and  only  three  units  of  German  can  meet  the  foreign-lan- 
guage requirements  of  110  colleges  of  liberal  arts  and  become 
a  candidate  for  the  Bachelor  of  Arts  degree  in  73  of  those 
colleges.  Out  of  204  colleges  of  liberal  arts  22  admit  stu- 
dents without  any  language  other  than  English.  Only  94  out 
of  204  colleges  of  liberal  arts  prescribe  any  natural  science 
for  admission.  History  is  prescribed  by  163  of  those  colleges. 
Flexibility  in  the  curriculum  of  the  high  school  which 
must  provide  secondary  education  for  those  going  to  college 
and  those  not  is  greatly  affected  by  the  extent  to  which  the 
colleges  recognize  as  counting  toward  admission  the  various 
subjects  commonly  found  in  the  high-school  course.  For 
1912  Kingsley  gives  the  following  table  of  subjects  accepted 
by  colleges  of  liberal  arts  as  counting  toward  admission  to 
the  bachelor  of  arts  course. 

TABLE  CX.    NUMBER  OF  SUCH  COLLEGES  ACCEPTING 
VARIOUS  SUBJECTS  FOR  ADMISSION  * 


Subject* 

No, 

Subjects 

No. 

Subjects 

No. 

Latin  ...    . 

203 

Zoology  .  . 

175 

Business  

88 

Greek.  .  .    . 
German  .    . 

202 
197 

Physiography.  . 
Physiology  .... 

174 
151 

Household  economics.  .  . 
Geology.  .  , 

79 
64 

Physics.  .   . 

196 

Drawing  

124 

Music  

62 

Chemistry  . 

194 

Spanish  

118 

Astronomy  

54 

French  .  .    . 

192 

Shopwork  

97 

Agriculture  

80 

Botany.  .    . 

181 

Economics  

92 

General  science  

43 

(Others  will  consider  subjects  not  commonly  accepted.) 
*  Kingsley,  op.  cit.,  p.  27. 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION 


321 


Current  practice  (1912)  in  the  distribution  of  prescribed 
and  elective  units  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table. 

TABLE  CXI  * 


Colleges 
of  liberal 
arts 

Colleges 
of  engi- 
neering 

Colleget 
of  agri- 
culture 

Total 

Number  of  colleges  considered  

203 

85 

31 

319 

Prescribed  units,  average  number  

10.7 

10  1 

8  1 

10  2 

English  

2  9 

3  0 

2  9 

2  9 

Mathematics  

2  3 

3  1 

2  2 

2  5 

Foreign  language  

4  0 

2  0 

1  2 

3  1 

Natural  Science  

0  5 

1  0 

1  0 

0  7 

Social  Science  

1  0 

0  9 

0  8 

0  9 

Drawing  

0  0 

0  1 

0  0 

0  0 

Elective  units,  average  number  

4  1 

4  6 

6  6 

4  5 

Required  units,  average  number  

14.8 

14.7 

14.7 

14  7 

*  Compiled  from  data  given  by  Kingsley,  C.  D.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  28,  73,  89. 

It  is  to  be  noted  from  this  table  that  the  only  require- 
ments likely  to  cramp  the  work  of  the  high  school  in  any 
important  way  are  the  requirements  in  English,  mathe- 
matics, and  foreign  language,  and  of  these  the  most  notice- 
able is  the  requirement  in  foreign  languages  for  admission 
to  the  colleges  of  liberal  arts  or  the  "general"  college.  In 
all  three  of  these  subject  groups  the  problem  centers  largely 
around  the  necessity  of  so  distributing  the  pupil's  work  in 
the  secondary  school  that  in  some  fields  his  education  shall 
proceed  beyond  the  elementary  phases  and  at  the  same  time 
that  the  pupil  shall  receive  some  insight  into  a  variety  of 
fields  of  knowledge  and  training.  With  unlimited  election 
of  subject  for  admission  to  college  it  is  possible  (where  the 
secondary  school  permits)  for  the  student  entering  college 
to  have  studied  the  elementary  phases  of  a  number  of  sub- 


322      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDAEY  EDUCATION 

jects  and  never  have  carried  his  acquaintance  with  any  one 
subject  or  group  of  subjects  beyond  the  elementary  or  in- 
troductory stage.  With  recognition  of  the  desirability  of  a 
certain  amount  of  concentration  in  one  or  more  fields,  to- 
gether with  a  certain  amount  of  distribution  in  other  fields, 
there  is  a  growing  tendency  for  colleges  to  adapt  admission 
requirements  and  for  secondary  schools  to  adapt  courses  of 
study  so  as  to  provide  for  such  concentration  and  distribu- 
tion. This  is  obvious  in  the  admission  requirements  of  such 
colleges  as  the  University  of  Chicago,  Harvard  University, 
etc.,  and  in  the  recommendations  of  the  Committee  of  the 
National  Education  Association  on  the  Articulation  of  High 
School  and  College  (1911). 

133.  Recommendations  of  the  Committee  on  Articula- 
tion. In  1910  a  committee  was  appointed  by  the  Secondary 
Department  of  the  National  Education  Association  to  con- 
sider the  problem  of  the  articulation  of  the  high  school  and 
college.  The  committee's  report  was  accepted  in  1911.  The 
substance  of  that  report  is  indicated  by  the  recommenda- 
tions made  regarding  a  well-planned  high-school  course.1 

1.  The  quantitative  requirement  should  be  15  units.  The  defini- 
tion of  the  unit  there  adopted  is  that  given  in  Section  132  above. 

2.  Every  high-school  course  should  include  at  least  three  units 
of  English,  one  unit  of  social  science  (including  history),  and  one 
unit  of  natural  science. 

3.  Every  high-school  course  should  include  the  completion  of 
two  majors  of  3  units  each  and  one  minor  of  2  units,  and  one  of  the 
majors  should  be  English.  The  following  subject  groups  are  recom- 
mended as  majors:  three  units  of  English;  three  units  of  mathe- 
matics; three  units  of  one  foreign  language;  three  units  of  social 
science;  three  units  of  natural  science. 

4.  The  requirement  in  mathematics  and  in  foreign  languages 
should  not  exceed  2  units  in  mathematics,  and  2  units  of  one  lan- 
guage other  than  English. 

1  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association  (1911),  pp.  559-67. 
Cf.  Kingsley,  op.  cit.,  pp.  97-105. 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  323 

5.  Of  the  total  15  units,  not  less  than  11  units  should  consist  of 
English,  foreign  language,  mathematics,  social  science  (including 
history),  natural  science,  or  other  work  conducted  by  recitations 
and  home  study.  The  other  4  units  should  be  left  as  a  margin  to  be 
used  for  additional  academic  work  or  for  mechanic  arts,  household 
science,  commercial  work,  and  any  other  kind  of  work  that  the 
best  interests  of  the  student  appear  to  require. 

4  (a).  In  place  of  either  two  units  of  mathematics  or  two  units 
of  foreign  language,  the  substitution,  under  proper  supervision, 
should  be  allowed  of  two  units,  consisting  of  a  second  unit  of  social 
science  (including  history)  and  a  second  unit  of  natural  science. 

According  to  these  recommendations  three  general  group- 
ings would  then  be  possible  for  the  ten  or  eleven  units  in 
prescribed  groups: 

TABLE  CXH* 

A  or        B    or    C 

English 3  33 

Foreign  language 2  2              0 

Mathematics 2  0              2 

Social  science 1  2              2 

Natural  science 1  2             2 

Total  specified 9  99 

To  be  added  to  complete  second  major .      1  or  2  1  1 

Total 10  or  11         10  10 

*  From  the  Supplementary  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Articidation.  p.  566.   Cf .  Kingsley, 
op.  cit.,  p.  101. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  essential  principle  of  this  plan 
is  the  grouping  of  parts  of  subjects  or  of  allied  subjects  with 
more  or  less  freedom  of  choice  within  groups,  thus  provid- 
ing for  consecutive  and  fairly  advanced  work  in  at  least 
two  or  three  fields,  and  still  leaving  sufficient  freedom  to 
allow  flexibility  in  the  work  of  the  secondary  school. 


324     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

III.  METHODS  OF  SELECTING  STUDENTS  FOR 
ADMISSION  TO  COLLEGE 

134.  Examination  and  certificating  systems.  Closely  re- 
lated to  the  problems  of  subject  requirements  for  admission 
to  college  are  problems  involved  in  the  methods  by  which 
the  selection  is  made  of  those  who  are  fitted  to  take  up  the 
work  of  the  college.  The  interest  here  enters  on  those  prob- 
lems as  affecting  the  work  of  the  secondary  school  rather 
than  as  affecting  the  college.  Historically  the  fitness  of  high- 
school  graduates  for  admission  to  college,  until  within  the 
past  few  decades,  has  always  been  tested  by  examinations. 
Around  the  system  of  examinations  for  admission  to  college 
there  grew  up  a  body  of  formality  and  machinery  which  seri- 
ously interfered  with  the  transition  of  the  student  from  one 
institution  to  the  other,  thus  creating  an  important  "break" 
in  the  system  of  education.  Recognition  of  this  "break"  in 
our  system  of  education  and  the  rise  of  public  State  colleges 
and  universities  have  led  within  the  past  few  decades  to  the 
introduction  and  rapid  development  of  "certificating"  or 
"accrediting"  systems,  whereby  successful  work  accom- 
plished in  the  high  school  is  assumed  to  be  an  adequate  indi- 
cation of  fitness  for  admission  to  college.  The  operation  of 
the  two  different  systems  and  its  effect  on  the  work  of  the 
secondary  school  are  deserving  of  consideration. 

135.  Examination  methods  in  practice.  As  long  as  the 
early  colleges  in  this  country  drew  their  students  from 
secondary  schools  where  there  was  little  opportunity  for 
close  observation  of  the  work  done,  and  as  long  as  there  ex- 
isted little  uniformity  in  the  character  of  the  work  done  in 
those  schools,  the  examination  system  was  the  only  method 
possible  for  selecting  candidates  who  were  fit  for  college 
work.  With  the  increase  in  the  number  of  colleges  with  vary- 
ing requirements  and  with  varying  forms  of  examination 


RELATION   TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  325 

considerable  confusion  arose,  and  the  difficulties  of  prepara- 
tion and  of  selection  became  great.  To  meet  those  difficul- 
ties a  number  of  methods  were  adopted  looking  toward  uni- 
formity and  the  simplification  of  the  system  of  examinations. 
Among  these  the  most  important  from  the  view  of  exami- 
nations was  the  establishment  of  the  College  Entrance  Ex- 
amination Board  in  1900.  Originally  the  aim  of  this  board 
was  to  provide  uniform  examinations  for  all  candidates  for 
admission  to  the  colleges  which  formed  the  association.  It 
has  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  an  examination  system 
the  results  of  which  are  accepted  for  admission  to  practically 
every  college  in  the  country  although  in  practice  the  major- 
ity of  those  who'  take  the  examinations  enter  coUeges  in  the 
North  Atlantic  States  and  come  from  those  States.  In  the 
first  examinations  conducted  by  the  board  less  than  one 
thousand  candidates  were  examined.  In  1915  nearly  five 
thousand  candidates  were  examined.  Further  examples  of 
centralized  examination  systems,  though  differing  widely 
from  that  mentioned  above,  are  found  in  the  Examinations 
conducted  by  the  Board  of  Regents  in  New  York  State,  and 
to  some  extent  in  the  systems  of  Minnesota  and  Florida. 

An  important  modification  of  the  examination  system  was 
made  when  several  colleges  adopted  the  plan  in  whole  or  in 
part  of  testing  candidates  by  means  of  "comprehensive" 
examinations  designed  to  test  the  power  of  the  candidate 
rather  than  specific  and  detailed  accomplishment  in  certain 
subjects.  The  character  of  such  examinations  and  their 
bearing  on  the  work  of  the  secondary  school  may  be  seen 
from  the  substance  of  a  memorandum  presented  to  the  Col- 
lege Entrance  Examination  Board: 

To  be  most  useful  the  new  comprehensive  papers  must  be 
adapted:  (1)  to  such  variety  of  school  instruction  as  exists  in  the 
several  subjects  —  that  is,  they  must  not  prescribe  methods,  but 
must  recognize  the  general  principle  that  the  schools  determine 


326      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

how  they  shall  teach  a  subject  and  that  the  College  tests  results  or 
power;  (2)  to  different  stages  of  training  in  the  subjects  in  which 
they  are  set  —  that  is,  they  must  give  boys  opportunity  to  show 
their  power  whether  they  have  had  the  minimum  or  the  maximum 
amount  of  training  given  in  school.1 

The  adoption  of  such  a  plan  for  comprehensive  examina- 
tions (in  addition  to  the  ordinary  examination)  by  the 
College  Entrance  Examination  Board  in  1916  permits 
greater  flexibility  in  the  work  of  the  secondary  school 
wherever  advantage  is  taken  of  the  opportunity. 

136.  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  examinations.  Ex- 
aminations must  always  be  necessary  when  no  other  ade- 
quate means  exist  whereby  the  fitness  of  candidates  can  be 
determined.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  examina- 
tions cannot  be  justified  on  the  ground  of  necessity  only. 
Among  the  claims  that  are  made  of  the  advantages  of  the 
examination  system  are  the  following:  (1)  that  the  examina- 
tion is  the  best  test  of  the  candidate's  fitness;  (2)  that 
examinations  afford  an  opportunity  and  impelling  stimulus 
to  reorganize  as  a  whole  material  previously  studied;  (3)  that 
examinations  stimulate  the  endeavor  of  the  boy  or  girl  in 
high-school  work  by  offering  a  definite  objective  point; 
(4)  that  examinations  afford  training  in  meeting  crises.  In 
the  case  of  college  entrance  examinations  the  last  claimed 
advantage  may  be  ignored  on  the  ground  that  any  one  of 
two  sets  of  examination  are  inadequate  to  produce  the  train- 
ing claimed.  The  second  and  third  advantages  claimed  un- 
doubtedly possess  some  validity,  though  it  may  be  noted 
in  connection  with  the  second  that  the  organization  of 
material  in  review  is  a  matter  of  method  not  necessarily  in- 
volving examinations.  In  connection  with  the  third  claim 
it  may  be  noted  that  certain  evils  are  also  involved. 

1  College  Entrance  Examination  Board,  Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Secretary  (1915),  pp.  4-5. 


RELATION   TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  327 

To  all  these  possible  advantages  claimed  for  the  examina- 
tion method  must  be  opposed  many  disadvantages.  It  may 
be  noted  first  that  single  tests  commonly  do  not  indicate 
the  true  status  of  an  individual  with  regard  to  any  single 
mental  trait,  much  less  with  regard  to  the  complex  mental 
traits  involved  in  any  subject  such  as  forms  the  basis  of  the 
college-entrance  examinations.  The  true  status  of  an  indi- 
vidual in  any  mental  trait  is  to  be  determined  by  a  number 
of  separate  measurements.  In  the  second  place  the  varia- 
bility of  judgments  and  the  personal  equation  of  the  markers 
enter  largely  into  the  interpretation  of  the  ability  manifested 
by  the  examinee,  as  has  been  shown  clearly  by  the  investiga- 
tions of  Starch  and  Elliott  and  others.1  Thus  in  marking  the 
same  examination  paper  the  grading  of  one  marker  may 
differ  from  that  of  another  to  such  an  extent  as  to  invalidate 
completely  the  gradings  of  a  large  number  of  candidates. 
The  present  writer  found  in  the  case  of  thirteen  geometry 
papers  marked  by  thirteen  readers  of  the  College  Entrance 
Examination  Board  ranges  as  large  as  twenty-seven  and 
thirty-three  points  on  a  percentile  scale  between  the  highest 
and  the  lowest  markers  of  the  same  paper,  and  an  average 
deviation  as  high  as  5.57  per  cent  from  the  central  tendency 
of  the  marks  assigned.  The  average  deviation  for  the  thir- 
teen markers  grading  thirteen  papers  for  the  Board  was  3.69 
points  on  a  percentile  scale.2 

In  the  third  place,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  examinations 
as  usually  conducted  fail  to  determine  with  even  a  fair  degree 

1  Starch,  D.,  and  Elliott,  E.  C.,  "The  Reliability  of  Grading  Work  in 
English,"  School  Review,  vol.  xx,  pp.  442-57;  same,  "History,"  ibid.,  vol. 
xxi,  pp.  676-81;  same,  "Mathematics,"  ibid.,  vol.  xxi,  pp.  254-59.    Cf. 
Starch,  D.,  "Reliability  and  Distribution  of  Grades,"  Science,  vol.  xxxvui, 
pp.  630-36;  same,  Educational  Measurements,  pp.  3-15.    Cf.  Kelly,  F.  J., 
Teachers'  Marks,  pp.  51-84. 

2  It  should  be  stated  that  the  figures  were  secured  before  the  markers 
had  "standardized"  their  marking  system  and  hence  are  higher  than  the 
final  variability. 


328     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

of  accuracy  the  fitness  of  candidates  to  do  college  work. 
Here  the  results  of  Thorndike's  investigation  are  in  point.1 
Thorndike  compared  the  standings  of  students  on  examina- 
tion for  entrance  to  Columbia  University  with  their  stand- 
ings while  in  college.  The  results  of  his  investigation  showed 
that  success  in  college  work  cannot  be  estimated  from  suc- 
cess in  the  entrance  examinations 

with  enough  accuracy  to  make  the  entrance  examinations  worth 
taking  or  to  prevent  gross  and  intolerable  injustice  from  being  done 
to  many  individuals.  For  instance,  6  out  of  the  130  received  the 
same  average  entrance  mark  —  61.  In  their  college  work  of  junior 
year,  1  averaged  a  trifle  above  D;  1  half-way  from  D  to  C;  one  a 
little  above  C;  and  2  received  A  in  four  subjects  out  of  five,  and 
B  in  the  other.  In  freshman  and  sophomore  year,  the  range  was 
nearly  as  great.  .  .  . 

It  is  certain  that  the  traditional  entrance  examinations,  even 
when  as  fully  safeguarded  as  in  the  case  of  those  given  by  the  Col- 
lege Entrance  Examination  Board,  do  not  prevent  incompetents 
from  getting  into  college;  do  not  prevent  students  of  excellent 
promise  from  being  discouraged,  improperly  conditioned  or  barred 
out  altogether;  do  not  measure  fitness  for  college  well  enough  to 
earn  the  respect  of  students  or  teachers;  and  do  intolerable  injus- 
tice to  individuals. 

On  the  other  hand,  Jones  maintains  relatively  high  corre- 
lations between  the  standing  of  students  on  entrance  exami- 
nations and  in  the  freshman  year  of  college,  basing  his  con- 
clusions on  such  figures  as  are  shown  in  Table  CXIII. 

The  defects  of  the  examination  system  considered  above 
have  to  do  largely  with  the  question  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  college  or  the  entire  system  of  education.  Further  de- 
fects are  claimed  to  be  involved  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
secondary  school.  Most  important  among  these  is  the  fact 
that  examinations  tend  to  set  up  a  formal  and  artificial  goal 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  "The  Future  of  the  College  Entrance  Examination 
Board,"  Educational  Review,  vol.  xxxi,  pp.  470-83;  Strayer,  G.  D.,  and 
Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Administration,  pp.  176-87. 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION 


329 


TABLE  CXIII.  THE  RELATION  OF  STUDENTS'  STANDING  ON 
ENTRANCE  EXAMINATION  AND  IN  THE  FRESHMAN  YEAR  OP 
COLLEGE  * 


On  entrance  examination*  in 

Freshman  year  in  college  in 

Highest 
quarter 

Next  to 
highest 
quarter 

Next  to 
lowe.it 
quarter 

Lowest 
quarter 

2 
5 
18 
25 

Highest  quarter  (50  men)  

30 
16 
3 
1 

13 
17 
13 

7 

5 

12 
16 
17 

Next  to  highest  quarter  (50  men)  

Next  to  lowest  quarter  (50  men)  

Lowest  quarter  (50  men)  

*  Cf.  Jones,  A.  L.,  "Entrance  Examinations  and  College  Records,"  Educational  Review, 
vol.  XLvra,  pp.  109-22. 

for  secondary-school  pupils,  who  look  forward  to  entering 
college.  The  narrow  minimum  demands  for  college  entrance 
tend  to  become  the  principal  aim  of  the  college-preparatory 
work  of  the  secondary  school  and  to  influence  the  other 
work  of  the  school  in  a  way  unfavorable  to  high  standards 
of  real  attainment.  The  securing  of  "  points"  or  "  credits" 
becomes  the  aim  rather  than  the  attainment  of  knowledge 
or  training;  the  methods  of  study  and  teaching  are  ex- 
tensively affected  by  the  possibility  of  "cramming,"  and 
consistent,  steady  work  day  by  day  receives  little  en- 
couragement when  the  pupil  feels  that  all  will  depend  on 
examinations.  The  introduction  of  " comprehensive"  exami- 
nations will  doubtless  tend  to  reduce  these  evils. 

137.  The  certificating  or  accrediting  system.  The  period 
following  the  Civil  War  was  noticeably  a  period  of  rapid 
development  in  public  systems  of  education  and  in  State 
colleges  and  universities.  Where  such  State  systems  included 
public  colleges  and  universities  there  existed  a  situation 
favorable  to  the  development  of  closer  articulation  between 


330      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

the  secondary  schools  and  the  colleges,  and  out  of  such  situ- 
ations developed  the  system  of  admitting  students  to  col- 
lege through  a  certificating  or  accrediting  system  on  the 
basis  of  satisfactory  completion  of  the  high-school  course. 
One  of  the  first  institutions  to  adopt  the  certificating  system 
was  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1871.  In  1873  the  State 
Board  of  Education  of  Indiana  and  Indiana  University 
adopted  regulations  which  practically  initiated  a  State-wide 
system  of  accrediting  high  schools,  the  administration  of 
that  system  being  in  the  hands  of  the  Board  of  Education. 
The  movement  commended  itself  to  school  and  college 
authorities  throughout  the  country,  though  most  extensively 
in  the  West  and  Middle  West,  and  by  1895  forty-two  State 
universities  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  other  institutions  had 
adopted  the  accrediting  system  in  some  form.1  At  the  pres- 
ent time  the  accrediting  system  is  recognized  by  nearly  all 
colleges  and  universities  in  the  country,  the  only  important 
exceptions  being  a  few  prominent  universities  (e.g.,  Har- 
vard, Yale,  Princeton,  Columbia,  Bryn  Mawr)  in  the  East.2 
These  have  adopted  certain  elements  of  the  certificating 
system  in  combination  with  the  admission  examinations. 

138.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  accrediting 
system.  The  prime  question  regarding  the  accrediting  sys- 
tem as  a  means  whereby  candidates  may  be  admitted  to  col- 
lege is:  Does  it  admit  the  fit  and  exclude  the  unfit?  The 
answer  to  this  question  in  theory  is  that  a  judgment  based 
on  all  the  work  done  by  a  boy  or  girl  for  four  years  in  the 
secondary  school  would  appear  to  be  the  most  reliable. 
Do  results  in  practice  accord  with  this  theory?  It  would 
appear  that  they  do.  Dearborn  compared  the  school  and 
college  standing  of  472  students  who  entered  the  Univer- 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1894-95),  vol.  11, 
pp. 1171-88. 

2  Since  this  was  written  the  majority  of  women's  colleges  of  New 
England  have  reverted  to  the  examination  system. 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  331 

sity  of  Wisconsin  on  certificate  in  1900  to  1905.  He  found 
that 

pupils  tend  to  maintain  in  the  university  the  same  relative  rank 
which  they  held  in  the  high  school.  ...  Of  the  472  pupils,  only  five 
who  stood  hi  the  lowest  quarter  of  the  group  on  entrance,  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  the  rank  of  the  first  quarter  (during  the  fresh- 
man year),  and  they  secured  only  the  lowest  grade  in  that  quarter; 
similarly,  but  five  of  those  who  entered  in  the  first  quarter  of  this 
large  group,  dropped  to  the  lowest  quarter  during  the  freshman 
year;  and  they  stood  in  the  highest  grade  of  this  quarter.  These 
results  seem  remarkable  when  we  contrast  them  with  the  notions, 
often  current,  of  the  extent  of  reversal  which  the  freshman  year  of 
the  university  makes  in  the  careers  of  high  school  students.1 

Dearborn  further  found  a  correlation  of  more  than  eighty 
per  cent  for  the  standing  of  students  in  the  high  school  and 
in  the  freshman  year  of  the  college.2  Numerous  other 
studies  have  indicated  much  the  same  facts  as  those  sug- 
gested by  Dearborn's  study.  Thus  Smith  secured  the  data 
presented  in  the  Table  CXIV,  showing  the  retention  in  the 
college  of  students  belonging  to  different  scholarship  groups 
in  the  high  school. 

Essentially  the  same  results  were  found  by  Pettit.3 
Clement's  investigation  discloses  the  fact  that  from  75  to  80 
per  cent  of  pupils  were  found  in  the  same  tertile  of  the  total 
groups  in  high  school  and  college.4 

Even  more  conclusive  were  the  results  of  Lincoln's  study 
of  the  relative  standing  of  students  in  the  freshman  and 
sophomore  years  at  Harvard  College,  in  the  high  school,  and 
on  entrance  examinations.  His  findings  indicate  that  where 
the  same  individuals  are  concerned  the  standing  of  those 

1  Dearborn,  W.  F.,  The  Relative  Standing  of  Pupils  in  the  High  School  and 
in  the  University,  pp.  17,  19. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  21. 

*  Pettit,  W.  W.,  A  Comparative  Study  of  New  York  High  School  and 
Columbia  College  Grades. 

*  Clement,  J.  A.,  Standardization  of  the  Schools  of  Kansas,  p.  129. 


332      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

TABUS  CXIV.  RETENTION  IN  SCHOLABSHIP  GROUPS  IN  THE 
COLLEGE  OF  PUPILS  WHO  WERE  IN  DIFFERENT  SCHOLARSHIP 
GROUPS  IN  HIGH  SCHOOL  * 


In  high-school  work 

In  the  college  work 

Highest 
quintile 
(per 
cent) 

Second 
quintile 
(per 
cent) 

Third 
quintile 
(per 
cent) 

Fourth 
quintile 
(per 
cent) 

Lowest 
quintile 
(per 
cent) 

Highest  quintile  

54 
25 

17 
0 

4 

17 
29 
25 
25 

4 

17 
17 
20 
25 
21 

4 
13 
21 
33 

29 

8 
16 
17 
17 

42 

Second  quintile  

Third  quintile  

Fourth  quintile  

Lowest  quintile  

Table  should  be  read_thus:  of  pupils  who  were  in  the  highest  quintile  in  the  high  school 
fifty-four  per  cent  were  in  the  highest  quintile  in  college.  Seventeen  per  cent  dropped  to  the 
second  quintile,  etc. 

*  Smith,  F.  O.,  A  Rational  Basis  for  Determining  Fitness  for  College  Entrance. 


TABLE  CXV.  CORRELATIONS  OF  STANDINGS  OF  STUDENTS  m 
COLLEGE,  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL,  AND  ON  ENTRANCE  EXAMI- 
NATIONS * 


Coefficient 
of  correla- 
tion 

Probable 
error 

Freshman-year  college  work  and  high-school  work  
Freshman-year  college  work  and  examinations  

.69 
.47 

.02 
.03 

Sophomore-year  college  work  and  high-school  work  .  .  . 

.58 
.41 

.02 
.04 

Examinations  and  high-school  work  

.46 

.03 

*  Lincoln,  E.  A.,  "The  Relative  Standing  of  Pupils  in  High  School,  in  Early  College,  an 
on  College  Entrance  Examinations,"  School  and  Society,  vol.  v,  pp.  417-20.  (Pearson  c< 
efficient  employed.) 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  333 

students  in  their  high -school  work  as  measured  by  the  aver- 
age grades  received  therein  would  have  been  one  and  a  half 
times  as  reliable  an  index  of  their  ability  to  do  the  work  of 
the  freshman  year  in  college  as  were  their  standings  on  the 
entrance  examinations.  His  figures  are  given  in  Table  CXV. 

The  special  value  of  these  figures  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
they  permit  a  direct  comparison  between  the  reliability  of 
high-school  grades  and  entrance-examination  grades  as 
measures  of  the  ability  of  the  same  students  to  do  college 
work  of  the  freshman  and  sophomore  years. 

In  the  above  discussion  emphasis  has  been  placed  on  the 
benefits  which  the  college  is  claimed  to  derive  from  the  adop- 
tion of  a  certificating  system.  No  less  benefits  are  claimed 
for  the  secondary  school.  These  have  been  emphasized  by 
Brown  as  follows: 

It  would  be  hard  to  overestimate  the  good  already  accomplished 
by  the  accrediting  system,  in  spite  of  all  defects.  It  has  given  to 
communities  a  means,  which  had  been  lacking,  of  discovering  the 
deficiencies,  and  likewise,  the  excellences  of  their  schools.  It  has 
greatly  aided  the  better  principals  and  teachers  in  their  efforts  to 
maintain  high  standards  of  scholarship.  It  has  quickened  the 
intellectual  life  of  schools  and  of  whole  communities,  by  the  imme- 
diate touch  of  university  ideals.  In  some  States,  as  in  Missouri,  it 
has  virtually  called  into  being  a  new  and  better  and  more  general 
provision  for  secondary  education,  within  a  very  few  years.  In 
some  States,  under  its  influence,  the  improvement  of  the  teaching 
in  such  schools  has  gone  forward  at  an  unprecedented  rate.1 

By  no  means  the  least  advantage  resulting  from  the  adop- 
tion of  the  accrediting  system  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  it  has  brought  into  closer  and  better  coordination  the 
secondary  school  and  the  college  by  removing  one  of  the 
greatest  barriers  between  the  two  institutions. 

The  accrediting  system  has  its  merits.   It  also  has  its  seri- 

1  Brown,  E.  E.,  The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,  pp.  376-77.  Quoted 
with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 


834.     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ous  disadvantages.  The  first  of  these  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
it  can  never  completely  meet  the  needs  of  the  situation.  The 
very  character  of  the  system  and  the  necessity  of  maintain- 
ing standards  make  it  necessary  that  some  schools  must  be 
denied  the  certificating  privilege.  Yet  some  pupils  who  are 
worthy  of  admission  to  college  will  always  be  found  in  such 
schools.  The  accrediting  system  must  always  select  pupils 
according  to  schools:  the  examination  emphasizes  selection 
by  individuals.  Hence  some  form  of  examination  for  some 
students  must  always  supplement  the  accrediting  system. 
The  second  defect  in  the  accrediting  system  is  found  in  the 
difficulty  of  its  administration,  especially  with  reference  to 
the  supervision  or  inspection  of  the  work  of  the  secondary 
schools  —  a  provision  which  is  necessary  if  standards  are  to 
be  maintained.  In  such  supervision  or  inspection  of  the 
secondary  schools  by  the  colleges  it  is  to  be  noted  that  there 
is  always  danger  that  undue  control  over  the  work  of  the 
high  schools  may  be  exercised  and  that  many  evils  now 
perpetuated  by  the  dominance  of  the  college  over  the 
secondary  school  may  be  continued. 

139.  Methods  of  administering  the  accrediting  system. 
In  general  two  different  methods  of  administering  the  cer- 
tificating or  accrediting  system  are  found,  the  essential 
difference  between  the  two  being  found  in  the  methods  em- 
ployed for  determining  the  selection  of  secondary  schools 
to  which  the  accrediting  privilege  should  be  granted. 

(1)  The  New  England  College  Entrance  Certificate  Board : 
This  board  was  established  in  1902  for  the  purpose  of  creat- 
ing a  certificate  "clearing  house"  for  the  colleges  of  New 
England.  In  general  the  standing  of  the  secondary  school 
and  the  character  of  the  work  done  in  any  given  school  is 
determined  by  that  board  on  the  basis  of  the  accomplish- 
ment in  college  of  graduates  who  are  certificated  from  that 
school.  According  to  the  success  or  failure  of  such  certifi- 


RELATION   TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  335 

cated  graduates  the  certificating  privilege  is  granted  or 
withdrawn  from  any  given  school.  The  advantage  of  the 
method  is  found  in  the  simplicity  with  which  it  can  be 
administered.  The  defects  are  found  in  the  possible  unfair- 
ness in  determining  the  character  of  any  school  on  the  basis 
of  a  few  scattered  representatives  of  the  school  and  in  the 
fact  that  it  encourages  weak  schools  to  retain  their  standing 
with  the  certificating  board  by  refusing  certificates  to  any 
but  the  best  pupils.  Dissatisfaction  with  the  method  is  not 
unknown  among  the  secondary  schools  of  New  England  and 
at  least  one  New  England  College.  It  is  to  be  noted  also 
that  the  method  provides  for  little  cooperation  between  the 
college  and  the  secondary  school  which  may  improve  the 
work  of  the  latter. 

(2}  The  inspection  method.  In  the  majority  of  States  in  the 
country  the  standing  of  the  secondary  school  with  reference 
to  the  granting  or  the  withholding  of  the  accrediting  priv- 
ilege is  determined  on  the  basis  of  the  character  of  the  work 
done  in  such  schools  as  ascertained  from  the  inspection  and 
supervision  of  them  by  college  officers,  State  officials,  or 
commission  representatives.  Such  is  the  method  adopted 
by  numerous  State  colleges  and  universities,  by  State  boards 
of  education,  and  such  general  commissions  as  the  Commis- 
sion on  Accredited  Schools  of  the  North  Central  States 
(established  in  1901  by  the  North  Central  Association  of 
Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools),  etc.  The  merits  of  the 
inspection  system  are  found  in  the  close  relations  which 
they  have  developed  in  such  States  between  colleges  and 
secondary  schools,  the  intimate  acquaintance  with  problems 
of  public  secondary  education  gained  by  college  representa- 
tives, the  upbuilding  influence  of  the  college  on  the  school, 
and  the  success  of  the  method  in  determining  the  fitness 
of  graduates  for  college  work.  The  defects  of  the  method 
are  those  involved  in  the  difficulties  of  providing  effective 


336      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

inspection  and  supervision  in  some  territories  and  the  amount 
of  administrative '  machinery  required  effectively  to  carry 
out  the  plan.  These  difficulties  are  great.  Nevertheless, 
they  have  been  met  with  satisfactory  results  in  general,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Middle  West,  and  with  improved  organiza- 
tion and  administration  the  difficulties  inherent  in  the  plan 
should  not  prove  unsurmountable. 

In  this  connection  two  suggested  schemes  are  worthy  of 
mention.  Both  arise  out  of  the  operation  of  existing  systems 
in  cases  where  the  college  and  the  secondary  school  are  geo- 
graphically distant.  The  first  is  that  suggested  by  Thorn- 
dike,  who  recommended  in  1906  that  the  College  Entrance 
Examination  Board  assume  the  added  function  of  a  clearing- 
house for  certificates,  the  accrediting  being  based  on  the 
actual  success  in  college  of  the  students  endorsed  by  each 
secondary  school.1  The  advantages  of  such  a  plan  are 
obvious,  but  no  action  has  ever  been  taken.  The  second 
suggestion  is  that  of  Henderson,  who  recommended  that  the 
National  Association  of  State  Universities  appoint  a  Com- 
mission to  control  the  matter  of  accrediting.2  Previously, 
Broome  had  suggested  that  desirable  conditions  for  the  wide 
use  of  the  accrediting  system  could  come  only  with  the  exist- 
ence of  a  national  board  of  inspectors  for  secondary  schools.3 
Meanwhile,  the  difficulty  of  a  college  determining  the  sta- 
tus of  any  secondary  school  situated  at  a  distance  has  been 
somewhat  relieved  by  the  publication  of  lists  of  accredited 
schools  prepared  from  lists  of  various  independent  accred- 
iting bodies.4 

1  Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Administration,  pp. 
176-87. 

8  Henderson,  J.  L.,  Admission  to  College  by  Certificate,  pp.  165-66. 

3  Broome,  E.  C.,  op.  cit.,  p.  125. 

*  Published  at  intervals  by  the  Bureau  of  Education. 


KELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  337 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  To  what  extend  have  the  functions  of  the  college  and  university  changed 
within  the  past  half-century  or  so?   How  have  those  changes  affected 
the  work  of  the  secondary  school  and  its  relation  to  higher  institutions? 

2.  Compare  the  articulation  of  the  secondary  school  and  college  6r  univer- 
sity in  Germany,  France,  England,  and  America. 

3.  To  what  extent  do  the  curricula  of  the  public  secondary  school  and  the 
college  overlap? 

4.  Compare  the  articulation  of  the  public  secondary  school  and  the  State 
college  or  university  with  the  articulation  of  the  public  secondary 
school  and  the  private  college  or  university. 

5.  Compare  the  proportion  of  high-school  graduates  going  to  college  in 
States  where  the  leading  college  is  public  and  in  States  where  the  lead- 
ing college  or  colleges  are  private.  Compare  also  the  high  school  popu- 
lations in  those  States.  (Cf .  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education  (1914),  vol.  n,  pp.  416,  415,  411.) 

6.  Study  the  historical  development  of  college  admission  requirements  in 
English,  mathematics,  or  foreign  languages. 

7.  Compare  the  college  entrance  requirements  of:  (a)  Harvard,  Princeton, 
Yale,   Columbia;   (6)  the  University  of  Chicago,   the  University  of 
Michigan,  the  University  of  California,  Amherst  College.    (Cf.  Kings- 
ley,  C.  D.,  reference  in  following  bibliography.) 

8.  Study  the  requirements  for  entrance  to  public  normal  schools.   What 
relation  do  they  have  to  the  public  secondary  school? 

9.  Compare  more  in  detail  the  advantages  and  defects  of  the  examination 
system  and  the  accrediting  system  of  admission  to  college,  with  special 
reference  to  their  effect  on  the  public  secondary  school. 

10.  Compare  the  certificating  systems  of  the  Commission  on  Accredited 
Schools  of  the  North  Central  States  and  of  the  New  England  College 
Entrance  Certificating  Board,  with  special  reference  to  their  effect  on 
the  public  secondary  school. 

11.  What  are  the  merits  and  demerits  of  the  junior  college? 

12.  For  any  given  secondary  school  or  group  of  secondary  schools  compare 
the  relative  standing  in  school  and  college  of  its  graduates. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

NOTE:  The  literature  dealing  with  the  relation  between  secondary  edu~ 
cation  and  higher  education  is  so  voluminous  that  any  extended  bibliog- 
raphy is  here  impossible.  Hence  there  are  included  below  such  references 
only  as  (a)  represent  somewhat  comprehensive  treatments  of  the  field; 
(b)  the  carefully  considered  reports  of  various  organizations,  committees, 
departments  of  education,  etc. ;  (c)  special  articles  dealing  with  most  recent 
phases  of  the  topic;  (d)  articles  and  reports  dealing  with  actual  experiments 
and  investigations. 


338      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

I.  General  treatment: 

Broome,  E.  C.,  A  Historical  and  Critical  Discussion  of  College  En- 
trance Requirements. 

Hollister,  H.  A.,  High  School  Administration,  chap.  xm. 

Kingsley,  C.  D.,  The  Relation  of  the  High  Schools  to  Higher  Educt 
tional  Institutions. 

Mooney,  W.  B.,  "The  Relation  of  Secondary  Schools  to  Higher 
Schools  in  the  United  States,"  Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  xxui, 
pp.  387-^-16. 
II.  Reports  of  committees,  organizations,  etc.: 

National  Education  Association,  Report  of  Committee  on  College 
Entrance  Requirements,  Proceedings  (1899),  pp.  632-817.  Also 
published  separately  by  the  Association. 

National  Education  Association,  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  on 
Secondary  School  Studies,  published  separately  by  the  Bureau  of 
Education  and  also  by  the  American  Book  Company. 

National  Education  Association,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the 
Articulation  of  High  School  and  College,  Proceedings  of  the  Associ- 
ation (1911),  pp.  559-37.  Also  published,  pp.  97-105  of  Bulletin 
(1913)  no.  7  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 

National  Education  Association,  Report  of  Committee  on  Economy  of 
Time  in  Education,  Proceedings  (1914),  pp.  206-22.  Also  published 
separately  in  Bulletin  (1913)  no.  38,  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 

Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  Reports, 
1906-,  especially  vol.  iv.  (1909)  and  vol.  v  (1910). 

College  Entrance  Examination  Board,  Reports  of  the  Secretary. 

New  England  College  Entrance  Certificate  Board,  Report  of  the  Sec- 
retary. 

Commission  on  Accredited  Schools  of  the  North  Central  States, 

Reports. 
Ill    Special  articles: 

Angell,  J.  R.,  "The  Junior  College  Movement  in  High  Schools," 
School  Review,  vol.  xxin,  pp.  289-302. 

California,  State  Board  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Secondary  Schools  (1914),  pp.  20-23  ("Junior  Colleges  in  Cali- 
fornia"). 

Gray,  A.  A.,  "The  Junior  College  in  California,"  School  Review, 
vol.  xxin,  pp.  465-73. 

Henderson,  J.  L.,  Admission  to  College  by  Certificate. 

Holland,  E.  O.,  Pennsylvania  State  Normal  Schools  and  Public 
School  System. 

Lange,  A.  F.,  "A  Junior  College  Department  of  Civic  Education," 
School  and  Society,  vol.  n,  pp.  442-48. 

McLane,  C.  L.,  "The  Junior  College,  or  Upward  Extension  of  the 
High  School,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxi,  pp.  161-70. 


RELATION  TO  HIGHER  EDUCATION  339 

IV.  Special  studies  and  investigations: 

Bureau  of  Education  Bulletins,  Accredited  Secondary  Schools  in  the 
United  States  (1913),  no.  29;  (1915),  no.  7;  (1916),  no.  20. 

Burritt,  B.  B.,  The  Professional  Distribution  of  College  and  University 
Graduates,  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1912)  no.  19. 

Clement,  J.  A.,  Standardization  of  the  Schools  of  Kansas,  Doctor 
Dissertation,  University  of  Chicago.     (High-school  and  college 
standings.) 

Dearborn,  W.  F.,  The  Relative  Standing  of  Pupils  in  the  High  School 
and  in  the  University,  Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  no. 
312. 

Hollingworth,  H.  L.,  Vocational  Psychology,  chap.  vm. 

Inglis,  A.  J.,  "High  School  Graduates  and  Preparation  for  Higher 
Institutions,"  School  and  Society,  vol.  i,  pp.  932-34. 

Inglis,  A.  J.,  "The  Distribution  of  Pupils  in  the  Public  High 
Schools,"  Educational  Review,  vol.  XLVI,  pp.  344-50. 

Jones,  A.  L.,  "Entrance  Examinations  and  College  Records:  A 
Study  in  Correlation,"  Educational  Review,  vol.  XLVUI,  pp.  109-22. 

Kellicott,  W.  E.,  "  College  Entrance  Requirements  and  College 
Standards,"  School  and  Society,  vol.  n,  pp.  29-36. 

Kelly,  F.  J.,  Teachers'  Marks:  Their  Variability  and  Standardization, 
especially  pp.  11-84. 

Kingsley,  C.  D.,  College  Entrance  Requirements,  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion Bulletin  (1913)  no.  7. 

Lincoln,  E.  A.,  "The  Relative  Standing  of  Pupils  hi  High  School, 
in  Early  College,  and  on  College  Entrance  Examination," 
School  and  Society,  vol.  v,  pp.  417-420. 

North  Central  Association  (of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools), 
A  Study  of  the  Colleges  and  High  Schools  in,  Bureau  of  Education, 
Bulletin  (1915)  no.  6. 

Pittinger,  B.  F.,  "  The  Efficiency  of  College  Students  as  Condi- 
tioned by  Age  at  Entrance  and  Size  of  High  School,"  Sixteenth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
part  ii. 

Smith,  F.  O.,  A  Rational  Basis  for  Determining  Fitness  for  College 
Entrance,  University  of  Iowa,  Studies  in  Education,  vol.  i,  no.  3. 

Starch,  D.,  Educational  Measurement,  chap.  u.  Cf.  also  Science,  vol. 
xxxviii,  pp.  630-36. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  "The  Future  of  the  College  Entrance  Examina- 
tion Board,"  Educational  Review,  vol.  xxxi,  pp.  470-83.  Also  in 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  and  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Administration, 
pp.  176-87. 

Extended  bibliography:  Walkley,  R.  L.,  Bibliography  of  the  Relation 
of  Secondary  Education  to  Higher  Education,  Bureau  of  Education, 
Bulletin  (1914)  no.  32. 


CHAPTER  IX 

SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  DETERMINING   SECONDARY 
EDUCATION 

140.  Some  underlying  assumptions.   Social  theory  must 
always  furnish  the  basis  whereon  are  established  conceptions 
of  the  functions  which  education  should  perform.  The  social 
theory  underlying  the  considerations  adduced  in  this  chap- 
ter involves  certain  assumptions  the  substantiation  of  which 
cannot  be  attempted  here.    Among  those  assumptions  the 
more  fundamental  are  the  following. 

(1)  Society  is  to  be  conceived  as  in  evolutionary  process. 
In  that  process  are  involved  the  two  factors  of  integration 
and  differentiation,  the  former  working  toward  social  co- 
hesion and  solidarity,  the  latter  working  toward  variation 
and  modification. 

(2)  There  is  an  essential  congruity  of  interest  between  the 
individual  and  society.   The  possibility  of  the  development 
of  the  individual  is  found  in  his  participation  in  social  activ- 
ities and  in  the  social  consciousness.   The  possibility  of  the 
development  of   society  is  found   in   the  development  of 
social  personalities  in  individuals. 

(3)  The  school  is  to  be  considered  as  a  social  institution 
or  agency  maintained  by  society  for  the  purpose  of  assisting 
in  the  maintenance  of  its  own  stability  and  in  the  direction 
of  its  own  progress. 

141.  Secondary  education  as  a  social  institution.   If  the 
school  is  to  be  looked  on  as  an  institution  established,  main- 
tained, and  controlled  by  society  for  the  purpose  of  maintain- 
ing its  own  stability  and  determining  the  direction  of  its  own 
progress,  secondary  education,  as  a  part  (and  as  a  part  only) 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  341 

of  a  general  system  of  education,  must  be  conceived  as  de- 
termined fundamentally  by  its  functions  as  a  social  agency. 
Looked  at  from  this  point  of  view  secondary  education 
involves  a  number  of  important  social  principles  some  of 
which  may  be  formulated  here  and  considered  further  in 
following  sections. 

(1)  The  character  and  purposes  of  secondary  education 
at  any  time  and  in  any  society  must  conform  to  the  dom- 
inant ideals  and  to  the  form  of  social  organization  of  that 
society. 

(2)  The  dynamic  character  of  the  social  process  requires 
the  constant  readjustment  of  secondary  education  to  the 
changing  demands  of  society. 

(3)  The  nature  of  social  evolution  involves  the  two  sup- 
plementary factors  of  integration  and  differentiation,  both 
of  which  must  be  recognized  properly  in  secondary  educa- 
tion. 

(4)  Whenever  any  other  social  institution  fails  to  provide 
forms   of  education   socially  desirable   the   school   should 
assume  responsibility  for  those  forms  of  education  as  far 
as  may  be  possible.   Whenever  such  forms  of  education  are 
appropriate  to  the  age  and  grade  of  secondary  education, 
the  secondary  school  should  assume  responsibility  for  them. 
Conversely,  whenever  other  social  agencies  provide  ade- 
quately for  forms  of  education  socially  desirable  the  school 
should  not  attempt  to  assume  responsibility  for  them. 

142.  Social  ideals  and  social  organization.  In  discussing 
the  historical  development  of  secondary  education  the  point 
was  emphasized  that  the  efficiency  of  the  secondary  school 
is  to  be  measured  in  terms  of  the  degree  in  which  it  conforms 
and  contributes  to  the  dominant  social  ideals  and  form  of 
social  organization  at  any  particular  time.  In  discussing 
systems  of  secondary  education  in  different  countries  the 
point  was  emphasized  that  the  efficiency  of  the  secondary 


342     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

school  is  to  be  measured  according  to  the  dominant  social 
ideals  and  the  form  of  social  organization  peculiar  to  each 
country.  In  the  present  section  the  principles  of  education 
involved  may  be  considered  with  special  reference  to  the 
social  ideals  and  social  organization  of  the  American  Democ- 
racy. 

To  state  that  the  American  secondary  school  should  con- 
form to  the  democratic  ideals  and  the  democratic  organiza- 
tion of  Amercan  society  is  to  state  a  platitude.  The  impli- 
cations of  such  a  statement,  however,  are  not  always  clearly 
perceived  and  may  bear  further  consideration.  Three  im- 
portant implications  invite  attention. 

(1)  Efficient  membership  in  American  society  demands  at 
least  three  qualifications:  (a)  an  ability  effectively  to  execute 
the  formal  and  informal  duties  of  citizenship  and  carry  the 
burden  of  political  responsibility;  (6)  an  ability  to  produce 
and  labor  sufficiently  to  carry  one's  own  economic  load; 
(c)  an  ability  to  utilize  one's  leisure  time  and  act  in  an  in- 
dividual capacity  without  interfering  with  the  interests  of 
others  or  of  society  at  large.  In  certain  societies  where 
other  social  ideals  are  dominant  it  is  possible  for  many  of  the 
privileges  and  responsibilities  of  citizenship  to  be  preroga- 
tives of  special  groups.  In  some  forms  of  society  it  is  possi- 
ble for  economic  production  to  rest  principally  on  certain 
groups.  In  certain  forms  of  society  opportunities  for  the 
enjoyment  of  leisure  are  open  to  different  groups  in  degrees 
determined  by  social  ideals  which  greatly  limit  certain  indi- 
viduals or  groups.  In  the  American  democracy  the  three 
forms  of  activity  must  be  considered  as  important  for  every 
citizen  in  so  far  as  his  individual  capacity  and  circumstances 
permit.  It  follows,  therefore,  not  only  that  educational 
opportunity,  including  secondary  education,  should  be  uni- 
versal in  America,  but  also  that  these  three  phases  of  activity 
must  be  conceived  as  necessary  parts  of  the  education  due 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  343 

every  individual  and  that  in  the  secondary  school  each  of 
the  three  phases  should  receive  attention  in  due  proportion. 
Failure  to  recognize  this  principle  in  the  past  has  led  to 
over-emphasis  on  certain  phases  of  secondary  education  and 
the  comparative  neglect  of  others.  This  is  particularly  no- 
ticeable in  the  comparative  neglect  until*  recently  of  the 
preparation  of  the  worker  in  the  American  secondary  school. 
Over-emphasis  in  the  other  direction  for  some  pupils  is  a 
not  impossible  tendency  in  some  quarters  at  the  present 
time. 

(2)  It  must  be  recognized  that  in  American  society  each 
individual  must  be  not  merely  a  law-abiding  citizen  but  also 
to  some  extent  a  law-making  citizen.  It  must  further  be 
recognized  that  the  minimum  level  of  general  intelligence 
necessary  in  any  society  must  depend  on  the  amount  of 
privilege  conferred  on  the  individual  and  the  amount  of 
responsibility  placed  on  him.  In  a  society  where  for  the 
majority  of  individuals  the  great  necessity  is  conformance 
to  imposed  demands,  a  much  lower  level  of  general  intelli- 
gence is  required  than  in  a  society  where  the  individual  must 
not  only  conform  to  social  demands  but  also  determine  in 
part  what  those  demands  shall  be.  Further,  it  must  be 
recognized  that  with  the  constantly  growing  complexity  of 
modern  social  and  economic  life  the  amount  of  intelligence 
and  training  necessary  to  meet  its  privileges  and  responsi- 
bilities is  much  greater  than  at  any  former  time.  An  educa- 
tion which  was  adequate  for  the  needs  of  a  simpler  social 
organization  cannot  be  adequate  for  the  needs  of  a  more 
complex  society.  Consequently  it  has  become  a  serious 
problem  in  this  country  whether  steps  should  not  be  taken 
to  provide  that  a  larger  proportion  of  prospective  members 
of  American  society  should  receive  the  benefits  of  education 
beyond  the  elementary  school.  The  increased  privileges 
and  responsibilities  granted  to  and  demanded  of  the  indi- 


344     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

vidual  in  American  society  cannot  be  provided  for  by  a  sys- 
tem which  gives  two  thirds  of  the  citizens  not  more  than  an 
elementary  education.  The  complicated  social  problems  of 
modern  civic  and  industrial  life  and  of  individual  conduct 
cannot  be  understood  and  intelligently  attacked  by  a  peo- 
ple, two  thirds  of  whom  have  received  elementary  instruc- 
tion only  and  of  which  on  the  average  individuals  have  re- 
ceived much  less  than  one  thousand  days  of  schooling  each. 
Unless  the  average  amount  of  education  received  can  be 
markedly  increased  the  further  development  of  American 
democracy  must  be  seriously  conditioned  if  not  actually 
imperiled.  The  problem  is  one  affecting  most  secondary 
education  in  the  public  schools. 

(3)  The  participation  of  all  citizens  in  the  direction  and 
control  of  all  social  institutions  of  a  public  nature  includes 
a  participation  hi  the  direction  and  control  of  the  school  as 
well  as  of  other  institutions.  The  agency  on  which  democ- 
racy must  most  depend  is  one  which  democracy  must  itself 
determine  and  control.  Even  more  than  in  most  societies 
the  American  secondary  school  must  conform  to  social  ideals 
and  the  form  of  social  organization. 

143.  Social  evolution  and  educational  adjustment.  It  is 
an  obvious  fact  that  as  time  passes  society  changes  and  the 
demands  of  the  social  organization  are  more  or  less  modified. 
If  it  be  recognized  that  the  process  of  the  development  of 
social  organization  is  evolutionary  and  that  secondary  edu- 
cation must  conform  to  the  dominant  social  ideals  and  form 
of  social  organization,  we  must  conceive  that  secondary  edu- 
cation must  constantly  be  readapted  to  meet  the  changing 
needs  of  the  society  which  it  serves.  Commonly  such 
changes  in  social  ideals  and  in  the  form  of  social  organiza- 
tion as  demand  changes  in  secondary  education  develop 
gradually  and  consequently  involve  no  great  reorganiza- 
tion of  secondary  education  at  any  one  time  if  the  latter  is 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  345 

gradually  modified  to  meet  the  gradual  changes  in  society. 
Institutions,  however,  and  secondary  education  no  less  than 
any  other  institution,  once  firmly  established,  tend  con- 
stantly to  become  more  and  more  conservative  and  resist- 
ent  of  change  —  a  characteristic  which  is  a  safeguard  and 
at  the  same  time  a  defect.  Hence  it  is  that  important  social 
changes,  readily  perceived  and  evaluated  in  historical  retro- 
spect, have  seldom  been  clearly  perceived  by  contemporary 
authorities  and  have  seldom  been  met  by  appropriate 
changes  in  secondary  education.  As  a  result  the  cumulated 
effect  of  necessary  changes  in  secondary  education  long  de- 
ferred has  commonly  led  to  extensive  reorganization  at  irreg- 
ular intervals.  This  was  the  case  in  the  development  of  the 
academy  in  America  when  the  Latin  grammar  school  was 
not  adapted  to  meet  contemporary  demands  of  society,  in 
the  .development  of  the  public  high  school,  and  is  to  be 
observed  in  the  present  demand  for  the  reorganization  of 
secondary  education  calling  for  radical  changes  to  meet  the 
accumulated  evils  of  existing  schools. 

No  less  important  than  the  factor  of  absolute  change  in 
social  ideals  and  social  organization  is  the  factor  of  the  rate 
of  change  therein  involved.  The  rate  of  development  in 
most  lines  of  social  activity  has  been  much  more  rapid 
within  the  past  half-century  or  so  than  at  any  correspond- 
ing period  of  the  past.  Likewise  development  had  been 
much  more  rapid  in  this  country  than  in  most  others.  At 
the  present  time  in  this  country  the  rate  of  change  in  all 
phases  of  our  social  organization  is  rapid,  and  apparently 
the  rate  of  change  is  likely  to  be  rapid  for  some  time  to 
come.  The  recent  tendencies  in  social  development  indicate 
clearly  that  present  conditions  will  in  all  probability  change 
in  important  ways  within  the  life  of  the  generation  which  is 
at  present  being  prepared  for  membership  in  our  society. 
There  is  a  sense  in  which  it  is  true  that  the  educational  proc- 


346      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ess  must  be  at  least  a  generation  behind  the  stage  of  society 
for  which  it  is  designed  to  prepare.  To  reduce  that  discrep- 
ancy as  much  as  possible  must  be  involved  in  any  scheme 
for  adapting  secondary  education  to  social  needs.  It  requires 
but  a  slight  examination  to  note  that  the  activities  of  the 
present  day  call  for  some  knowledges  and  skills  that  could 
not  have  been  foreseen  by  those  responsible  for  secondary 
education  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  years  ago.  In  the  field  of 
civic  duties  are  such  factors  as  the  initiative  and  ref- 
erendum, the  recall  of  public  officials,  commission  govern- 
ment, direct  primaries,  governmental-industrial  relation- 
ships, female  suffrage,  and  a  multitude  of  other  civic 
duties  and  civic  problems  specific  preparation  for  which 
could  not  have  been  afforded  in  the  secondary  school  for 
those  who  are  now  called  upon  to  meet  them.  In  the  field 
of  industry  a  multitude  of  new  processes  and  new  activi- 
ties have  developed  within  the  past  decade  or  so  which  the 
secondary  school  could  not  have  provided  for  even  if  it 
had  turned  its  attention  to  vocational  education  exten- 
sively. In  the  field  of  individual  activity  new  opportuni- 
ties for  the  individual's  enjoyment  have  opened  up  within 
recent  years  for  which  the  secondary  education  of  fifteen 
years  ago  could  not  have  established  standards  of  conduct 
except  in  the  most  general  way.  We  may  be  just  as  sure  that 
equally  important  and  extensive  changes  will  face  the  pupils 
in  our  secondary  schools  at  the  present  time  which  we  cannot 
now  foresee  and  for  which,  therefore,  we  can  provide  no 
specific  preparation. 

The  obvious  implication  of  this  factor  of  the  rapidity  of 
change  in  certain  phases  of  social  activities  is  the  recognition 
that  mere  adjustment  to  existing  conditions  in  society  of  the 
pupils  in  the  secondary  school  is  inadequate  —  that  to  this 
there  must  be  added  the  development  of  a  capacity  to  read- 
just to  the  changed  conditions  which  we  may  be  sure  will  face 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  347 

the  pupils  after  leaving  the  school,  conditions  which  we  can- 
not clearly  foresee  but  which  we  know  will  hi  some  respects 
differ  from  existing  conditions.  Of  all  elements  in  secondary 
education  this  is  the  one  most  likely  to  be  neglected  or  mini- 
mized. The  tendency  in  that  direction  is  easy  to  explain. 
Mere  adjustment  to  existing  conditions  is  relatively  easy, 
the  path  toward  it  is  direct,  and  the  returns  immediate  and 
readily  perceived.  The  development  of  a  capacity  to  read- 
just constantly  to  the  changing  conditions  of  life  is  relatively 
difficult,  the  path  toward  it  is  indirect,  and  the  returns  rela- 
tively remote  and  not  readily  observed.  However,  the  diffi- 
culty of  attaining  and  the  difficulty  of  developing  a  capacity 
to  readjust  cannot  justify  the  neglect  of  that  phase  of  the 
social  function  of  the  secondary  school. 

144.  Social  integration  and  differentiation.  In  any  society 
there  are  always  two  sets  of  forces  at  work  which  determine 
the  form  of  social  organization,  one  set  of  forces  tending  to 
bind  together  the  various  parts  of  society  and  to  unify  it,  the 
other  set  tending  to  separate  the  various  parts  of  society  and 
to  disrupt  it.  Without  the  first  set  of  forces  in  operation  there 
could  be  no  real  society:  without  the  second  set  of  forces 
in  operation  society  would  be  static,  non-progressive,  and 
lacking  the  possibility  of  modification.  Whatever  be  one's 
views  of  the  form  of  social  evolution  the  facts  must  be  recog- 
nized that  social  forces  are  dynamic  and  that  there  are  always 
two  factors  at  work,  one  determining  the  essential  unity  and 
continuity  of  society,  the  other  determining  differentiation 
and  change.  The  operation  of  the  first  factor  may  be  termed 
"integration,"  that  of  the  second  factor  "differentiation," 
terms  borrowed  from  the  field  of  biological  evolution  without 
necessarily  implying  any  complete  analogy  between  social 
and  biological  evolution. 

In  the  units  which  go  to  make  up  society  there  are  always 
elements  of  homogeneity  and  elements  of  heterogeneity. 


348     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

On  the  maintenance  of  the  proper  equilibrium  between  those 
elements  depend  the  existence,  continuity,  and  progress  of 
society  and  the  problem  in  any  society  is  twofold:  (1)  to 
develop  out  of  the  heterogeneous  raw  material  that  degree 
of  homogeneity  (like-mindedness)  which  is  necessary  for  the 
permanence  of  the  society;  and  (2)  to  provide  that  the  maxi- 
mum efficiency  may  result  from  individual  differences  in 
capacities,  interests,  and  abilities,  as  well  as  from  the  adap- 
tation of  individuals  to  the  widely  differentiated  needs  of 
society.  Between  these  two  needs  of  society  there  must 
always  be  a  certain  amount  of  antagonism  and  conflict  but 
it  is  an  error  to  conceive  that  we  must  choose  between  them 
because  of  a  certain  opposition  of  function.  Rather  we  must 
conceive  that  they  are  both  necessary  and  that  their  rela- 
tion is  supplemental  far  more  than  antagonistic.  In  any 
society  there  is  need  of  a  certain  amount  of  unity  of  thought, 
of  feeling,  of  ideals,  of  standards,  of  conduct.  Such  unity  is 
more  necessary  in  a  democracy  such  as  ours  than  in  any 
other  society.  But  it  is  also  true  that  individual  differences 
and  the  differentiated  needs  of  modern  society  demand 
recognition.  Hence  the  factors  of  integration  and  of  differ- 
entiation are  both  important  and  neither  can  be  neglected 
without  incurring  the  gravest  social  dangers.  Failure  to  pro- 
vide for  the  factor  of  differentiation  has  for  centuries  been 
noteworthy  in  the  social  organization  and  in  education. 
Failure  to  provide  properly  for  the  factor  of  integration  is 
a  very  real  possibility  in  social,  economic,  and  educational 
theory  and  practice  at  present. 

The  implication  of  this  principle  for  education,  and 
especially  for  secondary  education,  is  clear.  As  an  efficient 
social  institution  secondary  education  must  recognize  the 
necessity  of  provision  for  training  which  shall  serve  to  make 
for  integration,  training  which  shall  allow  for  the  individual 
differences  among  the  pupils  and  the  differentiated  needs  of 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  349 

society,  training  in  which  the  supplementary  relation  of  the 
two  factors  is  observed. 

145.  Changes  in  other  social  institutions.  All  the  major 
activities  of  society  and  the  greater  part  of  the  minor  activ- 
ities of  society  are  organized  into  institutions  which  may  be 
considered  (a)  as  embodying  the  recognized  purposes  of 
society  in  the  various  fields  of  human  activity,  (6)  as  instru- 
ments of  social  control,  and  (c)  as  media  for  the  communi- 
cation and  transmission  of  group  experience.  Among  such 
institutions,  of  major  importance  are  those  centering  around 
the  home,  the  community  life,  the  State,  the  Church,  the 
vocation,  and  the  school.  Since  they  represent  phases  of 
the  social  purpose  and  of  the  social  process,  and  since  the 
social  process  is  evolutionary,  we  must  conceive  of  these 
institutions  as  susceptible  of  change  with  time  and  as  them- 
selves evolutionary.  Hence  we  must  expect  to  find  insti- 
tutions undergoing  modification  as  time  progresses,  at  times 
losing  certain  functions,  at  times  adding  new  functions,  at 
times  changing  the  specific  character  and  direction  of  their 
activities.  Such  changes  are  manifest  in  the  history  of  every 
institution  and  the  history  of  education  indicates  that  the 
school  as  a  formal  agency  of  education  originated  and  devel- 
oped by  assuming  functions  and  activities  which  had  pre- 
viously belonged  to  other  institutions. 

Recognizing  the  fact  that  institutions  change  it  is  com- 
monly held  that  when  existing  institutions  afford  socially 
adequate  training  in  desirable  social  activities,  the  school 
as  the  formal  agency  of  education  should  not  assume  the 
responsibility  for  such  training,  the  reason  for  this  being 
found  in  the  fact  that  the  direct  education  coming  through 
actual  participation  in  the  activities  of  society  is  far  more 
valuable  than  the  indirect  education  provided  by  the  school 
as  a  preparation  rather  than  a  form  of  actual  participation. 
Conversely,  it  is  commonly  held  that  when  any  other  social 


350      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

institution  fails  to  provide  or  ceases  to  provide  desirable 
forms  of  training  adequately  for  the  social  demands,  such 
training  must  be  taken  over  by  the  institution  specially  de- 
signed for  formal  education  —  the  school. 

The  implication  of  this  principle  for  education  is  twofold 
—  that  the  school  must  be  expected  to  assume  certain  new 
functions  as  other  institutions  cease  to  meet  them,  and  that, 
in  some  cases  at  least,  the  school  must  be  brought  into  closer 
relation  with  other  institutions  for  the  proper  coordination 
of  functions  of  all  educational  institutions,  formal  and  in- 
formal, and  for  the  proper  division  of  social  responsibility. 
This  must  apply  to  secondary  education  as  well  as  to  other 
divisions  of  education,  and  it  applies  with  special  force  at  the 
present  time.  Within  recent  years  important  changes  have 
taken  place  in  the  home,  in  the  community  life,  in  the  State, 
in  the  Church,  in  the  vocation,  and  in  other  social  institu- 
tions, which  have  imposed  on  secondary  education  in  the 
school  many  functions  formerly  exercised  by  one  or  more 
of  those  institutions.  Those  changes  and  their  effects  on 
secondary  education  are  so  important  that  they  deserve 
more  extended  consideration  in  the  following  sections. 

146.  Changes  in  the  home  and  family  life.  To  some  ex- 
tent all  other  social  institutions  may  be  conceived  as  having 
developed  out  of  the  home  and  family  as  the  fundamental 
social  unit.  Thus  the  State  probably  had  its  inception  in  the 
development  of  the  family  with  its  increasing  number  of 
members,  through  the  clan  and  groups  united  by  bonds  of 
blood  relationship  and  marriage.  Thus  religion  and  the 
church  developed  through  the  various  forms  of  animistic, 
totemistic,  and  other  forms  of  belief,  in  some  cases  prima- 
rily through  the  worship  of  common  ancestors,  the  family 
or  clan  head  being  also  the  spiritual  head  of  the  social  group. 
Thus  the  vocation  was  determined  by  the  activities  and 
needs  of  the  family  or  clan.  In  general  it  is  at  least  a  tenable 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  351 

theory  that  the  source  of  all  institutional  activities  and  func- 
tions is  to  be  found  in  the  activities  and  functions  of  the 
fundamental  social  group  —  the  family. 

The  history  of  the  school  as  a  social  institution  shows 
clearly  that  its  inception  and  its  development  can  be  traced 
to  the  assumption  of  activities  and  functions  taken  either 
from  the  home  directly  or  from  the  home  indirectly  through 
other  social  institutions  which  have  previously  taken  over 
activities  and  functions  formerly  belonging  to  the  home. 
Inevitable  changes  occur  from  time  to  time  in  the  home. 
In  such  cases  three  lines  of  change  may  be  possible:  com- 
pensating changes  may  be  made  in  the  home  itself;  the 
change  in  the  home  may  be  compensated  by  a  change  in 
some  other  institution;  the  change  in  the  home  may  be  com- 
pensated in  the  institution  which  society  has  created  for  that 
special  purpose,  i.e.,  in  the  school.  Sooner  or  later  the  ma- 
jority of  such  changes  affect  the  school. 

To  trace  even  all  the  important  changes  in  the  school 
which  were  due  to  changes  in  the  activities  and  functions  of 
the  home  would  be  impossible  here.  Only  some  of  the  more 
important  and  somewhat  recent  of  such  changes  can  be  here 
considered  —  such  changes  as  apparently  affect  the  present 
character  of  secondary  education.  These  may  be  conven- 
iently grouped  under  two  heads:  those  affecting  problems  of 
moral-social  education;  and  those  affecting  vocational  edu- 
cation. In  addition,  however,  we  may  consider  certain 
changes  in  the  relation  between  the  home  and  the  school. 

(1)  Changes  affecting  moral-social  education:  Within  the 
past  three  or  four  generations  the  development  of  the  home 
as  an  informal  institution  of  education  has  been  marked  by 
important  changes  in  the  stimuli  and  opportunities  for 
moral-social  education,  changes  which  have  on  the  whole 
tended  to  lessen  the  influence  of  the  home  as  an  educational 
agency.  The  majority  of  those  changes  center  around  the 


352      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

lessening  of  the  home  or  family  solidarity.  This  is  manifest 
in  the  lessening  interdependence  of  members  of  the  family; 
in  the  lessened  amount  of  responsibility  of  the  children  of 
the  family,  accompanied  in  many  cases  by  a  greatly  in- 
creased amount  of  privilege;  in  the  withdrawal  of  the  father, 
and  sometimes  the  mother,  from  home  occupations  to  occu- 
pations in  the  factory;  in  the  effects  of  increased  urbaniza- 
tion where  the  activities  of  the  family  are  less  unified;  in 
the  decreased  religious  atmosphere  in  the  home;  in  the 
reconstruction. of  family  relations  in  the  case  of  foreign-born 
parents  and  native-born  children;  in  the  increase  of  divorce; 
and  in  a  multitude  of  other  ways.  Scarcely  two  generations 
ago  the  social  stimuli  and  the  opportunities  —  nay,  more,  the 
necessities  —  of  moral-social  education  in  the  home  were 
far  greater  along  important  lines  than  is  the  case  to-day,  and 
the  changes  are  due,  not  altogether  to  a  decreased  sense  of 
responsibility  on  the  part  of  parents,  but  to  forces  over 
which  they  have  had  little  or  no  control.  They  have  been 
necessary  results  of  powerful  social  and  economic  forces  at 
work  throughout  society.  Thus  less  than  half  a  century  ago 
the  "  typical "  family  in  America  lived  in  a  small  town  or  on 
the  farm,  the  occupations  of  the  fathers  were  largely  on  the 
farm  or  in  local  industries,  the  occupations  of  women  were 
almost  exclusively  in  the  home,  and  a  multitude  of  house- 
hold tasks  and  home  or  farm  "  chores  "  provided  excellent 
opportunity  for  the  participation  of  children  hi  the  activi- 
ties of  the  family.  Since  that  time  the  tendency  has  been 
strongly  in  the  direction  of  home  conditions  in  the  city,  the 
factory  system  has  removed  most  of  occupational  stimuli 
from  the  home,  women  have  entered  industries  and  occu- 
pations never  thought  of  a  half  -century  ago,  and  modern 
labor-saving  devices  have  removed  the  majority  of  home 
activities  for  boys  and  greatly  lessened  those  for  girls.  The 
result  has  been  that  the  sense  of  social  responsibility  devel- 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  353 

oped  by  necessary  participation  in  the  activities  of  the  fam- 
ily in  former  times  has  not  been  developed  in  the  children 
of  the  family  within  recent  years,  individual  privileges  have 
been  extended  with  the  increase  of  leisure  and  the  increase  o) 
opportunities  for  utilizing  that  leisure,  parents  and  children 
spend  less  and  less  of  their  time  in  close  association  with  a 
resulting  loss  of  intimate  relation,  and  the  primary  agency 
for  the  development  of  ideals  and  habits  of  social  duties  and 
responsibilities  has  lost  opportunities  for  social  training,  that 
it  can  never  fully  recover.  To  this  we  may  add  the  fact  that 
parents  themselves  not  well  educated  in  some  respects  find 
greater  and  greater  difficulty  in  preparing  their  children  for 
the  needs  of  modern  life,  a  fact  which  is  particularly  perti- 
nent in  the  cases  of  large  numbers  of  foreign-born  parents. 

Obviously  the  burden  thrown  on  the  school  by  the  de- 
creased influence  of  the  home  in  these  respects  affects  all 
divisions  of  education,  including  secondary  education.  It 
is  in  part  the  basis  of  the  present  demand  for  increased 
attention  to  the  moral  and  social  education  of  boys  and 
girls,  a  demand  which  cannot  be  neglected  without  distinct 
loss  to  our  efficiency  as  a  nation. 

(3)  Changes  affecting  vocational  education :  With  respect 
to  stimuli  and  opportunities  for  vocational  education  no  less 
important  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  development  of 
the  home  and  family  life  within  the  past  three  or  four  gener- 
ations, those  changes  constantly  tending  to  decrease  the 
amount  of  vocational  stimuli  and  opportunity  offered  in 
that  institution.  To  illustrate  the  changes  which  have  taken 
place  in  this  connection  and  in  connection, with  the  preced- 
ing paragraphs  we  'cannot,  perhaps,  do  better  than  quote 
from  Dewey's  description  made  a  decade  ago: 

Back  of  the  factory  system  lies  the  household  and  neighborhood 
system.  Those  of  us  who  are  here  to-day  need  to  go  back  only  one, 
two,  or  at  most  three  generations,  to  find  a  time  when  the  house- 


hold  was  practically  the  center  in  which  were  carried  on  all  the 
typical  forms  of  industrial  occupation.  The  clothing  worn  was  for 
the  most  part  not  only  made  in  the  house,  but  the  members  of  the 
household  were  usually  familiar  with  the  shearing  of  the  sheep,  the 
carding  and  spinning  of  the  wool,  and  the  plying  of  the  loom.  In- 
stead of  pressing  a  button  and  flooding  the  house  with  electric 
light,  the  whole  process  of  getting  illumination  was  followed  hi  its 
toilsome  length,  from  the  killing  of  the  animal  and  the  trying  of 
Fat,  to  the  making  of  wicks  and  dipping  of  candles.  The  supply  of 
flour,  of  lumber,  of  foods,  of  building  materials,  of  household  fur- 
niture, even  of  metal  ware,  of  nails,  hinges,  hammers,  etc.,  was  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood,  in  shops  which  were  constantly  open 
to  inspection  and  often  centers  of  neighborhood  congregation.  The 
entire  industrial  process  stood  revealed,  from  the  production  on 
the  farm  of  raw  materials,  till  the  finished  article  was  actually  put 
to  use.  Not  only  this  but  practically  every  member  of  the  house- 
hold had  his  own  share  in  the  work.  The  children,  as  they  gained 
in  strength  and  capacity,  were  gradually  initiated  into  the  myste- 
ries of  the  several  processes.  It  was  a  matter  of  immediate  concern, 
even  to  the  point  of  actual  participation. 

We  cannot  overlook  the  factors  of  discipline  and  of  character- 
building  involved  in  this:  training  in  habits  of  order  and  industry, 
and  in  the  idea  of  responsibility,  of  obligation  to  do  something,  to 
produce  something,  in  the  world.  There  was  always  something 
which  really  needed  to  be  done,  and  a  real  necessity  that  each 
member  of  the  household  should  do  his  own  part  faithfully  and  in 
cooperation  with  others.  Personalities  which  became  effective  in 
action  were  bred  and  tested  in  the  medium  of  action.  Again,  we 
cannot  overlook  the  importance  for  educational  purposes  of  the 
close  and  intimate  acquaintance  got  with  nature  at  first  hand,  with 
real  things  and  materials,  with  the  actual  processes  of  their  manip- 
ulation, and  the  knowledge  of  their  social  necessities  and  uses.  In 
all  this  there  was  continual  training  of  observation,  of  ingenuity, 
constructive  imagination,  of  logical  thought,  and  of  the  sense  of 
reality  acquired  through  first-hand  contact  with  actualities.  The 
educative  force  of  the  domestic  spinning  and  weaving,  of  the  saw- 
mill, the  grist-mill,  the  cooper  shop,  and  the  blacksmith  forge, 
were  continuously  operative.1 

1  Dewey,  J.,  The  School  and  Society,  pp.  22-24.  Quoted  with  the  per- 
mission of  the  publishers,  University  of  Chicago  Press. 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  355 

Many  factors  have  combined  to  remove  such  vocational 
stimuli  and  opportunities  from  the  home:  (a)  the  develop- 
ment of  organized  industry  and  the  factory  system;  (6)  the 
application  in  the  home  of  labor-saving  devices;  (c)  the 
development  of  more  complicated  and  scientific  methods 
and  processes  in  industry  (e.g.,  scientific  methods  in  farm- 
ing), for  which  the  ordinary  activities  of  the  home  and  com- 
munity can  provide  but  inadequate  training;  (d)  the  less- 
ened self -sufficiency  of  the  home  for  its  own  needs;  (e)  the 
tendency  toward  urbanization  introducing  in  some  ways  a 
more  simplified,  in  other  ways  a  more  complicated  We; 
(/)  the  decrease  of  "  trade  heredity  "  from  father  to  son,  or 
even  from  mother  to  daughter. 

The  lessened  influence  of  the  home  in  vocational  training 
calls  for  increased  attention  to  that  form  of  education  either 
in  the  school  or  in  some  other  social  institution.  It  will  be 
shown  in  a  later  section  that  industry  and  the  vocation  itself 
does  not  adequately  provide  vocational  training.  The  only 
other  available  institution  for  that  purpose  is  the  school. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  great  burden  of  this  vocational  train- 
ing must  be  provided  in  the  secondary  division  of  the  system 
of  education. 

(3}  Changes  in  the  relation  between  the  home  and  the  school: 
Not  only  is  it  true  that  changes  in  the  home  itself  have 
imposed  responsibilities  on  the  secondary  school  but  it  is 
also  true  that  the  relation  between  the  two  institutions  has 
changed  to  such  an  extent  that  the  school  must  assume  cer- 
tain responsibilities  before  appropriate  to  the  home.  This 
arises  from  the  fact  that  the  school  has  preempted  a  much 
greater  amount  of  the  time  of  the  child,  thus  necessarily 
limiting  the  amount  of  education  which  the  home  can  afford. 
This  is  true  in  two  respects.  While  the  length  of  the  school 
day  has  not  noticeably,  if  at  all,  been  increased  (it  has  some- 
times worked  in  quite  the  opposite  direction),  the  control 


of  the  pupils'  time  through  the  supervision  of  extra-curricula 
activities  and  home  study  has  markedly  increased.  Like- 
wise the  number  of  individuals  involved  has  very  decidedly 
increased  within  the  past  two  decades  with  great  resultant 
increase  in  the  aggregate  of  the  control  of  the  time  of  the 
youth  in  the  secondary  school.  Thus  not  only  does  the  home 
commonly  fail  to  afford  opportunity  for  education  to  the 
extent  it  did  a  generation  or  two  ago,  but,  even  were  the 
desirable  educational  stimuli  and  opportunities  to  be  found 
in  the  home,  their  effectiveness  would  be  reduced  because 
of  the  lessened  contact  with  the  child.  The  school  which  has 
itself  reduced  the  opportunity  for  education  in  the  home 
must  meet  its  resulting  responsibilities. 

To  these  considerations  may  be  added  the  fact  that  the 
trend  of  the  development  of  community  life  has  been  such 
as  to  destroy  to  some  extent  the  intimate  contact  which 
formerly  existed  between  the  home  and  the  school.  Hence 
the  development  of  numerous  movements  such  as  parent- 
teacher  associations  and  the  high-school-as-the-civic-center 
movement  to  promote  a  closer  cooperation  between  the  two 
institutions. 

147.  Changes  in  community  life.  Closely  allied  to 
changes  in  the  home  and  family  life  affecting  education  are 
changes  in  the  community  life  which  have  within  the  past 
few  generations  affected  the  character  of  secondary  educa- 
tion in  important  ways.  Without  attempting  to  draw  any 
sharp  dividing  line  between  family  life  and  community  life 
on  the  one  hand  and  between  community  life  and  the  more 
extended  functions  of  the  State  and  society  as  a  whole  on 
the  other  hand,  we  may  gain  a  knowledge  of  some  forces 
affecting  education  by  noting  certain  changes  in  community 
life.  Among  the  most  important  changes  which  have  oc- 
curred within  recent  times  we  may  consider  the  following: 
the  change  from  the  small  community  in  the  country  to  the 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES 


357 


city  community;  the  increasing  heterogeneity  of  population 
in  communities;  the  mobility  of  labor  and  population. 

(1)  Changes  tending  toward  urbanization:  One  of  the  most 
noticeable  and  one  of  the  most  important  social  changes 
which  have  taken  place  in  this  country  within  the  past  half- 
century  is  the  increased  tendency  for  the  population  to  con- 
gregate in  the  cities  and  to  withdraw  from  the  rural  com- 
munities. This  tendency  is  clearly  seen  from  the  figures 
presented  in  the  following  table. 

TABLE  CXVI.   THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  URBAN  AND  RURAL  POPU- 
LATION IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1880,  1890,  1900,  1910  * 


181 

?0 

18 

W 

19( 

X> 

19, 

'0 

Division  of  the  country 

Urban 
(per 
cent) 

Rural 
(per 
cent) 

Urban 
(per 
cent) 

Rural 
(per 
cent) 

Urban 
(per 
cent) 

Rural 
(per 
cent) 

Urban 
(per 
cent) 

Rural 
(per 
cent) 

New  England       .  . 

68  7 

31  3 

75.8 

24  2 

79  9 

20  1 

83  3 

16  7 

Middle  Atlantic  

49.9 

50.1 

57.7 

42.3 

65.2 

24.8 

71.0 

29  0 

East  North  Central  

27.5 

72.5 

37.8 

62.2 

45  2 

54.8 

52  7 

47  3 

West  North  Central  

18.1 

81.9 

25.8 

74.2 

28.5 

71.5 

33  3 

66  7 

South  Atlantic  

15.1 

84.9 

19.5 

80.5 

21.4 

78.6 

25  4 

74  6 

East  South  Central  

8.4 

91.6 

12.7 

87.3 

15.0 

85.0 

18.7 

81  3 

West  South  Central  

12.2 

87.8 

15.1 

84.9 

16.2 

83.8 

22  3 

77  7 

23.6 

76.4 

29.3 

70.7 

32.3 

67.7 

36.0 

64  0 

36.2 

63.8 

42.5 

57.5 

46.4 

53.6 

56.8 

43.2 

UNITED  STATES  

29.5 

70.5 

36.1 

63.9 

40.5 

59.5 

46.3 

53  7 

. 

*  Report  of  the  Thirteenth  Census  (1910),  vol.  i,  p.  57.  Urban  communities  include  all  over 
2500  population:  rural  communities  include  all  others. 

What  are  the  implications  of  such  conditions  for  educa- 
tion? The  answer  to  this  question  calls  for  the  direction  of 
our  views  along  two  different  lines.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  a 
pertinent  theory  that  the  failure  'of  the  school  to  meet  com- 
munity needs  has  itself  contributed  toward  present  condi- 
tions which  are  not  altogether  desirable,  through  its  failure 
to  adapt  itself  to  the  needs  of  the  smaller  community  and  by 
providing  the  sort  of  an  education  which  has  tended  to  drive 
country  children  to  the  cities  instead  of  providing  an  educa- 


358      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

tion  suited  to  the  needs  of  rural  life.  In  so  far  as  such  a  the- 
ory is  valid  (and  it  is  valid  within  limits  only)  the  implica- 
tion for  education  is  an  extended  adaptation  of  the  character 
of  school  education  to  the  diversified  needs  of  different  com- 
munities. 

In  the  second  place,  it  must  be  recognized  that  the  ten- 
dency toward  greater  urbanization  has  resulted  in  the  loss  of 
important  forms  of  social-civic,  vocational,  cultural,  and 
physical  education  previously  provided  informally  by  com- 
munity life,  forms  of  education  which  must  now  be  taken 
over  in  part  at  least  by  the  school.  Here  we  may  note  par- 
ticularly the  greatly  lessened  opportunities  for  social  and 
physical  development  through  play  in  the  modern  city  as 
compared  with  opportunities  afforded  in  the  rural  com- 
munity or  small  town,  the  loss  of  rather  direct  and  intimate 
contact  with  all  the  activities  of  civic  agencies,  the  loss  of 
close  contact  with  industrial  activities,  the  loss  of  the  in- 
fluence of  a  sense  of  social  and  individual  responsibility 
where  one's  every  act  is  known  by  the  entire  community, 
and  the  diminished  sense  of  belonging  to  a  definite  social 
unit. 

(2)  The  increasing  heterogeneity  of  population  in  commun- 
ities :  As  is  the  case  for  the  country  as  a  whole  so  it  is  the 
case  for  communities  (especially  for  towns  and  cities)  that 
the  population  has  tended  within  the  past  few  generations 
to  become  more  and  more  heterogeneous,  and  consequently 
the  unity  of  life  in  communities  has  constantly  diminished. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  general  stimuli  of  life  in  any  given  com- 
munity have  tended  to  become  less  and  less  adequate  for 
the  social-civic  education  of  the  children  of  that  community 
with  the  result  that  a  further  responsibility  for  increased 
attention  to  that  form  of  education  has  been  imposed  on  the 
school.  Where  this  heterogeneity  of  population  has  been 
accompanied  by  an  increased  diversity  of  industries,  as  is 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES 


359. 


not  infrequently  the  case,  further  implications  for  vocational 
education  in  the  school  are  found. 

(3)  The  mobility  of  labor  and  population :  Important  for 
questions  of  social-civic  and  vocational  education  is  the  fact 
that  labor  and  population  has  tended  on  the  whole  to  be- 
come more  mobile.  Increased  facilities  for  transportation 
and  the  extension  of  the  labor  market  have  made  a  change 
of  residence  from  one  community  to  another  much  more 
common  than  formerly.  At  the  same  time  the  breakdown  of 
the  older  apprentice  system  has  operated  to  reduce  the  ten- 
dency of  the  workman  to  remain  in  any  one  community. 
Thus,  in  the  year  1912-13,  from  a  study  of  the  fathers  of 
22,027  boys  thirteen  years  of  age  in  the  schools  of  sev- 
enty-eight American  city  school  systems,  Ayres  secured  the 
data  presented  in  the  following  table. 

TABLE  CXVH.  BIRTHPLACES  OF  BOYS  AND  THEIR  FATHERS 
IN  SEVENTY-EIGHT  CITIES  * 


Birthplace 

Boys 

Fathers 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Percent 

Same  city  

12,699 
4,233 
3,069 
2,026 

58 
19 
14 
9 

3,601 
5,349 
4,364 
8,713 

16 
24 
20 
40 

Same  State  but  not  same  city  
Other  State  in  United  States  

Foreign  country      .  .          

Total  

22,027 

100 

22,027 

100 

*  Ayres,  L.  P.,  Some  Conditions  affecting  Problems  of  Industrial  Education  in  Seventy-eight 
American  School  Systems,  Bulletin  E.  135  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  p.  7. 

The  data  giving  the  birthplaces  of  the  boys  and  their  fathers 
show  that  only  about  one  father  in  six  is  now  living  in  the  city  of 
his  birth  and  that  among  the  boys  only  a  few  more  than  one-half 
are  now  living  where  they  were  born.  These  facts  are  significant 
because  it  is  often  urged  that  the  schools  should  develop  courses 


360      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

of  industrial  education  that  will  directly  prepare  the  children  to 
enter  local  industries.  But  if  present  conditions  maintain  in  the 
future  the  great  majority  of  adults  are  not  going  to  work  in  the 
same  communities  in  which  they  received  their  schooling. 

It  is  clear  that  the  conditions  illustrated  by  Ayres's  inves- 
tigation are  significant  not  merely  for  problems  of  vocational 
education  but  also  for  other  forms  of  education. 

148.  Changes  in  the  Church  and  religion.  The  Church 
has  always  been  one  of  the  most  conservative  of  social  insti- 
tutions. As  a  result  of  that  conservatism  such  changes  as 
have  taken  place  have  meant:  (a)  a  splitting-off  of  new 
denominations  or  sects  from  the  parent  institution;  (6)  a 
decrease  or  increase  in  the  number  of  active  adherents  of  the 
Church  or  of  various  denominations;  (c)  an  increase  or  de- 
crease in  the  influence  which  the  Church  and  its  religion 
exercised  over  its  adherents.  Changes  along  these  lines  have 
not  been  without  importance  for  education  in  this  country 
within  the  past  few  generations,  though  their  extent  is  very 
difficult  to  determine. 

The  World  Almanac  for  1917  lists  forty-nine  different 
denominations  with  one  hundred  and  seventy-one  different 
sects  in  the  United  States.  How  far  the  Church  and  religion 
have  lost  unity  through  the  development  of  numerous  de- 
nominations and  sects  it  is  impossible  to  estimate.  This 
much,  however,  is  sure,  that  the  power  of  the  Church  as  an 
integrating  factor  in  American  society  has  diminished  in 
some  degree  even  within  the  past  few  decades  and  in  some 
communities  it  must  be  recognized  that  social  unity  is  seri- 
ously imperiled  by  denominational  discord. 

Even  more  difficult  to  measure  is  the  result  of  changes  in 
the  number  of  Church  communicants  and  the  real  influence 
of  the  Church  and  its  religion  over  those  communicants. 
This  much  appears  clear,  however,  that  religion  has  ceased 
to  exert  the  extent  of  influence  which  it  formerly  exerted  in 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  361 

certain  directions  for  the  people  of  America  as  a  whole. 
Instances  of  such  a  loss  of  influence  may  be  found  in  the 
disappearance  of  family  prayers  in  many  homes,  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Sabbath,  the  position  of  the  Church  as  the 
community  center,  the  lessened  influence  of  the  clergy. 
Extension  of  the  activities  of  the  Church  in  other  directions 
has  by  no  means  recovered  the  influence  which  the  Church 
once  had.  This  has  meant  a  distinct  loss  to  education.  If 
the  loss  were  one  merely  of  theological  and  ritualistic  educa- 
tion it  would  not  be  so  important.  The  great  loss  has  been 
in  moral  and  social  education  which  have  always  been  closely 
associated  with  religious  education,  and  in  the  diminished 
power  of  one  of  the  greatest  of  integrating  factors. 

The  implications  for  education  arising  from  such  changes 
in  the  Church  and  religion  are  recognition  of  the  added 
responsibility  for  moral-social  education  in  the  school  and 
recognition  of  the  need  for  the  school  to  assume  added 
responsibility  for  its  integrating  function. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  acceptance  of 
the  principle  that  Church  and  State  education  must  be  sepa- 
rate hi  this  country  and  that  religious  instruction  cannot  be 
provided  hi  the  public  school  has  had  the  natural  result  of 
fostering  denominational  and  sectarian  schools,  a  result 
which  was  probably  inevitable,  but  one  which,  if  extended 
far,  must  inevitably  lead  to  a  direct  conflict  of  educational 
policy. 

149.  Changes  in  the  vocation.  The  nineteenth  century 
was  distinctly  a  period  of  industrial  change  if  not  industrial 
revolution  in  this  country  as  well  as  for  civilized  society  in 
general.  Within  that  period  came  :  (a)  the  greatly  extended 
application  of  science  to  industry;  (6)  the  substitution  of 
machinery  for  hand  labor;  (c)  the  substitution  of  the  factory 
system  for  the  domestic  system  of  industry;  (d)  the  exten- 
sion of  industrial  competition;  (e)  the  development  of  organ- 


362     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ized  labor;  (/)  the  growth  of  highly  specialized  processes  and 
the  greater  subdivision  of  labor;  (g)  the  consequent  break- 
down of  the  older  apprentice  system;  (h)  the  entrance  of 
women  into  industry;  (i)  a  change,  particularly  in  this  coun- 
try, in  the  relative  importance  of  industrial  efficiency  and 
abundant  natural  resources  as  determining  economic  values; 
(j)  a  more  intimate  relation  between  government  and  indus- 
try; (k)  the  development  of  a  tendency  toward  materialism 
in  thought  and  life;  (I)  the  development  of  an  industrial 
democracy;  (m)  the  development  of  labor  legislation,  espe- 
cially as  affecting  the  occupations  of  women  and  children, 
as  affecting  the  hours  and  conditions  of  labor,  and  as 
affecting  the  age  of  entrance  into  industry. 

All  these  and  other  changes  which  have  taken  place  within 
the  past  few  generations  in  the  field  of  the  vocation  may  be 
grouped  on  the  basis  of  their  educational  significance  under 
one  or  more  of  the  following  main  heads :  (1)  changes  in  the 
amount  and  character  of  vocational  education  provided  by 
the  vocation  itself  and  by  the  system  of  industry;  (2)  changes 
hi  the  requirements  of  the  vocation  and  the  conditions  for 
entrance;  (3)  changes  in  the  amount  and  character  of  non- 
vocational  education  provided  by  the  vocation  and  by  the 
system  of  industry,  especially  moral-social  education. 

(1)  Vocational  education  through  the  vocation:  The  dis- 
appearance of  the  older  apprentice  system  which  provided 
for  the  vocational  education  of  the  boy  or  girl  in  and  through 
the  vocation  itself,  the  development  of  the  factory  system  of 
industry  which  removed  the  field  of  industry  from  the  home 
and  smaller  community  where  the  boy  and  girl  came  into 
more  direct  and  intimate  contact  with  it  and  which  itself 
provided  a  greatly  lessened  training  for  those  who  entered 
industry  the  development  of  highly  subdivided  processes  in 
any  given  trade  which  has  made  it  possible  and  economical 
for  the  individual  to  become  acquainted  with  a  single  small 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  363 

part  only  of  any  total  trade  or  even  any  total  process  —  all 
these  and  other  changes  have  greatly  diminished  the  amount 
of  vocational  education  formerly  provided  by  the  vocation 
itself  and  have  greatly  modified  the  character  of  such  educa- 
tion as  is  still  provided  in  industry. 

(2)  Requirements  of  the  vocation  and  of  industry:  The 
development  of  industrial  competition  and  its  extension  to 
international  competition  has  created  a  demand  for  a  higher 
degree  of  industrial  efficiency  than  was  ever  before  neces- 
sary. In  this  country  heretofore  the  abundance  of  natural 
resources  has  afforded  an  advantage  which  in  industrial 
competition  has  left  a  margin  permitting  wasteful  use  of 
natural  resources  and  a  certain  amount  of  industrial  ineffi- 
ciency. That  margin  must  constantly  grow  less,  and  even  if 
that  were  not  the  case,  it  is  probable  that  the  wasteful 
methods  of  the  past  would  not  long  survive  the  strenuous 
competition  of  modern  industry.  Thus  industry  has  in- 
creased its  demand  for  higher  efficiency,  implying  better 
industrial  training  at  the  same  time  that  the  vocation  itself 
and  industry  has  decreased  the  opportunities  which  it  for- 
merly provided  for  such  training. 

At  the  same  time  practice  and  legislation  have  constantly 
extended  the  age  at  which  boys  and  girls  enter  on  their  voca- 
tions, thereby  reducing  the  possibility  of  early  vocational 
education  in  industry  itself.  In  particular  child-labor  laws 
and  compulsory  school-attendance  laws  have  taken  the 
child  out  of  the  environment  wherein  vocational  stimuli 
and  vocational  education  were  provided.  It  is  imperative 
that  the  school  should  in  some  degree  provide  for  equiva- 
lent preparation  for  the  vocation. 

(<?)  The  vocation  and  moral-social  education.  It  is  a  serious 
error  to  think  the  changes  in  the  vocation  and  in  industry 
are  of  importance  in  connection  with  vocational  education 
and  industrial  efficiency  alone.  Such  changes  are  fully  as 


364      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

significant  in  connection  with  moral-social  education,  a  fact 
which  is  readily  recognized  when  we  consider  the  extensive 
development  of  the  relations  between  labor  and  capital,  the 
important  part  played  by  organized  labor  hi  industry,  in 
government,  in  politics,  and  in  the  ordinary  conduct  of 
everyday  life,  when  we  consider  the  effect  of  the  modern 
factory  system  on  the  individual  worker  and  on  home  and 
community  life,  and  when  we  consider  the  relations  of  pro- 
ducer and  consumer  under  existing  conditions.  The  high 
ethical  standards  of  artizanship  and  of  industrial  responsi- 
bility were  greatly  diminished  when  the  relation  between 
producer  and  consumer  became  less  direct,  when  highly 
divided  industry  came  to  prevent  the  individual  worker 
from  seeing  the  relation  of  his  particular  piece  of  work  to 
the  finished  total  product  as  well  as  the  relation  of  that 
complete  product  to  society's  needs,  and  when  the  relation 
between  the  laborer  and  the  employer  became  less  and  less 
close. 

The  implications  for  education  of  changes  in  the  vocation 
and  in  industry  are  perhaps  primarily  concerned  with  the 
need  for  recognition  of  the  importance  of  vocational  educa- 
tion and  direction  in  the  work  of  the  school.  By  no  means 
negligible,  however,  are  the  implications  for  social  and  moral 
education. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  Show  how   differences   between   secondary  education   in  Germany, 
France,  England,  and  America  manifest  the  influence  of  differences 
in  dominant  social  ideals  and  the  form  of  social  organization. 

2.  Show  how  social  ideals  in  America  changed  during  the  nineteenth 
century  and  how  the  influence  of  those  changes  affected  secondary 
education. 

S.  Make  as  large  a  list  as  you  can  of  civic  duties  and  responsibilities  at 
present  required  but  not  required  a  decade  ago.  How  far  did  secondary 
education  of  a  decade  ago  prepare  for  such  duties  and  responsibilities? 

4.  Compare  the  opportunities  for  amusement  afforded  when  you  were 


SOCIAL  PRINCIPLES  365 

a  pupil  in  the  secondary  school  with  those  now  afforded.  How  far  did 
your  secondary  school  education  prepare  you  for  the  intelligent  enjoy- 
ment of  facilities  for  amusement?  How  could  it  have  been  bettered? 

5.  In  what  ways  can  a  capacity  to  readjust  to  the  changing  conditions  of 
society  be  developed  in  the  public  secondary  school? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  important  problems  for  secondary  education 
arising  out  of  the  factors  of  integration  and  differentiation  in  society? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  stimuli  and  opportunities  for  social-moral  train- 
ing formerly  found  in  the  home  and  community  life  and  no  longer 
afforded  by  those  institutions.  Which  of  those  can  be  partially  replaced 
by  secondary  education? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  stimuli  and  opportunities  for  vocational  educa- 
tion formerly  provided  in  the  home  and  community  life  and  no  longer 
afforded  by  those  institutions.    Which  of  those  can  be  partially  pro- 
vided in  the  secondary  school? 

9.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  stimuli  and  opportunities  for  moral-social  educa- 
'     tion  formerly  provided  by  the  vocation  and  industry  and  no  longer 

provided  by  those  agencies. 

10.  Trace  the  decay  of  the  older  apprentice  system  and  consequent  de- 
mands on  secondary  education. 

11.  In  what  ways  has  the  industrial  development  tended  to  require  more 
extensive  education  for  workers?  In  what  ways  has  it  tended  to  require 
less  education? 

12.  What  factors  have  tended  to  emphasize  the  need  for  more  attention 
to  moral  education  in  the  secondary  school? 

13.  What  factors  have  tended  to  emphasize  the  need  for  more  attention  to 
social  education  in  the  secondary  school? 

14.  What  factors  have  tended  to  emphasize  the  need  for  more  attention 
to  vocational  education  in  the  secondary  school? 

15.  What  factors  have  tended  to  emphasize  the  need  for  more  attention  to 
physical  education  in  the  secondary  school? 

16.  What  factors  have  tended  to  emphasize  the  need  for  more  attention 
to  education  for  the  utilization  of  leisure  in  the  secondary  school? 

17.  What  factors  have  tended  to  emphasize  the  need  for  more  attention  tc 
educational  guidance  in  the  secondary  school? 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Betts,  G.  H.,  Social  Principles  of  Education,  especially  chaps,  n-vn,  XI. 

Carlton,  F.  F.,  Education  and  Industrial  Evolution. 

Cooley,  E.  H.,  Social  Organization. 

Cubberley,  E.  P.,  The  Changing  Conceptions  of  Education. 

Davenport,  E.,  Education  for  Efficiency. 

Dewey,  J.,  Democracy  and  Education. 

Dewey,  J.,  School  and  Society,  chap.  i. 


366      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems,  especially  chap.  xv. 
Henderson,  E.  N.,  A    Text^Book  in  the  Principles  of  Education,  chaps. 

n-iv. 

Hollister,  H.  A.,  The  Administration  of  Education  in  a  Democracy,  chap.  vi. 
Inglis,  A.  J.,  "The  Socialization  of  the  High  School,"   Teachers  Colleg 

Record,  vol.  xvi,  no.  3  (May,  1915),  pp.  205-16. 
King,  I.,  Social  Aspects  of  Education,  especially  chaps,  i,  ix-xi. 
McVannel,  J.  A.,  Outline  of  a  Course  in  the  Philosophy  of  Education,  chaps. 

VI,  EX,  X. 

O'Shea,  M.  V.,  Social  Development  and  Education. 

Smith,  W.  R.,  An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology. 

Snedden,  D.,  "Social  Aspects  of  High-School  Education,"  chap,  xxi  of 
Monroe,  P.  (Editor),  Principles  of  Secondary  Education. 

Snedden,  D.,  "The  High  School  as  a  Social  Enterprise,"  chap,  n  of  John- 
ston, C.  H.  (Editor),  The  Modern  High  School. 

Snedden,  D.,  The  Problem  of  Vocational  Education. 

Ward,  L.  F.,  Dynamic  Sociology,  chap.  xiv. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  AIMS  AND   FUNCTIONS  OF  SECONDARY 
EDUCATION 

I.  THE  AIMS  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

150.  The  aims  of  secondary  education:  their  basis.  The 
key  to  any  analysis  of  aims  in  education  is  to  be  found  in  an 
analysis  of  the  activities  of  life  in  which  people  do  or  should 
engage.    The  aims  of  secondary  education,  therefore,  as  of 
any  department  of  education,  must  be  interpreted  in  terms 
of  the  activities  in  which  individuals  may  be  expected  nor- 
mally to  participate.    Obviously  those  activities  vary  in 
different  societies  and  at  different  periods.    Obviously  also 
different  individuals  and  different  groups   of  individuals 
engage  in  various  activities  in  various  ways  and  to  varying 
degrees.    Any  complete  analysis  of  the  activities  in  which 
different  individuals  and   different  groups  engage  would 
involve  an  examination  of  all  the  multitudinous  phases  of 
human  life.    Such  a  detailed  analysis  is,  of  course,  impossi- 
ble: if  it  were  possible  it  would  be  of  questionable  value, 
since  it  would  deal  with  individuals  whose  lives  could  not 
be  prophesied.    Certain  general  fields  of  activity,  however, 
engage  practically  all  individuals  in  some  way  and  to  some 
degree,  furnishing  fundamental  aims  for  secondary  educa- 
tion. 

151.  Three  fundamental  aims  of  secondary  education. 
Three  important  groups  of  activities  require  the  participa- 
tion of  the  Individual  and  establish  three  fundamental  aims 
for  secondary  education,  as  for  all  education,  in  America. 
Those  three  groups  of  activities  are  distinguished  accord- 


368      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ingly  as  they  involve  primarily:  (1)  participation  in  the 
duties  of  citizenship  and  in  the  not-directly  economic  rela- 
tions of  cooperative  group  life;  (2)  participation  in  the  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  economic  utilities;  (3)  the  life 
of  the  individual  as  a  relatively  free  and  independent  per- 
sonality. Thus  the  three  fundamental  aims  of  secondary 
jducatioii  are: 

(1)  The  preparation  of  the  individual  as  a  prospective 
citizen   and   cooperating   member   of   society  —  the 
Social-Civic  Aim; 

(2)  The  preparation  of  the  individual  as  a  prospective 
worker    and    producer  —  the    Economic- Vocational 
Aim; 

(3)  The  preparation  of  the  individual  for  those  activities 
which,  while  primarily  involving  individual  action, 
the  utilization  of  leisure,  and  the  development  of 
personality,  are  of   great  importance  to  society  — 
the  Individualistic- A  vocational  Aim. 

It  must  be  recognized  that  these  three  aims  are  not  mu- 
tually exclusive,  but  rather  that  they  are  in  a  high  degree 
interrelated  and  interdependent.  Taken  together  they  con- 
stitute the  Social  Aim  of  secondary  education  in  the  broad- 
est sense  of  the  term.  Every  individual  as  a  social  unit  is 
at  the  same  time  a  citizen,  a  worker,  and  a  relatively  inde- 
pendent personality.  The  three  phases  of  his  life  cannot  be 
divorced,  and  in  the  secondary  school  preparation  for  no  one 
of  those  phases  of  life  should  be  neglected. 

152.  The  social-civic  aim.  The  social-civic  aim  of  second- 
ary education  involves  the  preparation  of  individuals  for 
efficient  participation  in  those  activities  of  society  whose 
controlling  purpose  and  primary  object  are  desirable  forms 
of  social  cooperation,  e.g.,  the  interrelated  activities  of  peo- 
ple in  community  life,  in  making  laws,  in  action  according 
to  laws,  in  political  duties,  and  in  general  wherever  group 


ATMS  AND  FUNCTION  369 

action  and  the  not-directly  economic  relains  between  the 
individual  and  the  group  or  between  indidual  and  indi- 
vidual are  involved.  Hence  it  demands  ic  development 
of  knowledge,  habits,  abilities,  and  ideals  tdch  will  enable 
the  individual  efficiently  to  play  his  part  £a  social  unit  in 
group  activities. 

Adequate  preparation  for  and  traininj  in  such  social 
activities  as  are  involved  in  the  social-civi  aim  of  second- 
ary education  must  include  among  others  aieast  the  follow- 
ing purposes:  (1)  the  development  of  idea  and  habits  of 
conduct;  (2)  the  development  of  ideals  and  abits  of  cooper- 
ation; (3)  the  development  of  a  knowlede  of  important 
social  institutions  or  agencies  and  their  plee  in  the  social 
order,  together  with  appropriate  ideals,  tandards,  and 
habits;  (4)  the  development  of  a  knowledge^  the  civic  ac- 
tivities involved  in  community  life,  togetherrith  the  related 
ideals,  standards,  and  habits;  (5)  the  deelopment  of  a 
knowledge  of  the  major  activities  of  state  aid  national  life, 
together  with  appropriate  ideals,  standkrls,  and  habits; 


(6)  the  development  of  a  knowledge  of 


and  duties,  together  with  appropriate  ides  13,  standards,  and 
habits;  (7)  throughout  all  secondary  edication,  as  far  as 
may  be  possible,  training  in  social  activit  es  through  actual 
participation  in  the  activities  of  the  sclnol  itself  and  the 


community;  (8)  throughout  all  the  devel 
conscience  or  sense  of  social  responsibility 

Important  in  any  society,  the  social-civ 
most  important  in  a  democracy. 

153.  The    economic-vocational    aim. 


oitical  principles 


pment  of  a  social 
aim  is  obviously 


The    economic- 


vocational  aim  of  secondary  education  involves  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  individual  for  efficient  participation  in  those 
activities  of  society  whose  controlling  purpose  and  primary 
object  involve  economic  efficiency.  Society  makes  its  de- 
mand on  every  individual  to  participate  in  economic  activity 


370      PRINCIPLES. OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

at  least  to  the  extent  of  "pulling  his  own  load,"  and  economic 
efficiency  is  a  necessity  of  modern  life  to  which  each  must 
contribute  his  share.  So  universal  a  necessity  cannot  be 
neglected  by  the  secondary  school  unless  it  can  be  shown 
that  other  social  agencies  are  equal  to  the  task  of  such  prep- 
aration. That  other  social  agencies  do  not  accomplish  such 
preparation  adequately  has  been  indicated  in  the  preced- 
ing chapter.  T^he  responsibility,  therefore,  falls  on  the 
school  and  must  be  recognized  in  the  aims  of  secondary 
education. 

As  long  as  pupils  receiving  the  benefits  of  secondary  edu- 
cation were  drawn  from  classes  whose  vocations  were  almost 
entirely  the  higher  professions,  involving  vocational  educa- 
tion in  higher  institutions,  the  directly  vocational  aim  in  the 
secondary  school  was  subordinated  to  other  aims  except  in 
so  far  as  preparation  for  higher  institutions  might  be  con- 
ceived as  involving  indirect  contribution  to  a  vocational  aim. 
With  the  extension  of  the  benefits  of  secondary  education 
to  the  non-professional  classes  greater  importance  has  neces- 
sarily been  attached  to  the  economic- vocational  aim. 

Adequate  preparation  for  and  training  in  such  activities 
as  are  involved  in  the  economic- vocational  aim  of  secondary 
education  must  include,  as  far  as  may  be  possible  and  with 
due  reference  to  the  different  needs  of  special  groups,  the 
following  purposes:  (1)  the  development  of  the  knowledges, 
skills,  and  habits  involved  in  vocational  activities;  (2)  some 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  economics;  (3)  some  develop- 
ment of  the  ideals,  standards,  and  conditions  of  the  economic 
world;  (4)  the  discovery  and  development  of  special  interests 
and  aptitudes  of  different  individuals  for  vocational  pursuits; 
(5)  some  vocational  guidance;  (6)  the  development  of  an 
understanding  of  the  significance  of  various  vocations  to 
society;  (7)  the  development  of  a  conception  of  the  relations 
between  fellow-members  of  a  vocation,  between  different 


AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  371 

vocational  groups,  between  employee  and  employer,  be- 
tween producer  and  consumer;  (8)  some  knowledge  of  in- 
dustrial-governmental relations. 

The  degree  in  which  vocational  education  and  training 
may  be  appropriate  for  various  groups  of  pupils  in  the  sec- 
ondary school  obviously  must  differ.  More  uniformity  is 
possible  in  the  attainment  of  the  social-civic  aim  than  in  the 
economic-vocational  aim,  since  the  activities  involved  hi 
the  former  are  more  nearly  the  same  for  all  individuals.  The 
greater  difficulty  of  attaining  the  economic-vocational  aim 
is,  however,  no  justification  for  its  neglect  ha  the  second- 
ary school. 

154.  The  individualistic-avocational  aim.1  The  individ- 
ualistic-avocational  aim  of  secondary  education  involves  the 
preparation  of  the  individual  for  those  activities  of  life  whose 
primary  object  and  controlling  purpose  are  personal  develop- 
ment and  personal  happiness  through  the  worthy  use  of 
leisure.  The  social-civic  and  the  economic-vocational  aims 
of  education  are  directly  and  constructively  social.  Their 
contributions  to  social  well-being  and  to  social  progress  are 
obvious.  On  the  other  hand,  the  individualistic-avoca- 
tional aim  of  education  is  sometimes  falsely  conceived  to  be 
non-social.  This  is  a  serious  error  arising  hi  large  part  from 
the  fact  that  its  contributions  to  social  well-being  and  to 
social  progress  are,  hi  a  sense,  indirect  and  to  some  extent 
negative.  For  centuries  academic  asceticism  has  frowned 
upon  any  kind  of  education  which  frankly  or  in  disguised 
form  favored  varied  opportunity  for  the  development  of  per 
sonality  and  for  the  enjoyment  of  leisure.  Since  the  indi 
vidualistic-avocational  aim  of  education  deals  primarily 
with  the  leisure  part  of  life  its  importance  is  constantly 
minimized  by  educational  theorists.  Thus  Spencer,  identi- 

1  The  terms  "culture"  and  "cultural"  are  purposely  avoided  here  be- 
cause of  their  ambiguity  in  modern  educational  thought. 


372      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

fying  preparation  for  leisure  with  preparation  for  the  refine- 
ments of  life,  says: * 

Accomplishments,  the  fine  arts,  belles-lettres,  and  all  those  things 
which,  as  we  say  constitute  the  efflorescence  of  civilization,  should 
be  wholly  subordinate  to  that  knowledge  and  discipline  in  which 
civilization  rests.  As  they  occupy  the  leisure  part  of  life,  so  should 
they  occupy  the  leisure  part  of  education. 

The  following  considerations  suggest  that  such  a  concep- 
tion is  fallacious. 

(1)  Preparation  for  the  leisure  part  of  life  is  very  far 
from  being  confined  to  "accomplishments,  fine  arts,  belles- 
lettres,"  and  preparation  in  such  fields  would  be  far  from 
adequate  for  the  proper  utilization  of  leisure,  were  it  possible 
to  provide  such  training  for  all.    The  average  individual 
has  from  one  quarter  to  one  fifth  of  his  time  for  leisure.  His 
action  during  leisure  is  as  much  a  matter  of  social  concern 
(at  least  in  a  negative  sense)  as  his  action  in  any  other  part  of 
his  life.  Within  recent  years  there  has  been  a  constant  ten- 
dency to  increase  the  amount  of  leisure  time  at  the  disposal 
of  the  individual.    That  increase  in  the  amount  of  leisure 
has  introduced  problems  of  no  slight  importance  for  second- 
ary education. 

(2)  While  the  individual's  activities  during  his  leisure 
time  are  not  designed  primarily  to  make  positive  contribu- 
tions to  social  well-being  and  to  social  progress  and  while 
they  do  not  tend  on  the  whole  to  build  up  society,  unless 
directed  along  desirable  social  lines  they  may  and  doubtless 
do  tend  to  interfere  seriously  with  that  process,  or  even,  in 
some  cases,  to  tear  civilization  down.  Vice  and  social  degen- 
eration find  fertile  soil  in  leisure.   The  social  menace  of  the 
activities  of  leisure  not  well  guided,  where  standards,  habits, 
and  ideals  have  not  been  established  along  desirable  social 
lines,  is  by  no  means  slight  or  unimportant.   Let  the  leisure 

1  Spencer,  H.,  Education,  chap,  i  (Hurt  edition),  p.  68. 


AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  573 

time  of  any  society  be  well  controlled  and  there  is  little  dan- 
ger that  such  a  society  will  not  endure  and  prosper.  Let  the 
leisure  time  of  any  society  be  neglected  or  misused  and  there 
is  little  hope  that  it  will  prosper. 

(3)  The   conditions   of   modern   industry   have  tended 
(a)  to  allow  the  worker  an  increased  amount  of  leisure  time, 
and  (6)  to  reduce  the  stimuli  and  opportunities  for  personal 
development  and  personal  enjoyment  in  and  through  labor 
itself.    Factory  labor  has  tended  to  reduce  the  economic 
activity  of  the  worker  to  a  level  of  deadening  monotony 
where  either  development  or  enjoyment  is  reduced  to  lowest 
terms.    In  some  way  those  stimuli  and  opportunities  for 
personal  development  and  personal  enjoyment  must  be 
provided  in  modern  life. 

(4)  It  is  altogether  probable  that  in  this  country  the  time 
is  rapidly  approaching,  if  indeed  it  has  not  already  arrived, 
when  conditions  of  labor  cannot  continue  to  decrease  the 
ultimate  efficiency  of  the  worker  by  failing  to  allow  sufficient 
leisure  for  re-creation  through  recreation.  It  remains  to  be 
seen  whether  or  not  the  increased  leisure  and  the  extended 
opportunity  to  utilize  leisure  may  not  seriously  impair  the 
social  efficiency  of  our  society,  if  greater  preparation  for  the 
intelligent  and  sane  use  of  leisure  is  not  provided. 

Legitimate  fields  for  the  carrying-out  of  the  individual- 
istic-avocational  aim  of  secondary  education  may  well 
include,  among  others,  the  following:  (a)  the  development 
of  a  sense  of  social  responsibility  for  individual  action,  even 
where  the  primary  object  is  legitimately  personal  develop- 
ment and  personal  enjoyment,  i.e.,  a  respect  for  the  rights 
and  interests  of  others;  (6)  the  development  of  tastes  and 
standards  for  enjoyment  and  the  use  of  leisure  —  moral  and 
aesthetic,  e.g.,  in  reading,  in  the  theater,  in  physical  recre- 
ation, etc.;  (c)  the  development  of  self-sustaining  habits 
of  amusement  along  desirable  lines  —  the  development  of 


374      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

interests,  hobbies,  etc.,  which  may  prevent  one  from  sink- 
ing to  grosser  pleasures  through  a  lack  of  higher  interests; 

(d)  a  knowledge  of  certain  pleasure  evils  and  their  results; 

(e)  the  development  of  pleasure  interests,  where  possible, 
which  are  at  the  same  time  social  benefits  and  means  of  per- 
sonal enjoyment. 

155.  The  interrelation  of  the  three  aims.   It  has  already 
been  suggested  that  these  three  aims  of  secondary  education 
are  not  mutually  independent,  but  rather  are  interrelated 
and  interdependent,  since  they  represent  but  three  different 
phases  of  life  which  concern  each  individual.    Historically 
the  necessary  interrelation  of  the  three  aims  has  not  always 
been  properly  recognized,  with  the  result  that  some  one  of 
the  aims  has  been  emphasized  to  the  neglect  or  under-valua- 
tion  of  the  others.   Thus  neglect  or  insufficient  attention  to 
the  economic-vocational  aim  in  the  past  is  recognized  by 
those  familiar  with  the  history  of  education.    Its  over- 
emphasis is  not  impossible  in  some  cases  at  the  present  time. 
Thus  the  individualistic-avocational  aim  has  received  more 
than  its  just  due  at  some  times  in  the  past.   Its  neglect  is  a 
possibility  in  some  cases  at  the  present  time.    The  possi- 
bility of  separating  the  three  aims  for  purposes  of  objective 
analysis  should  not  lead  to  the  assumption  that  they  can 
be  separated  in  the  case  of  any  individual's  education.  No 
form  of  secondary  education  which  fails  to  provide  ade- 
quately for  all  three  forms  of  activity  can  be  considered 
satisfactory. 

156.  Aims  based  on  traits  involved.    In  the  preceding 
discussion  the  aims  of  secondary  education  have  been  con- 
sidered in  terms  of  the  activities  involved  in  life.    Efficient 
participation  in  those  activities  depends  on  the  employment 
of  physicial,  mental,  moral,  and  aesthetic  traits  which  must 
be  developed  in  individuals.    Hence  the  attainment  of  the 
aims  set  is  conditioned  by  the  development  of  physical  effi- 


AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  375 

ciency,  mental  efficiency,  moral  efficiency,  and  aesthetic 
efficiency  of  pupils.  These  four  elements  may  be  conceived 
as  objectives  of  education  cutting  cross-sections  through 
each  of  the  social  aims  formulated  above,  no  one  of  which 
is  attainable  without  their  development.  With  whichever  of 
the  two  sets  of  aims  one  starts  he  is  bound  soon  to  reach  and 
consider  the  other.  The  more  promising  approach,  however, 
is  the  social. 


II.  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

157.  The  functions  of  secondary  education.  For  present 
purposes  the  term  "functions"  is  employed  to  designate 
certain  elements  for  which  secondary  education  must  pro- 
vide if  the  aims  previously  formulated  are  to  be  attained. 
Those  functions  are  determined  in  part  by  the  nature  of 
society  and  in  part  by  the  nature  of  the  pupils  to  be  educated, 
factors  which  in  important  ways  condition  the  attainment 
of  the  aims  set.  If  we  conceive  of  the  aims  of  secondary 
education  as  the  ultimate  goals  which  it  is  to  attain  we  must 
recognize  that  certain  factors  must  be  involved  hi  the  at- 
tempt to  reach  those  goals.  Thus  we  may  conceive  of  the 
social-civic  aim  of  secondary  education  as  involving  prepa- 
ration for  efficient  participation  in  social-civic  life.  Many 
important  functions  are  therein  involved,  e.g.,  means  of 
adjusting  the  individual  and  his  social  environment,  the 
development  of  a  "social  mind"  and  social  cohesion  among 
groups  of  individuals,  the  adjustment  of  individual  differ- 
ences to  the  differentiated  needs  of  society,  control  of  the 
factor  of  selection  in  secondary  education,  educational, 
moral,  social,  and  vocational  guidance. 

The  remaining  sections  of  this  chapter  will  deal  with  the 
following  six  important  functions  of  secondary  education: 
(1)  the  adjustive  or  adaptive  function;  (2)  the  integrating 


376      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

function;  (3)  the  differentiating  function;  (4)  the  propae- 
deutic function;  (5)  the  selective  function;  (6)  the  diagnostic 
and  directive  function.  Their  relation  to  the  aims  of  second- 
ary education  will  appear  ijaore  clearly  from  the  following 
discussion. 

158.  The  adjustive  or  adaptive  function.  It  is  a  postulate 
of  the  social  aim  of  secondary  education  that  it  should  pro- 
vide means  for  the  adjustment  of  the  pupil  to  his  social 
environment.  In  section  143  (Chapter  IX)  it  was  maintained 
that  the  social  environment  to  which  the  secondary-school 
pupil  is  to  be  adjusted  is  dynamic,  not  static,  and  that  the 
rapidity  of  social  change  is  so  great  as  to  warrant  the  assump- 
tion that  the  social  environment  in  which  the  present  pupil 
is  later  to  live  will  in  important  respects  differ  from  that  of 
the  present.  The  course  of  social  evolution  shows  clearly 
that  for  any  one  generation  the  total  social  organization 
represents  a  composite  of  relatively  stable  and  constant 
elements  of  the  past  and  certain  elements  appropriate  to 
the  present.  It  also  implies  that  the  present  social  organiza- 
tion comprises  certain  elements  which  may  be  expected  to 
remain  relatively  stable  and  constant  in  the  near  future, 
and  others  which  we  may  confidently  expect  to  be  either 
entirely  lost  or  radically  modified.  This  suggests  that  mere 
adjustment  through  the  development  of  relatively  fixed 
habits  of  reaction  is  fairly  adequate  for  those  elements  which 
may  be  conceived  as  destined  in  all  likelihood  to  remain 
relatively  unchanged  in  their  essential  characteristics  within 
the  life  of  the  present  generation.  It  suggests  also,  however, 
that  adjustment  alone  (in  the  sense  of  the  establishment  of 
fixed  habits  of  reaction)  is  insufficient,  and  that  some  capac- 
ity for  readjustment  must  be  developed  if  the  individual  is 
to  be  prepared  for  the  changing  conditions  which  will  in- 
evitably come  during  his  life  after  the  period  of  formal 
education.  In  other  words,  the  adjustive  function  of  second- 


AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  377 

ary  education  includes  both  the  establishment  of  certain 
fixed  habits  of  reaction,  certain  fixed  standards  and  ideals, 
and  also  the  development  of  a  capacity  to  readjust  ade- 
quately to  the  changing  demands  of  Me.  Tempora  mutantur, 
el  nos  mutamur  in  illis,  is  true  with  regard  to  the  times;  it  is 
true  of  iis  only  in  a  collective  sense  and  to  the  extent  that 
readaptation  is  possible. 

159.  The  integrating  function.  In  section  144  (Chapter 
IX)  the  bearing  of  the  social  factors  of  integration  and  differ- 
entiation on  secondary  education  was  discussed.  It  was  there 
pointed  out  that  one  of  the  imperative  demands  made  by 
society  on  the  secondary  school  is  provision  for  the  develop- 
ment of  that  amount  of  like-mindedness,  of  unity  hi  thought, 
habits,  ideals,  and  standards,  requisite  for  social  cohesion 
and  social  solidarity.  From  this  arises  the  integrating  func- 
tion of  secondary  education,  which  in  this  country  particu- 
larly is  constantly  acquiring  greater  and  greater  importance 
for  a  number  of  reasons.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
the  following: 

(1)  The  increasing  complexity  of  life  in  a  modern  democ- 
racy constantly  increases  the  amount  of  common  knowledge, 
of  common  action,  and  common  ideals  necessary.   The  ele- 
mentary school  is  constantly  becoming  less  and  less  ade- 
quate for  this  need. 

(2)  The  increasing  heterogeneity  of  the  population  hi  this 
country  tends  constantly  to  increase  the  diversity  of  social 
heredity  and  therefore  to  render  the  process  of  social  inte- 
gration more  necessary  and  more  difficult. 

(3)  The  increasing  diversity  of  industrial  occupations  and 
of  living  conditions  tends  constantly  to  increase  the  forces 
of  differentiation  demanding  increased  forces  of  integration 
to  balance  and  compensate. 

(4)  Other  institutions  which  formerly  operated  as  inte- 
grating agencies  have  been  modified  in  such  a  way  as  to 


378     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

operate  with  diminished  force  in  that  direction  or  have 
proved  quite  inadequate  for  that  purpose  under  the  changed 
conditions  of  society:  e.g.,  the  Church  and  religion. 

To  conceive  that  the  factor  of  integration  is  of  importance 
in  connection  with  problems  of  "class  distinction"  only  is 
an  error.  Important  as  those  problems  are  for  a  democracy 
they  involve  but  a  part  only  of  a  more  fundamental  problem 
including  other  problems  of  social  integration. 

160.  The  differentiating  function.  The  integrating  func- 
tion must  at  all  times  be  conceived  as  correlated  with  the 
differentiating  function  of  secondary  education  and  the 
relation  between  the  two  functions  must  be  considered  as 
supplemental  rather  than  conflicting,  the  supplemental  rela- 
tion being  necessitated  by  the  relation  of  the  two  factors  of 
integration  and  differentiation  in  the  process  of  social  evolu- 
tion. As  the  integrating  function  of  secondary  education 
arises  out  of  the  necessity  of  developing  a  certain  amount  of 
homogeneity  out  of  the  heterogeneous  population  for  the 
purpose  of  assuring  social  solidarity,  so  the  differentiating 
function  of  secondary  education  arises  out  of  the  necessity 
of  taking  advantage  of  the  differences  among  individuals  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  social  efficiency. 

Two  facts  make  this  differentiating  function  in  secondary 
education  both  possible  and  necessary: 

(1)  Pupils  in  the  secondary  school  (the  raw  material  with 
which  secondary  education  must  perforce  deal  and  which 
conditions  its  operation)  differ  greatly  in  native  capacities, 
in  acquired  tendencies  (especially  as  conditioned  by  training 
outside  the  school),  in  interests  and  aptitudes.    Failure  to 
recognize  this  fundamental  fact  at  any  time  must  inevitably 
mean  failure  to  do  justice  to  the  individual  and  failure  to 
develop  the  highest  social  efficiency  out  of  the  raw  material 
available. 

(2)  The  diversified  needs  of  modern  industrial  and  social 


AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  379 

life  demand  preparation  for  widely  different  forms  of  activ- 
ity which  cannot  be  provided  for  all  individuals.  Moreover, 
if  such  universal  preparation  were  possible,  it  would  be 
extremely  wasteful  and  undesirable.  The  differentiated 
activities  of  life  demand  differentiated  education,  the  burden 
of  which,  as  far  as  formal  education  is  concerned,  must  be 
borne  by  the  secondary  school. 

161.  The  propaedeutic  function.  The  propaedeutic  func- 
tion of  secondary  education  is  merely  one  phase  of  the  adjus- 
tive  function,  having  reference  to  a  part  only  of  secondary- 
school  pupils  —  those  preparing  to  continue  their  formal 
education  in  some  higher  institution.  Preparation  for  such 
higher  education  cannot  be  considered  as  a  separate  aim  of 
secondary  education.  It  must  be  considered,  however,  as  a 
legitimate  function  of  secondary  education  in  the  case  of 
those  pupils  whose  preparation  for  the  attainment  of  the 
ultimate  aims  of  education  may  be  extended  over  a  longer 
period  of  time  than  that  of  the  great  majority.  The  general 
aims  of  the  education  of  such  pupils  remain  the  same  aims 
formulated  above,  namely,  the  social-civic  aim,  the  economic- 
vocational  aim,  and  the  individualistic-avocational  aim. 

A  number  of  factors,  however,  affect  the  attainment  of 
those  aims  in  the  case  of  the  pupils  who  will  continue  their 
formal  education  in  some  higher  institution.  A  more  inten- 
sive and  more  extensive  preparation  for  the  social-civic 
activities  is  possible;  preparation  for  vocational  activities  in 
its  direct  and  specific  form  is  deferred;  different  forms  of 
preparation  for  different  modes  of  leisure  are  possible  and 
justified;  a  somewhat  higher  selection  of  pupils  is  common, 
at  least  with  reference  to  social  and  economic  status.  As  the 
activities  of  such  pupils  will  "function"  differently  in  life 
after  the  period  of  formal  education,  so  must  the  function 
of  secondary  education  differ  somewhat  in  the  case  of  such 
pupils. 


380      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Common  practice  tends  either  to  over-estimate  or  to  under- 
estimate the  propaedeutic  function  of  secondary  education. 
In  the  past  this  function  has  commonly  received  altogether 
too  much  attention,  and  the  rather  definite  requirements  of 
preparation  for  higher  education  have  tended  to  overbalance 
the  whole  economy  of  secondary  education  in  this  country 
until  it  became  the  dominant  aim  of  the  secondary  school 
instead  of  occupying  its  legitimate  place  as  a  contributing 
function.  On  the  other  hand,  the  present  revolt  against  such 
a  domination  of  college  preparation  has  in  some  cases  led  to 
a  gross  under-estimate  of  the  importance  of  the  propaedeutic 
function  of  secondary  education.  This  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed in  section  128,  and  requires  no  further  considera- 
tion here,  except,  perhaps,  to  recall  the  fact  that  secondary- 
school  pupils  destined  to  continue  their  formal  education 
in  higher  institutions  comprise  the  largest  roughly  homo- 
geneous group  of  pupils  in  the  public  secondary  school  — 
homogeneous  in  the  sense  that  a  complete  secondary -school 
course  may  be  mapped  out  for  this  group  much  more  readily 
than  for  any  other  group  and  in  the  sense  that  a  rather 
definite  and  tangible  temporary  goal  may  be  set  up  for  their 
education.  Whatever  be  the  particular  form  that  the  artic- 
ulation between  secondary  education  and  higher  education 
may  eventually  assume,  it  must  be  recognized  that  prepara- 
tion for  higher  education  must  be  one  of  the  legitimate 
functions  of  secondary  education.  Nevertheless  it  must  also 
be  recognized  that  it  is  but  one  of  a  number  of  functions. 

162.  The  selective  function.  Selection  is  a  necessary 
function  of  any  form  of  education,  the  necessity  arising  from 
the  factor  of  individual  differences  which  become  an  increas- 
ingly important  factor  as  the  course  of  education  proceeds 
higher  and  makes  a  greater  demand  on  capacity.  It  was 
pointed  out  in  Chapter  III  that  individuals  differ  widely  in 
mental  traits.  In  so  far  as  those  differences  are  due  to  the 


AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  381 

limits  of  capacity  set  by  nature  and  to  rates  of  development 
also  determined  by  nature  it  is  clear  that,  as  education  de- 
mands more  and  more  capacity,  with  certain  individuals  the 
limits  of  then*  capacity  are  reached,  or,  what  is  more  com- 
mon, the  point  is  approached  at  which  given  possible 
amounts  of  training  produce  results  incommensurate  with 
the  amount  of  teaching  and  learning  energy  expended,  and 
the  point  of  diminishing  returns  is  reached.  No  amount  of 
training  can  ever  equalize  the  abilities  of  individuals  whose 
native  capacities  differ  to  any  marked  degree.  Hence  selec- 
tion must  inevitably  be  a  function  of  secondary  education. 

The  selective  function  of  secondary  education  may  be 
viewed  from  two  somewhat  different  but  related  aspects. 
From  one  aspect  selection  is  commonly  considered  as  in- 
volving the  elimination  of  those  individuals  who  are  unable 
to  meet  the  demands  set.  To  this  view  little  objection  could 
be  raised,  provided,  and  only  provided,  that  the  demands 
set  could  be  justified.  In  the  past  in  this  country  and  at 
present  in  some  countries  the  demands  set  were  largely 
based  on  the  assumption  that  ability  and  willingness  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  certain  specified  subjects  of  study  with 
limited  range  measure  intellectual  ability  in  general  —  a 
theory  which  itself  rests  on  the  further  assumption  that 
either  all  desirable  mental  traits  are  involved  hi  the  specific 
subjects  selected,  or  the  improvement  in  the  mental  traits 
involved  can  be  transferred  to  other  material.  Such  a  theory 
is  discussed  in  detail  in  later  sections.  For  the  present  it  is 
sufficient  to  state  that  the  theory  must  certainly  be  greatly 
modified  and  that  it  cannot  justify  emphasis  on  any  small 
number  of  subjects  in  the  secondary  school  as  affording 
adequate  training  for  all  or  as  affording  a  training  which  is 
susceptible  of  unlimited  transfer. 

In  contrast  to  selection  by  elimination  the  second  aspect 
of  the  selective  function  of  secondary  education  emphasizes 


382      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

selection  by  differentiation.  Its  justification  rests  on  two 
considerations:  (1)  that  individuals  differ  in  capacities,  inter- 
ests, and  the  nature  of  environmental  influences,  those 
differences  appearing  not  in  the  sum  total  of  mental  traits, 
but  in  the  various  mental  traits  as  related  to  each  other; 
(2)  that,  within  limits,  training  in  various  specific  mental 
traits  or  groups  of  traits  is  justified  from  a  social  viewpoint. 
In  terms  of  psychology  it  assumes  that  different  mental 
traits  are  found  in  different  individuals  in  different  degrees. 
In  terms  of  sociology  it  means  that  no  one  subject  or  group 
of  subjects  can  claim  exclusive  place  in  secondary  education 
and  that  different  subjects  or  groups  of  subjects  are  equally 
justified  from  the  viewpoint  of  social  economy.  In  terms  of 
school  practice  it  means  that  if  a  pupil  lacks  ability  or  inter- 
est in  one  field  of  study  but  possesses  ability  and  interest  in 
another,  discrimination  is  justified,  and,  particularly  in  the 
public  secondary  school,  that  pupil  has  a  right  to  receive 
education  in  fields  for  which  he  possesses  ability  and  interest. 
He  cannot  be  deprived  of  the  opportunity  for  education 
because  of  inability  or  lack  of  interest  in  some  officially 
favored  subject  or  subjects. 

163.  The  diagnostic  and  directive  function.  A  phase  of 
the  adjustive  function,  and  one  closely  related  to  the  selec- 
tive and  differentiating  functions,  is  the  diagnostic  and  direc- 
tive function  of  secondary  education.  Social  economy  and 
personal  efficiency  and  happiness  postulate  that  each  indi- 
vidual, as  far  as  may  be  possible,  should  do  what  he  can  best 
do.  The  determination  of  what  each  pupil  may  best  do  and 
what  he  may  do  with  the  greatest  efficiency  and  happiness 
cannot  be  accomplished  unless  he  is  brought  into  contact 
with  a  somewhat  wide  range  of  experiences,  in  large  part 
through  studies  in  the  secondary  school.  Hence  the  school 
must  provide  materials  to  acquaint  the  pupil  with  various 
activities  of  life,  must  give  him  some  opportunity  to  test 


AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  383 

out  and  explore  his  capacities  and  interests,  and  must  pro- 
vide some  direction  and  guidance  therefor.  The  mere  offer- 
ing of  various  forms  of  instruction  does  not  complete  the 
work  of  the  secondary  school.  It  must,  as  far  as  may  be 
possible,  add  to  that  function  the  function  of  exploring, 
testing,  diagnosing,  and  directing  the  education  of  the  pupil. 
It  must  permit  the  pupil  to  discover  and  test  his  own  special 
aptitudes  and  capacities,  and  must  assist  in  that  process 
through  a  thoroughgoing  system  of  educational  guidance, 
including  educational  guidance  and  direction  in  the  narrower 
sense,  moral  guidance,  social  guidance,  physical  guidance, 
and  vocational  guidance. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  In  this  chapter  the  aims  of  secondary  education  have  been  formulated 
from  the  social  viewpoint.    How  would  the  aims  be  modified  if  ap- 
proached from  the  individualistic  viewpoint? 

2.  How  would  a  religious  aim  be  related  to  the  aims  formulated  in  this 
chapter? 

8.  Compare  as  many  formulated  amis  of  secondary  education  as  you  can 
find.  (Cf.  the  references  following,  and  Ruediger,  W.  C.,  The  Principles 
of  Education,  pp.  86-90.) 

4.  How  is  moral  education  related  to  the  social-civic  aim  of  secondary 
education?  (Cf .  MacVannel,  J.  A.,  Outline  of  a  Course  in  the  Philosophy 
of  Education,  pp.  99-115;  Bagley,  W.  C.,  The  Educative  Process,  pp. 
40-65.) 

5.  Trace  each  of  the  formulated  aims  of  secondary  education  historically. 

6.  Consider  with  reference  to  secondary  education  the  classification  of  the 
activities  of  life  made  by  Spencer.  (Cf .  Spencer,  H.,  Education,  chap.  I, 
pp.  17-22  (Burt  edition).) 

7.  In  connection  with  the  adjustive  aim  of  secondary  education  show  how 
the  development  of  fixed  habits  of  reaction  are  related  to  the  develop- 
memt  of  adaptability. 

8.  Show  how  the  integrating  function  of  secondary  education  affects  the 
attainment  of  the  social-civic  aim.    What  relation  does  it  have  to  the 
other  aims? 

9.  Show  how  the  differentiating  function  of  secondary  education  is  related 
to  the  economic-vocational  aim.  What  relation  does  it  have  to  the  other 
aims? 

10.  Trace  the  history  of  the  propaedeutic  function  of  secondary  education- 


384      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

11.  Compare  the  operation  of  the  selective  function  of  secondary  education 
in  Germany,  France,  England,  and  America. 

12.  What  are  the  present  tendencies  of  the  diagnostic  function  of  secondary 
education  in  the  United  States? 

13.  What  are  the  present  tendencies  of  the  directive  function  of  secondary 
education? 

14.  What  bearing  does  the  relation  between  the  integrating  and  the  differ- 
entiating functions  of  secondary  education  have  on  problems  of  organi- 
zation in  the  American  secondary  school  ?  On  the  administration  of  the 
curriculum  and  course  of  study? 

15.  What  bearing  does  the  selective  function  of  secondary  education  have 
on  the  American  secondary  school? 

16.  What  effects  has  the  neglect  of  the  diagnostic  and  directive  functions 
had  on  secondary  education  in  this  country? 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Colvin,  S.  S.,  An  Introduction  to  High-School  Teaching,  chap.  i. 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  The  Educative  Process,  chap,  m,  pp.  40-65. 

Davis,  C.  O.,  High-School  Courses  of  Study,  pp.  1-11. 

Hanus,  P.  H.,  Educational  Aims  and  Values,  chap,  rv,  pp.  73-138. 

Henderson,  E.  N.,  Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  1-24,  478-501. 

Inglis,  A.  J.,  "The  Socialization  of  the  High  School,"   Teachers  College 

Record,  vol.  xvi,  pp.  205-16. 
National    Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of 

Secondary  Education,  Report   of  the  Revieunng  Committee,  Bureau    of 

Education  Bulletin. 

Parker,  S.  C.,  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,  chap,  n,  pp.  5-24. 
Rapeer,  L.  W.,  "A  Core  Curriculum  for  High  Schools,"  School  and  Society, 

vol.  v,  pp.  541-49. 

Ruediger,  W.  C.,  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  38-90. 
Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xn. 
Snedden  D.,  in  Seventy-Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of 

Education  (January,  1914),  pp.  88-119. 
Snedden,  D.,  chap,  xxi  (pp.  745-74)  of  Monroe,  P.  (Editor),  Principles  of 

Secondary  Education. 
Stout,  J.  E.,  The  High  School,  chaps,  n-vm,  pp.  14-87. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  —  CRITERIA  OF  SUBJECT 
VALUES:  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  PROGRAM 

164.  Subject  values  determined  by  aims  and  functions. 
The  value  of  any  subject  of  study  for  secondary  education 
is  to  be  determined  and  measured  by  the  degree  in  which  it 
may  contribute  to  the  attainment  of  the  aims  of  secondary 
education  and  meet  the  demands  of  the  functions  of  the 
secondary  school.  In  the  preceding  chapter  those  aims  were 
formulated  as:  (1)  the  social-civic  aim,  involving  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  individual  with  respect  to  his  social  efficiency 
in  the  narrower  sense  of  that  term;  (2)  the  economic-voca- 
tional aim,  involving  the  preparation  of  the  individual  with 
respect  to  his  economic  efficiency;  and  (3)  the  individualistic- 
avocational  aim,  involving  the  preparation  of  the  individual 
with  respect  to  the  worthy  utilization  of  his  leisure  time. 
Hence  the  value  of  any  subject  of  study  is  to  be  measured 
according  to  the  degree  in  which  it  may  contribute  directly 
or  indirectly  to  the  attainment  of  those  desired  ends,  and 
the  aims  or  purposes  of  any  accepted  subject  of  study  in  the 
secondary  school  are  to  be  determined  accordingly. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  the  aims  of  secondary  education 
were  formulated  in  general  terms  only,  a  necessary  condition 
in  formulating  aims  designed  to  hold  at  all  times  and  in  all 
places  and  a  necessity  resulting  from  our  present  lack  of 
social,  economic,  physiological,  and  psychological  data. 
Aims  formulated  in  that  way  can  be  of  service  for  general 
guidance  only  and  must  be  analyzed  and  interpreted  in 
particular  terms  before  any  adequate  attempt  can  be  made 
to  measure  the  specific  values  of  special  subjects  of  study  in 


388      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

secondary  education.  Thus  we  may  set  the  preparation  of 
the  individual  as  a  prospective  worker  or  producer  as  one 
essential  aim  of  the  secondary  school,  but  before  any  such 
preparation  can  be  accomplished  with  satisfactory  results 
it  will  be  necessary  for  us  to  have  knowledge  of  the  specific 
capacities,  skills,  knowledges,  and  acquired  habits  required 
by  the  various  vocational  processes  and  knowledge  of  the 
special  abilities,  skills,  knowledges,  and  habits  which  may 
be  developed  through  the  study  of  various  subjects.  Like- 
wise with  the  preparation  of  the  individual  for  the  other 
activities  of  life.  Needless  to  say  the  sciences  of  sociology, 
economics,  physiology,  and  psychology  in  the  present  stage 
of  their  development  cannot  begin  to  afford  us  the  necessary 
data  for  such  purposes  and  we  are  forced,  therefore,  to  fall 
back  on  more  or  less  empirical  analysis  of  the  problem,  util- 
izing the  results  of  accepted  special  principles  of  the  sciences 
mentioned  where  they  are  available  and  where  such  special 
principles  fail  falling  back  on  the  general  principles  estab- 
lished in  those  fields. 

In  the  chapters  immediately  following  the  present  chap- 
ter, analyses  of  special  subjects  of  study  in  the  secondary 
school  are  attempted.  In  this  chapter  attention  will  be 
devoted  to  certain  general  principles  underlying  the  deter- 
mination of  the  program  of  studies.  In  particular  the  dis- 
cussion will  concern:  I.  Direct  Values;  II.  Indirect  Values. 

I.  DIRECT  VALUES 

165.  Direct  values.  By  direct  values  are  meant  here  those 
values  which  arise  out  of  the  fact  that  the  specific  abilities, 
knowledges,  skills,  etc.,  developed  in  and  through  a  subject 
of  study  in  the  secondary  school  are  directly  and  immediately 
applicable  in  certain  phases  of  activity  in  life.  Thus  the 
elements  of  skill  developed  through  the  study  of  stenography 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  389 

or  typewriting  are  directly  applicable  in  certain  very  similar 
activities  outside  the  school.  Thus  the  use  of  the  mother 
tongue  has  direct  value.  Thus  the  association  5  X  6  =  30 
has  direct  value  for  life. 

Direct  values  are  so  obvious  that  the  ready  acceptance  of 
them  is  likely  to  lead  us  to  overlook  certain  facts  that  are 
involved.  It  is  probable  that  no  subject  of  study  which  is  a 
serious  candidate  for  membership  in  the  program  of  studies 
of  the  secondary  school  is  wholly  without  some  direct  values 
for  the  real  activities  of  life.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the 
problem  must  always  concern  the  amount  of  direct  value 
involved.  It  is  obvious  also  that  the  amount  of  direct  values 
found  in  any  given  subject  must  depend  on  the  proportion 
of  all  individuals  who  may  find  occasion  for  the  application 
of  the  abilities,  knowledges,  skills,  etc.,  developed  through 
the  study  of  a  given  subject  and  the  number  of  occasions  in 
which  they  may  apply.  In  other  words  direct  values  are 
relative,  a  fact  obvious  enough  and  yet  a  fact  which  has 
frequently  been  ignored  by  educational  experts  and  one 
which  is  seldom  recognized  by  teachers  and  pupils.  Several 
misconceptions  arising  out  of  a  failure  to  recognize  the 
relativity  of  direct  values  are  important  enough  to  require 
special  consideration. 

(1)  One  fallacy  very  common  in  educational  theory  and 
practice  arises  out  of  the  failure  to  recognize  a  distinction 
between  (a)  fields  of  knowledge  or  skill  which  are  of  inesti- 
mable value  to  society  and  to  civilization  in  their  extended 
development  through  relatively  few  specialists,  and  (6)  fields 
of  knowledge  or  skill  which  are  directly  valuable  for  all  or  a 
majority  of  individuals.  In  arguments  for  the  direct  values 
of  many  subjects  (especially  the  material  sciences)  the  advo- 
cates of  those  subjects  of  study  for  the  secondary  school  con- 
stantly emphasize  the  great  contributions  which  those 
sciences  have  made  to  the  advance  of  society  and  civiliza- 


390      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

tion  and  tend  to  ignore  the  fact  that  those  contributions 
have  always  come  through  the  specialist.  The  fallacy  in- 
volved is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  numerous  falla- 
cies found  in  the  analysis  of  subject  values  made  by  Spencer 
in  his  essay  on  "What  Knowledge  Is  Of  Most  Worth?  "  One 
may  readily  grant  the  values  of  any  given  science  for  society 
and  the  necessity  of  a  knowledge  of  that  science  on  the  part 
of  some  individuals  for  the  advantage  of  all  individuals, 
without  thereby  accepting  the  theory  that  all  individuals 
should  receive  training  in  that  science. 

(2)  Closely  related  to  the  first  fallacy  considered  above  is 
a  second  common  fallacy  which  consists  in  a  failure  to  dis- 
tinguish between  values  of  production  and  values  of  con- 
sumption, between  values  of  accomplishment  and  values  of 
utilization.  Many  subjects  of  study  which  are  of  almost 
universal  value  from  the  viewpoint  of  a  development  of 
efficiency  in  consumption,  utilization,  and  appreciation, 
have  but  very  restricted  value  from  the  viewpoint  of  a 
development  of  efficiency  in  production  and  accomplish- 
ment. Thus  it  is  a  fact  that  all  individuals  must  to  some 
extent  utilize  the  force  of  electricity  and  the  ability  to  utilize 
the  results  of  the  science  dealing  with  electricity  is  required 
of  all  individuals  so  that  some  universal  values  follow.  This 
does  not  mean,  however,  that  all  individuals  must  be 
acquainted  with  the  science  of  physics  or  even  that  part 
which  deals  with  electricity  any  more  than  they  need  ac- 
quaintance with  the  subject  of  physics  in  order  to  apply  the 
mechanics  involved  in  walking.  We  may  assume  that 
nearly  every  individual  is  affected  by  the  use  of  electricity 
directly  in  a  large  number  of  his  everyday  activities  through 
the  utilization  of  the  electric  light,  the  electric  car,  the  tele- 
phone, telegraph,  and  a  multitude  of  other  applied  forms  of 
that  force.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  such  utilization 
requires  nothing  more  than  such  simple  kinds  of  knowledge 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  391 

and  skill  as  are  involved  in  pushing  a  button  for  light,  pay- 
ing one's  fare  on  the  car,  avoiding  "live"  wires,  using  the 
telephone  receiver  and  transmitter,  writing  out  a  tele- 
graphic message,  etc.  —  abilities  which  demand  no  exten- 
sive study  of  physics  and  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  have  less 
to  do  directly  with  electricity  than  with  other  kinds  of  knowl- 
edge and  skill.  Expertness  in  production  or  accomplish- 
ment, in  technical  knowledge  of  processes,  is  not  a  necessary 
condition  of  expertness  in  consumption,  or  utilization,  or 
appreciation,  and  the  universality  of  use,  consumption,  or 
appreciation  is  no  measure  of  universality  of  production, 
technical  knowledge  and  skill,  or  accomplishment.  All  people 
wear  shoes  and  it  is  necessary  that  every  individual  should 
have  some  knowledge  of  the  way  in  which  shoes  should  be 
worn  or  what  may  be  expected  of  shoes  in  the  way  of  looks 
and  wear.  It  would  be  absurd,  however,  to  measure  the 
importance  of  a  knowledge  on  the  part  of  all  people  of  the 
production  of  shoes  by  the  importance  of  their  use,  and  it  is 
just  as  absurd  to  measure  the  values  of  subjects  of  study  (as 
far  as  direct  values  are  concerned)  in  terms  of  the  univer- 
sality of  the  use  or  consumption  of  their  products.  What  all 
people  use  they  need  to  be  trained  how  to  use  to  the  extent 
only  of  their  actual  use.  For  efficient  use,  however,  no  exten- 
sive study  of  most  fields  of  knowledge  is  requisite  for  most 
people. 

(3)  A  third  fallacy  not  infrequently  found  is  one  which 
involves  a  failure  to  distinguish  between  certain  and  con- 
tingent values,  a  failure  to  recognize  the  relativity  of  values 
based  on  the  probability  that  circumstances  will  occur  in  the 
lives  of  given  individuals  where  specified  kinds  of  knowledge 
or  skill  may  be  of  service.1  Studies  which  may  be  of  great 
value  to  individuals  on  the  contingency  that  they  come  into 

1  The  distinction  is  well  drawn  by  Young,  J.  W.  A.,  Tlie  Teaching  of 
Mathematics,  pp.  13-14. 


892      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

contact  with  unforeseen  situations,  may  be  of  little  value 
unless  they  actually  meet  with  those  situations.  The  direct 
values  of  the  study  of  secondary-school  mathematics  or 
foreign  languages  are  highly  contingent  for  the  majority  of 
pupils  at  present  engaged  in  their  study. 

(4)  A  fourth  fallacy  frequently  found  hi  estimating  the 
values  of  most  subjects  of  study  hi  the  secondary  school 
involves  a  failure  to  distinguish  between  the  values  attach- 
ing to  certain  parts  only  of  any  given  subject  and  the  values 
attaching  to  the  whole  related  field  of  knowledge  as  organ- 
ized into  a  logical  system.  The  fallacy  arises  somewhat  as 
follows:  element  A  is  recognized  as  possessing  universal 
values  for  direct  application  hi  life:  element  A  belongs  to 
that  field  of  organized  knowledge  which  goes  under  the  name 
of  English,  mathematics,  science,  etc. :  On  this  basis  English, 
mathematics,  science,  etc.,  is  introduced  into  the  program 
of  studies.  Once  introduced  a  multitude  of  other  elements 
(B,  C,  D,  E,  etc.)  are  introduced  under  the  general  subject 
title  and  values  attached  to  them  which  may  belong  legiti- 
mately to  element  A  alone.  In  so  far  as  element  A  depends 
for  its  functioning  on  the  other  elements  involved  such  a 
process  may  be  justified  within  limits.  Not  infrequently, 
however,  the  spread  of  borrowed  values  is  quite  illegitimate. 

From  the  considerations  adduced  above  it  is  clear  that  the 
direct  values  of  any  field  of  study  in  the  secondary  school 
are  to  be  measured  according  to : 

(a)  The  proportion  of  all  individuals  in  whose  lives  situ- 
ations will  arise  calling  for  the  direct  application  of  such 
knowledges,' abilities,  skills,  etc.,  as  are  involved  in  that  field 
of  study.  Are  the  values  universal?  If  not,  to  what  propor- 
tion of  all  individuals  will  they  in  all  probability  apply? 
Are  they  effective  through  the  specialist  or  through  all 
individuals? 

(6)  The  number  of  occasions  in  the  lives  of  individuals 


393 

where  the  knowledges,  etc.,  will  apply.  Are  the  values  cer- 
tain or  contingent?  Is  the  likelihood  great  or  small  that 
provocative  situations  will  occur  in  the  lives  of  many 
individuals? 

(c)  The  character  of  the  responses  called  for  by  situations 
in  life.  Are  they  such  as  to  demand  efficiency  in  production, 
accomplishment  and  thorough  knowledge,  or  efficiency  in 
consumption,  utilization,  and  appreciation? 

(d)  The  relation  of  the  particular  elements  of  approved 
value  to  the  entire  field  of  knowledge  to  which  they  belong. 
Are  the  various  constituent  elements  which  go  to  make  up 
the  body  of  any  field  of  knowledge  or  any  science  (in  the 
general  sense)  extensive  enough  or  closely  enough  interre- 
lated to  justify  the  study  of  the  general  field  as  an  organized 
and  logically  determined  science?   Are  they  isolated  values 
or  dependent  values? 

(e)  The  extent  to  which  pre-secondary  education  or  the 
informal  education  of  life  does  not  and  cannot  adequately 
provide  training  in  the  elements  desired;  e.g.,  how  much 
direct  value  in  mathematics  is  to  be  found  for  pupils  in 
general  after  arithmetic  has  been  successfully  studied? 

(/)  The  extent  to  which  various  elements  of  a  given  sub- 
ject, not  to  any  great  degree  directly  applicable  to  situations 
in  life,  may  be  of  value  for  training  in  subjects  or  elements 
of  subjects  which  are  of  direct  application  in  life;  e.g.,  to 
what  extent  are  the  elements  of  algebra  or  geometry  of 
value  in  the  pursuit  of  other  subjects  which  may  have  more 
direct  bearing  on  life  for  the  majority  of  individuals? 

It  is  obvious  that  any  exact  analysis  of  these  factors  is 
quite  impossible  in  the  present  state  of  our,  knowledge.  In 
a  general  way,  however,  it  is  possible  to  apply  these  criteria 
at  least  to  the  extent  that  we  may  be  able  to  avoid  dogmatic 
statement  where  the  fallacies  mentioned  may  be  and  fre- 
quently are  involved.  In  the  chapters  on  the  values  of  the 


394     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

various  subjects  of  the  program  of  studies  in  the  secondary 
school  these  criteria  will  be  applied  as  measures  of  the  direct 
values  of  the  different  subjects. 


II.  INDIRECT  VALUES 

166.  The  transfer  of  improved  efficiency.  Throughout 
the  history  of  secondary  education  certain  subjects  of  study 
have  occupied  prominent  positions  in  the  secondary-school 
program  on  the  basis  of  an  assumption,  implied  or  explicitly 
stated,  that  valuable  general  abilities  may  be  developed 
through  training  in  specific  fields.  Until  relatively  recent 
times  such  an  assumption  necessarily  followed  from  the 
prevailing  theory  of  "faculty  psychology,"  which  postulated 
that  the  mind  was  made  up  of  a  number  of  practically  inde- 
pendent "faculties,"  such  as  the  faculty  of  memory,  the 
faculty  of  attention,  the  faculty  of  reasoning,  and  the  like. 
It  was  held  that  these  independent  "faculties"  trained 
through  exercise  on  any  given  kind  of  material  might  then 
be  employed  in  their  improved  efficiency  on  any  other 
material,  just  as  the  muscles  of  the  body  trained  by  any 
given  kind  of  exercise  might  be  employed  in  their  improved 
efficiency  on  any  other  form  of  exercise  or  labor.  With  the 
rise  of  modern  psychology  the  theory  of  "faculty  psychol- 
ogy" was  relegated  to  the  limbo  of  discarded  absurdities 
and  the  necessity  arose  for  a  reexamination  of  indirect  or 
general  values  and  the  statement  of  such  values  in  terms  of 
modern  psychological  theory.  Such  a  reexamination  involves 
the  consideration  of  at  least  four  related  problems: 

(1)  Is  it  possible  that  efficiency  improved  through  exer- 
cise on  material  (in  studies)  of  one  kind  may  be  applied  to 
material  in  a  different  field?  Is  there  such  a  thing  as  the 
transfer  or  spread  of  improved  efficiency?  (2)  If  such 
transfer  or  spread  of  improved  efficiency  is  possible,  what  is 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  395 

the  mode  of  its  operation?  (3)  If  it  is  possible,  what  is  its 
probable  extent?  (4)  If  it  is  possible,  are  there  any  subjects 
of  study  which  possess  important  transfer  values? 

167.  Is  transfer  or  spread  a  reality?  In  spite  of  the  severe 
attacks  which  have  been  directed  against  theories  of  the 
transfer  or  spread  of  improved  efficiency,  apparently  no  one 
denies  its  existence  and  the  first  problem  propounded  may 
be  answered  at  once  in  the  affirmative.  Thus,  as  representing 
two  opposing  schools  of  thought  as  far  as  other  problems  of 
transfer  values  are  concerned,  we  may  note  the  agreement 
of  Thorndike  and  Judd.  Thus  Thorndike  states: l 

No  one  can  doubt  that  all  of  the  ordinary  forms  of  home  or  school 
training  have  some  influence  upon  mental  traits  in  addition  to  the 
specific  changes  which  they  make  in  the  particular  function  the 
improvement  of  which  is  their  direct  object.  On  the  other  hand, 
no  careful  observer  would  assert  that  the  influence  upon  the  other 
mental  traits  is  comparable  in  amount  to  that  upon  the  direct 
object  of  training.  — The  real  question  is  not,  'Does  improvement 
of  one  function  alter  others?'  but,  'To  what  extent,  and  how, 
does  it?' 

And  Judd:2 

Special  emphasis  may  furthermore  be  laid  on  the  fact  that  there 
is  no  one  who  denies  that  some  kind  of  transfer  takes  place.  The 
real  questions  at  issue  are  what  is  the  degree  of  transfer  and  what 
is  its  method? 

As  stated  in  the  two  quotations  the  vital  problems  be- 
come: What  of  the  manner  in  which  transfer  or  spread  of 
improved  efficiency  takes  place?  and,  Is  the  extent  of  trans- 
fer or  spread  sufficient  to  warrant  any  emphasis  on  it  in 
determining  the  relative  values  of  subjects  of  study  in  the 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Psychology  of  Learning,  p.  358.   This  and  follow- 
ing quotations  are  made  with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Teachers 
College  Bureau  of  Publications. 

2  Judd,  C.  H.,  The  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects,  p.  404.    Quoted 
with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Ginn  and  Company. 


396      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

school?  We  may  proceed  at  once,  therefore,  to  the  consid- 
eration of  those  two  problems  which  are,  of  course,  closely 
related. 

1 68.  What  is  the  mode  of  transfer  or  spread?  Considera- 
tion of  this  problem  may  be  introduced  by  quotations  illus- 
trating two  "  diametrically  opposed  "  views.    Thus  Thorn 
dike:1 

The  answer  which  I  shall  try  to  defend  is  that  a  change  in  one 
function  alters  any  other  only  in  so  far  as  the  two  functions  have 
as  factors  identical  elements.  The  change  in  the  second  function  is 
in  amount  that  due  to  the  change  in  the  elements  common  to  it 
and  the  first.  The  change  is  simply  the  necessary  result  upon  the 
second  function  of  the  alteration  of  those  of  its  factors  which  were 
elements  of  the  first  function,  and  so  were  altered  by  its  training. . . . 

Chief  amongst  such  identical  elements  of  practical  importance 
in  education. are  associations  including  ideas  about  aims  and  ideas 
of  method  and  general  principles,  and  associations  involving  ele- 
mentary facts  of  experience  such  as  length,  color,  number,  which 
are  repeated  again  and  again  in  different  combinations. 

By  identical  elements  are  meant  mental  processes  which  have 
the  same  cell  action  in  the  brain  as  their  physical  correlate. 

Quite  different  is  this  from  the  theory  of  Judd  that  "  trans- 
fer depends  on  the  power  of  generalization  "  which  empha- 
sizes the  fact  that  the  power  to  generalize  on  the  basis  of 
specific  experience  is  an  original  datum  of  the  mind,  always 
potential  but  depending  for  its  emergence  on  training. 

When  one  studies  the  psychology  of  generalization  he  becomes 
aware  of  the  uselessness  of  some  of  the  formulas  which  have  been 
proposed  by  those  who  hold  that  transfer  of  training  takes  place 
in  cases  where  there  are  identical  elements  present.  The  identical 
element  is  usually  contributed  by  the  generalizing  mind.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  may  be  identical  elements  potentially  present  in 
various  situations,  but  wholly  unobserved  by  the  untrained  or 
lethargic  mind.  In  fact,  the  discovery  of  the  identical  element  in  a 
situation  is  in  some  cases  the  whole  problem  of  training.2 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  35»-59.     2  Judd,  C.  H.,  op.  cit.,  p.  414. 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  397 

In  the  same  fashion  we  may  show  that  the  principles  of  intel- 
lectual economy  which  Thorndike  frequently  includes  in  his  state- 
ment of  identical  modes  of  procedure,  namely,  the  principles  that 
one  can  learn  to  avoid  distractions  of  all  sorts,  or  that  he  can  refuse 
to  give  up  a  piece  of  work  even  when  it  is  uncomfortable,  represent 
generalized  identities  of  procedure  which  are  not  always  realized. 
In  all  these  cases  we  must  distinguish  sharply  between  the  possi- 
bility of  identical  modes  of  procedure  and  the  actual  achievement 
of  this  identity.  Such  an  achievement  depends  upon  the  exercise 
of  trained  intelligence.  The  existence  of  possible  modes  of  proce- 
dure does  not  invariably  lead  to  their  realization  in  fact.1 

These  views  have  been  presented,  not  for  the  purpose  of 
analysis  or  criticism,  but  as  illustrative  of  different  ap- 
proaches to  the  problem  of  the  method  by  which  the  trans- 
fer or  spread  of  improved  efficiency  operates.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  problem  in  the  following  sections  involves  some 
of  the  elements  found  in  the  theory  of  Thorndike  and  some 
found  in  the  theory  of  Judd.  To  the  writer,  at  least,  the  two 
theories  formulated  by  those  psychologists  are  by  no  means 
irreconcilable  in  all  respects. 

169.  Transfer  or  spread  dependent  on  dissociation. 
No  two  situations  hi  life  calling  for  action  on  the  part  of  any 
individual  are  ever  exactly  alike  in  all  respects.  Hence 
training  for  an  absolutely  fixed  and  specific  reaction  to  any 
given  situation  is  an  impossible  and  valueless  process. 
Strictly  speaking  there  is  no  such  thing  as  specific  discipline. 
Fortunately  for  the  economy  of  mental  life  and  efficiency 
in  behavior  it  is  possible  for  the  mind  to  select  certain  parts 
of  any  total  situation  and  react  to  those  parts  with  a  mini- 
mum of  attention  to  other  parts  of  the  total  situation. 
Since  such  parts  of  total  situations  may  be  essentially  the 
same  it  is  possible  to  establish  what  in  all  important  respects 
are  specific  situation-response  connections,  and  hence  it  is 
possible  to  assign  values  to  specific  discipline.  However, 
1  Judd,  C.  H.,  op.  cit.,  p.  416. 


398      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

through  this  same  characteristic  of  the  human  mind  comes 
also  the  possibility  of  abstracting  from  a  number  of  total 
specific  situations,  differing  with  respect  to  most  of  their, 
constituent  elements,  any  given  element  which  may  be  com- 
mon to  all  the  total  situations  or  a  majority  of  them.  Thus 
we  get  the  law  of  dissociation  expressed  by  Thorndike  as 
follows:  * 

Any  element  of  mental  life  which  is  felt  as  a  part  of  many  total 
mental  states,  differing  in  all  else  save  its  presence,  comes  thereby 
to  be  felt  as  an  idea  by  itself,  and  any  movement  which  has  been 
made  as  a  part  of  many  complex  movements  differing  in  all  else 
save  its  presence  comes  thereby  to  be  made  as  a  movement  by 
itself. 

It  is  upon  this  process  of  dissociation  that  the  abstraction 
of  any  general  law,  idea,  principle,  method,  or  the  like  must 
rest  and  the  process  of  developing  abstract  or  general  ideas 
is  a  process  of  dissociation.  Since  the  law  itself  is  but  an 
expression  of  a  mode  of  mental  life  which  is  innate  it  merely 
expresses  the  "power  of  generalization"  which  is  innate  in 
the  human  mind  and  must  be  considered  as  an  original 
datum  without  which  the  growth  of  mental  life  would  be 
impossible. 

The  basis  of  the  transfer  or  spread  of  improved  efficiency 
is  found  in  this  law  of  dissociation  or  generalization.  Just 
as  a  knowledge  of  sixness  is  acquired  from  experiencing 
its  manifestation  in  six  apples,  six  marbles,  six  men,  etc., 
just  as  a  knowledge  of  whiteness  is  acquired  from  experienc- 
ing its  manifestation  in  white  paper,  white  paint,  white 
snow,  white  cats,  etc.,  just  as  the  meaning  of  number  is 
acquired  from  experiencing  its  various  manifestations  in  two 
objects,  ten  objects,  etc.,  just  as  a  concept  of  honesty  is 
acquired  from  its  manifestation  in  divers  forms;  just  as  a 
general  principle  of  grammar,  of  mathematics,  of  science,  of 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Elements  of  Psychology,  p.  217  (2d  edition,  1907). 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  399 

economics,  is  acquired  by  experiencing  its  manifestation  in 
varying  circumstances,  —  just  so  an  idea  of  accuracy,  an 
ideal  of  thoroughness,  a  concept  of  method,  a  habit  of  work, 
or  the  like,  may  be  abstracted  from  its  manifestation  in 
varied  fields  and  may  be  generalized  on  the  basis  of  differ- 
ing specific  experiences.  In  all  these  cases  the  funda 
mental  process  is  the  same  and  the  method  of  transfer  or 
spread  of  improved  efficiency  is  nothing  more,  nothing  less, 
than  the  ordinary  process  of  dissociation  or  generalization. 

Whether  or  not  dissociation  or  generalization  takes  place 
depends  on  two  factors  —  the  mental  attitude  or  "  mind- 
set" which  the  individual  brings  to  the  situation,  and  the 
character  of  the  situation  experienced.  Subjective  elements 
are  no  less  important  than  objective  elements.  It  is  per- 
fectly possible  for  generalization  to  be  potential  in  any  set 
of  situations  without  that  generalization  taking  place  be- 
cause of  the  mind's  attention  to  other  elements  than  those 
involved  in  the  dissociative  element.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  perfectly  possible  for  the  mental  attitude  to  project  into 
objective  situations  a  generalizing  factor  that  is  not  highly 
fostered  by  the  situation  itself  apart  from  subjective  ele- 
ments, though  always  there  must  be  something  hi  the  objec- 
tive situation  to  which  the  mind-set  may  be  attached. 

170.  Factors  which  foster  and  facilitate  dissociation. 
While  dissociation  and  generalization  are  normal  processes 
of  the  human  mind  and  while  they  may  be  expected  to 
operate  with  or  without  direction  in  the  school,  it  is  also  true 
that  certain  factors  may  be  arranged  as  to  foster  and  facili- 
tate the  processes.  The  essential  factors  involved  are  four: J 

(1)  A  number  of  total  situations  must  be  experienced  il 
which  (a)  the  element  to  be  dissociated  and  general- 
ized is  present  in  prominence,  and  (6)  the  other  ele 
ments  of  the  situation  vary; 

1  Cf.  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Principles  of  Teaching,  p.  135. 


400     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

(2)  The  element  to  be  dissociated  and  generalized  must  be 
brought  into  the  field  of  focal  attention; 

(3)  The  element  to  be  dissociated  and  generalized  must 
be  of  such  a  character  that  it  may  be  held  in  the  mind 
as  a  separate  element.    This  is  commonly  facilitated 
when  a  distinguishing  name  or  other  symbol  may  be 
attached,  or  when  a  generalized  definition  or  law  is 
formulated; 

(4)  Practice  must  be  given  in  applying  the  dissociated 
and  generalized  element  in  new  situations. 

Since  dissociation  is  the  basis  of  the  transfer  or  spread  of 
improved  efficiency  and  since  the  extensive  operation  of 
dissociation  is  fostered  by  these  factors,  it  is  clear  that  any 
subject  of  study  which  does  not  permit  the  organization  of 
materials  in  teaching  so  as  to  meet  the  conditions  suggested 
cannot  be  expected  to  offer  the  most  favorable  opportunities 
for  transfer.  Further,  it  is  clear  that,  as  far  as  indirect  val- 
ues are  concerned,  subjects  of  study  may  to  some  extent  be 
measured  according  to  the  degree  in  which  those  conditions 
can  be  met.  Moreover,  since  the  method  by  which  material 
is  presented  is  also  involved  in  meeting  'those  conditions,  it 
follows  that  transfer  cannot  be  expected  to  operate  most 
effectively,  unless  both  subject-matter  and  the  method  of 
teaching  are  adapted  to  the  conditions  favoring  the  process 
of  dissociation  and  generalization.  Hence  the  emphasis  by 
Judd  and  Sleight  on  the  importance  of  teaching  method 
in  connection  with  the  problems  of  transfer.1 

171.  The  above  principles  illustrated.  The  principles 
above  outlined  may  be  understood  more  clearly  if  applied 
to  studies  in  the  secondary  school.  Prominent  among  the 
conditions  necessary  to  facilitate  the  transfer  of  any  idea, 
principle,  method,  law,  ideal,  or  the  like,  is  that  which  de- 

1  Judd.,  op.  tit.,  pp.  423-24,  432 /.;  Sleight,  W.  G.,  Educational  Values 
and  Methods,  p.  171. 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  401 

mands  that  the  element  to  be  dissociated  and  generalized 
must  remain  essentially  constant  and  that  the  other  ele- 
ments which  are  constituents  of  the  total  situations  must 
vary.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  two  or  more  elements  remain 
constant,  the  resulting  tendency  is  for  those  elements  to  be 
bound  together  more  and  more  closely.  Thus,  let  it  be 
assumed  that  we  wish  to  dissociate  tiic  element  A  from  a 
number  of  total  situations  all  of  which  contain  that  one  ele- 
ment, but  always  in  connection  with  other  elements.  Now, 
as  long  as  the  total  situations  have  A  as  the  only  important 
constant  element,  conditions  are  favorable  for  the  abstrac- 
tion of  A  as  a  separate  element.  Thus  in  the  total  situations 
represented  by  the  following  combinations  of  elements, — 

(1)  A  B  C  D  E  F 

(2)  A  G  H  I   J  K 

(3)  A  L  M  N  O  P 

(4)  A  Q  R  S  T  U 

(-)  etc.,  etc., 

conditions  are  favorable  for  the  dissociation  of  the  element 
A,  the  only  element  common  to  all.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
two  elements,  A  and  B,  are  constant  in  the  total  situations 
experienced,  the  resulting  tendency  will  be  to  dissociate 
those  elements  together,  and  further  to  establish  a  strong 
association  between  A  and  B,  so  that  the  two  elements  are 
grouped  and  neither  A  nor  B  is  dissociated  by  itself.  Thus 
in  such  total  situations  as  may  be  represented  by  the  com- 
binations of  elements, — 

(1)  A  B  C  D  E  F 

(2)  A  B  G  H  I  J 

(3)  A  B  K  L  M  N 

(4)  A  B  O  Q  P  R 

(-)  etc.,  etc., 

conditions  are  favorable  for  the  dissociation  of  AB  but  not 
of  A  or  B  alone,  and  the  conditions  favor  the  constant 


402      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

association  of  the  two  elements  which  remain  constant  in 
the  total  situations  experienced. 

In  the  majority,  if  not  all,  of  the  subjects  of  study  in  the 
secondary  school  this  is  precisely  the  situation  which  arises  to 
limit  the  transfer  or  spread  of  improved  efficiency,  partly  as 
a  result  of  the  subject-matter  employed,  partly  as  a  result  of 
the  methods  of  teaching.  The  fact  will  appear  more  clearly 
if  we  take  a  concrete  illustration,  e.g.,  from  the  field  of  geom- 
etry as  commonly  taught.  Assume  that  it  is  desired  through 
the  study  of  geometry  to  develop  a  generalized  method  to  be 
employed  in  the  reflective  thinking  (reasoning)  involved  in 
problem  solving  —  an  element  which  is  certainly  involved 
in  the  processes  of  geometry  and  in  every  other  field  of  men- 
tal activity.  Call  that  element  A.  If  we  wish  to  facilitate 
the  process  of  its  dissociation  it  must  be  kept  constant  in  the 
teaching  of  geometry.  But  also  other  elements  in  the  total 
situations  must  be  made  to  vary.  It  is  here  that  difficulty 
arises,  since  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  prevent  certain  other 
elements  from  remaining  constant.  Thus  there  is  always 
present  an  element  which  makes  it  possible  for  us  to  recog- 
nize that  we  are  dealing  with  geometry  —  certain  concepts 
of  space  and  number  relations,  and  certain  elements  peculiar 
to  the  mathematics  "  class,"  classroom,  or  teacher.  Some 
of  those  elements  remain  constant  in  spite  of  attempts  to 
vary  elements  of  specific  content,  exercises,  problems,  etc. 
Hence  the  normal  situations  in  teaching  geometry  may  be 
represented  by  such  combinations  of  elements  as 

(1)  A  B  C   D  E  F 

(2)  A  B  C   G  H  I 

(3)  ABC    J  K  L 

(4)  A  B  C  M  N  O 

(-)  etc.,  etc., 

and  as  a  result  conditions  favor  not  the  dissociation  of  the 
desired  element  A,  but  the  constant  association  of  ABC. 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  403 

Thus  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  teaching  of  geometry 
in  our  secondary  schools  tends  to  favor,  not  the  isolation 
and  generalization  of  general  methods  of  reflective  thinking 
related  to  problem  solving,  but  the  close  association  of  such 
methods  to  elements  of  geometrical  content  —  a  situation 
to  some  extent  interfering  with  the  process  of  transfer. 

This  does  not,  however,  mean  that  such  dissociation  and 
subsequent  transfer  is  impossible.  Any  such  conclusion 
would  imply  that  all  the  individual's  experiences  in  reflec- 
tive thinking  and  problem  solving  outside  the  geometry 
classroom  are  isolated  from  his  experiences  in  that  class- 
room, and  would  leave  out  of  account  or  minimize  the  innate 
capacity  of  the  mind  to  generalize  on  the  basis  of  such  other 
experiences  —  a  capacity  differing  among  individuals  appar- 
ently according  to  original  endowment.  It  would  also  leave 
out  of  account  the  possibility  that  the  desired  method,  prin- 
ciple, or  the  like,  may  be  isolated  by  the  teacher  or  other 
individual  and  raised  into  consciousness  in  terms  of  a  general 
law,  rule,  maxim,  etc.,  expressed  in  terms  which  do  not  spe- 
cifically associate  content  elements.  Hence  the  bearing  of 
Bagley's  statement: l 

Unless  the  ideal  has  been  developed  consciously,  there  can  be 
no  certainty  that  the  power  will  be  increased,  no  matter  how  in- 
trinsically well  the  subject  may  have  been  mastered. 

Hence  also  the  importance  attached  by  Thorndike  to  con- 
nections "  that  carry  vital  maxims,  notions  of  method,  ideals 
of  accuracy,  persistence,  verification,  openmindedness  and 
the  like."  2  Likewise  we  find  here  the  significance  of  the  fact 
that  in  Squire's  experiment  the  development  of  neatness  in 
the  case  of  arithmetic  papers  through  training  did  not  gen- 
eralize neatness  so  as  to  function  in  geography  and  language 

1  Bagley,  W.  C.,  The  Educative  Process,  p.  216. 

2  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Psychology  of  Learning,  p.  421. 


404      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

papers,1  but,  when  the  same  experiment  was  repeated  by 
Ruediger  with  emphasis  on  the  conscious  ideal  of  neatness  as 
a  general  element,  a  general  transfer  of  neatness  was  the 
result.2 

172.  An  answer  to  problem  2.  The  transfer  or  spread  of 
improved  efficiency  has  its  basis  on  the  process  of  dissocia- 
tion, which  is  a  normal  process  depending  on  the  innate 
capacity  of  the  mind  to  generalize  on  the  basis  of  limited, 
specific  experiences.  Such  a  process  will  take  place  to  some 
extent  with  or  without  definite  provision  in  the  school.  Its 
effective  operation,  however,  may  be  fostered  and  facilitated 
by  providing  recognized  favorable  conditions.  Whenever 
any  element  may  be  found  which  is  a  constituent  of  situa- 
tions in  different  fields  involving  differing  objective  materials 
or  content,  the  dissociation,  generalization,  and  transfer  of 
that  element  is  always  a  potentiality.  Whether  or  not  it 
becomes  an  actuality  depends  in  large  degree  on  the  estab- 
lishment of  some  or  all  of  the  conditions  favoring  the  proc- 
ess which  have  been  described  above.  This  involves  both 
the  character  of  the  materials  employed  and  the  teaching 
methods  used. 

In  passing,  attention  may  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the 
mere  existence  of  common  objective  elements  in  varying 
situations  will  not  necessarily  lead  to  dissociation  and  gen- 
eralization. In  fact  it  is  by  no  'means  improbable  that 
greater  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  subjective  elements. 
Unless  common  objective  elements  are  found  in  the  varying 
situations  dissociation  and  transfer  are  impossible.  Also, 
however,  unless  some  common  subjective  elements  are 
found  no  dissociation  and  transfer  can  materialize.  The 
possibility  of  transfer  is  found  in  the  correlation  of  common 
objective  elements  and  common  subjective  elements.  This 

i  Bagley,  W.  C.,  op.  tit.,  p.  208. 

a  Ruediger,  W.  C.,  The  Printiplcs  of  Education,  pp.  108-10. 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  405 

means  that  dissociation  and  transfer  are  not  entirely  auto- 
matic. The  conception  that  transfer  will  always  be  actual 
where  it  is  possible  is  a  common  error  invalidating  many 
studies  in  this  field. 

173.  Problem  3 :  What  is  the  extent  of  transfer  ?  In  many 
ways  the  most  important  problem  involved  in  the  matter 
of  the  transfer  or  spread  of  improved  efficiency  concerns  its 
probable  extent.  Is  the  transfer  insignificant  in  amount  so 
that  for  all  practical  purposes  it  may  be  ignored  in  questions 
of  educational  values,  or  is  it  sufficiently  extensive  to  war- 
rant careful  consideration  in  attempting  to  evaluate  subjects 
and  methods  of  teaching?  This  is  the  question  which  must 
be  considered  in  connection  with  problem  3. 

Before  attempting  to  discuss  the  extent  of  the  transfer 
or  spread  of  improved  efficiency  a  word  of  warning  is  desir- 
able. The  main  reason  for  troubling  ourselves  about  prob- 
lems of  the  transfer  of  improved  efficiency  is,  of  course,  that, 
if  it  is  a  reality  and  if  it  is  appreciable  in  amount,  it  provides 
for  economy  in  education.  Statements  like  the  following  are 
common: "  General  discipline  teaches  that  we  should  learn  to 
do  A  in  order  that  we  may  be  able  to  do  B.  Why  not  learn 
to  do  A  in  order  to  learn  to  do  A,  and  learn  to  do  B  in  order 
to  do  B?  Why  not  learn  to  walk  in  order  to  walk,  learn  to 
run  in  order  to  run,  and  learn  to  swim  in  order  to  swim?  "  l 
Any  such  statement  ignores  the  fundamental  problem  of 
transfer.  The  sole  justification  for  any  possible  emphasis  on 
"  general  discipline  "  would  be  that  it  is  general,  i.e.,  that 
through  training  in  A  one  may  be  better  equipped  thereby, 
not  only  for  B,  but  also  for  C,  D,  E,  F,  etc.,  —  for  a  wide 
variety  of  activities.  In  this  connection  three  facts  should 
be  kept  in  mind: 

(1)  The  most  enthusiastic  proponent  of  transfer  values 
could  not  claim  that  efficiency  developed  in  the  function 

1  Cf .  Moore,  E.  C.,  in  School  and  Society,  vol.  yi,  p.  482,  end  of  column  2. 


406      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

which  has  been  the  direct  object  of  special  training  can  be 
carried  over  unimpaired  and  without  loss  into  functions 
which  have  not  received  direct  training.  The 'most  that 
could  be  claimed  is  that  an  initial  impetus  may  thereby  be 
given  to  the  related  activities  and  the  acquirement  of  effi- 
ciency in  the  related  activities  may  be  facilitated. 

(2)  The  possible  extent  and  importance  of  the  transfer 
or  spread  of  improved  efficiency  is  to  be  measured  by  the 
sum  total  of  its  applications.  If  we  represent  the  amounts  of 

the  transfer  in  various  activities  by  ai,  a2,  03, an, 

and  represent  the  number  of  occasions  in  each  case  by 

ti,  t2,  t3, tn,  it  is  clear  that  the  extent  of  the 

transfer  value  in  any  instance  is  to  be  measured  by  the 
formula 

aiti  +  aztz  +  a3t3, +  antn  =  x. 

It  is  manifestly  absurd  to  attempt  to  measure  the  extent 
and  value  of  transfer  by  a  comparison  of  the  amount  of 
improvement  in  the  function  which  is  the  object  of  direct 
training  and  another  single  function  which  may  be  affected 
indirectly  thereby.  If  there  is  any  value  to  be  attached  to 
"  general  training  "  it  is  because  it  does  apply  to  a  relatively 
wide  range  of  activities,  not  to  any  single  activity.  Hence 
the  pertinence  of  Thorndike's  statement: : 

Finally,  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  very  small  spread  of 
training  may  be  of  very  great  educational  value  if  it  extends  over  a 
wide  enough  field.  If  a  hundred  hours  of  training  in  being  scientific 
about  chemistry  produced  only  one  hundredth  as  much  improve- 
ment in  being  scientific  about  all  sorts  of  facts,  it  would  yet  be  a 
very  remunerative  educational  force. 

Hence  also  the  absurdity  of  the  implications  in  Sleight's 
statements : 2 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Psychology  of  Learning,  pp.  421-22. 

2  Sleight,  W.  G.,  Educational  Values  and  Methods,  p.  73. 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  407 

In  those  few  cases  where  improvement  was  brought  about  in  one 
exercise  through  practice  in  another,  as  for  example  where  practice 
in  tables  resulted  in  a  development  of  power  to  memorize  dates, 
the  improvement  is  never  equal  to  that  made  in  the  practice 
medium  itself.  In  other  words,  the  "indirect"  is  always  less  than 
the  "direct"  improvement.  A  computation  showed  that  "direct" 
was  worth,  on  the  average,  about  144  times  "indirect"  practice. 
Without  attaching  too  much  importance  to  the  exact  figures,  there 
is  ample  evidence  that  the  effects  of  "direct"  outweigh  immeas- 
urably those  of  "indirect"  training,  and  differentially  that  the 
schools  have  occasionally  wasted  most  valuable  time. 

The  inequality  of  "  direct "  and  "  indirect "  training  in 
any  single  case  should  be  obvious.  It  should  also  be  obvious 
that  the  importance  of  transfer  is  not  to  be  measured  in 
that  way  alone. 

(3)  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  capacity  to  general- 
ize on  the  basis  of  limited  specific  experiences  varies  among 
individuals  and  that  with  any  given  amount  of  training 
given  to  members  of  a  group  the  possibility  and  the  extent 
of  the  transfer  or  spread  of  improved  efficiency  are  varying 
quantities.  It  must  further  be  recognized  that  the  extent 
of  transfer  to  be  looked  for  is  in  part  determined  by  the 
extent  to  which  conditions  are  made  favorable  for  the 
process  of  dissociation,  again  varying  with  respect  to  indi- 
viduals. 

The  amount  and  extent  of  the  transfer  or  spread  of  im- 
proved efficiency  may  be  estimated  in  one  or  both  of  two 
ways:  (a)  through  an  examination  of  the  results  of  experi- 
mental investigations;  (6)  through  a  study  of  the  implica- 
tions of  general  psychological  theory.  These  are  considered 
in  the  following  sections. 

174.  The  results  of  experimental  investigations.  The 
mere  enumeration  of  the  various  experimental  investiga- 
tions designed  to  determine  the  mode  and  extent  of  the 
transfer  or  spread  of  improved  efficiency  would  carry  us  far 


408      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

beyond  the  limits  of  space  here  available.  Likewise  any 
detailed  criticism  of  the  methods  employed  or  the  conclu- 
sions drawn  is  here  impossible. *  All  that  may  be  attempted 
here  is  a  general  statement  of  facts  which  have  apparently 
emerged  from  the  several  experiments  made. 

(1)  The  science  of  experimental  psychology,  in  spite  of 
its  rapid  and  promising  development  within  recent  years, 
is  still  in  its  infancy.    Hence  the  tools  which  experimental 
pedagogy  must  employ  are  as  yet  of  the  crudest. 

(2)  The  experimental  facts  so  far  determined  are  rela- 
tively trivial  when  compared  with  the  facts  which  must  be 
determined  before  we  can  secure  measurements  of  the  trans- 
fer or  spread  of  improved  efficiency  in  the  case  of  school 
studies  or  the  occupations  of  life. 

(3)  The  results  of  experimental  investigations  are  con- 
fused and  confusing,  many  being  in  direct  conflict.   Taken 
together,  they  resist  organization  into  any  clear-cut  state- 
ment of  the  extent  of  the  effect  of  special  training  on  general 
ability.  In  addition  faulty  methods  employed  in  many  cases 
quite  invalidate  the  results  obtained  and  the  conclusions 
drawn. 

(4)  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  experiments  indicate 
that  the  transfer  of  improved  efficiency  is  a  reality.  Never- 
theless they  also  indicate  that  previous  assumptions  of  a 
wholesale  and  automatic  transfer  are  untenable. 

These  experiments  also  show,  even  by  their  indefinite  and  con- 
fused results,  the  complexity  of  the  facilitating  and  interfering 
relations  amongst  man's  hierarchies  of  habits.  We  see  the  possi- 
bility of  a  disciplinary  effect  where  superficial  observation  would 
have  expected  none,  the  difficulty  of  transfer  in  a  case  where  specu- 
lative and  verbal  thinking  would  have  assumed  that  it  was  easy, 

1  For  extended  discussion  of  experiments  made  the  reader  is  referred  to 
references  given  at  the  close  of  this  chapter,  especially,  Thorndike,  Heck, 
Colvin,  Judd,  Ruediger,  Henderson, 'Sleight,  Rugg,  Coover. 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  409 

and,  in  general,  the  ignorance  that  we  suffer  from  concerning  the 
internal  constituents  of  almost  every  act  of  learning.1 

(5)  In  general  experiments  have  suggested  the  possibility 
of  interference  as  well  as  of  transfer. 

(6)  To  date  experiments  on  memories  have  resulted  in 
the  most  satisfactory  evidence,  indicating  in  general  little 
transfer,  except  as  improvement  in  methods  of  learning, 
etc.,  is  involved. 

(7)  Experiments  have  suggested  that,  even  where  trans- 
fer or  spread  of  improved  efficiency  is  found,  its  emergence 
is  not  automatic  but  dependent  to  a  considerable  extent  on 
the  methods  employed  in  training. 

We  may  conclude  that  experimental  evidence,  while  sug- 
gestive and  indicative  that  older  notions  of  general  disci- 
pline are  untenable,  has  as  yet  done  relatively  little  to  deter- 
mine either  the  mode  or  extent  of  the  transfer  or  spread  of 
improved  efficiency.  We  are  therefore  forced  back  on  the 
field  of  general  educational  theory  to  a  considerable  extent. 
However  unsatisfactory  that  may  be,  for  the  present  we 
cannot  do  otherwise  than  consider  its  implications,  with 
the  hope  and  faith  that  improved  methods  of  experimental 
psychology  may  soon  afford  more  satisfactory  evidence. 

175.  Implications  of  psychological  theory.  In  discussing 
the  method  of  the  operation  of  the  transfer  or  spread  of 
improved  efficiency  it  was  suggested  that  it  rests  on  the 
process  of  dissociation.  In  that  connection  it  was  pointed 
out  that  some  transfer  will  take  place  wherever  there  is  a 
real  element  to  be  transferred  through  generalization.  It 
was  also  pointed  out,  however,  that  if  conditions  are  made 
favorable  the  possibility  of  generalization  and  transfer  is 
increased.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  transfer  in  any  case  is 
not  a  constant  and  cannot  be  considered  as  operating  auto- 

1  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Psycliology  of  Learning,  p.  417. 


410     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

matically.  The  resultant  emphasis  on  methods  of  teaching 
and  training  is  great.  If  these  theories  are  sound  it  is  clear 
that  the  extent  of  the  transfer  or  spread  of  improved  effi- 
ciency is  conditioned  by  at  least  three  factors:  (a)  the  char- 
acter of  the  materials  (objective  elements)  involved;  (6)  the 
capacities  of  individuals  to  generalize  and  subjective  ele- 
ments brought  to  situations  by  individuals;  and  (c)  the 
methods  of  training  provided.  All  of  these  factors  are  vari- 
able and  hence  the  extent  of  transfer  or  spread  which  de- 
pends on  them  must  itself  be  a  variable  matter.  In  this 
connection  it  should  be  noted  that,  with  respect  to  the 
psychology  of  learning,  any  attempt  to  dissociate  materials 
from  methods  of  experiencing  them  is  erroneous  and  useless. 
From  a  pedagogical  viewpoint  the  character  of  objective 
material  is  inextricably  associated  with  the  way  in  which  it 
is  experienced.  Things,  objects,  ideals,  etc.,  have  no  mean- 
ing for  the  individual  other  than  as  he  experiences  them. 
To  say  that  generalization  and  transfer  has  no  importance 
with  respect  to  the  values  of  educative  materials  but  is 
important  with  respect  to  method  ignores  the  fact  that  the 
character  of  materials  in  part  determines  methods  of  train- 
ing and  that  methods  of  training  in  part  determine  the 
character  of  the  materials  as  far  as  their  effect  on  the  indi- 
vidual is  concerned.  An  antithesis  of  materials  and  methods 
is  psychologically  and  pedagogically  false. 

176.  Problem  4:  the  transfer  values  of  studies.  The  prob- 
lem of  the  transfer  values  claimed  for  various  subjects  of 
study  in  the  secondary-school  program  is  considered  in  con- 
nection with  the  several  studies  dealt  with  in  following  chap- 
ters. The  general  problem  only  will  be  considered  in  this 
section. 

In  time,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  experimental  psychology  will 
answer  our  present  problem  in  undebatable  terms.  At  pres- 
ent it  cannot  do  so  and  again  we  are  forced  back  on  the 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  111 

implications  of  general  psychological  theory.  Following  the 
line  of  thought  suggested  in  the  preceding  sections  we  may 
arrive  at  certain  conclusions.  The  capacity  for  generaliza- 
tion is_natiye  in  the  human  mind  and  is  not  confined  or  lim- 
ited to  any  special  objective  material.  Hence  it  may  be 
assumed  that  any  kind  of  material  may  serve  as  basis  for 
generalization  and  for  transfer  values.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  has  been  suggested  that  the  manner  in  which  such  material 
is  organized  and  presented  to  the  mind  is  of  the  highest 
importance  and  in  reality  the  manner  of  such  presentation 
cannot  be  divorced  entirely  from  the  character  of  the 
materials  with  which  it  is  concerned.  It  has  further  been 
i  suggested  that  the  amount  of  generalization  actually  accom- 
l  plished  is  dependent  on  the  provision  for  meeting  certain 
conditions  which  foster  and  facilitate  dissociation  or  generai- 
j^ization.  Subjects  of  study  differ  noticeably  in  the  degree  in 
which  their  materials  may  be  or  have  been  organized  with 
respect  to  those  conditions.  Thus  it  is  relatively  easy  to 
organize  the  materials  of  mathematics  so  as  to  facilitate  the 
dissociation  of  methods  of  reflective  thinking  involved  in 
problem  solving  —  within  the  field  of  mathematics.  In  his- 
tory, on  the  other  hand,  manipulation  of  its  materials  for 
such  a  purpose  within  its  own  field  is  relatively  difficult. 
Thus  there  is  a  great  difference  between  those  two  subjects 
affecting  the  conditions  which  primarily  affect  generaliza- 
tion and  dissociation,  even  within  then*  own  respective 
fields.  Whatever  we  may  think  about  the  possibility  of 
transferring  those  methods  to  other  fields,  we  must  recognize 
that  it  cannot  take  place  unless  those  original  conditions 
are  met.  Thus  also  it  must  be  recognized  that  the  transfer 
of  improved  efficiency  is  not  automatic  and  that  if  it  is 
desired  it  must  be  deliberately  sought  through  the  organi- 
zation of  materials  and  teaching  methods  adapted  to  that 
end.  Subjects  whose  primary  aims  in  the  secondary  school 


412      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

look  toward  specific  ends  can  provide  but  a  limited  amount 
of  transfer  values.  Subjects  of  study  whose  primary  pur- 
poses are  the  development  of  generalized  traits  can  produce 
but  limited  specific  values.  Subjects  of  study  which  aim  at 
both  ends  at  once  are  likely  to  produce  limited  results  in 
both.  With  various  subjects  of  study  different  ends  may, 
possibly,  be  desirable.  In  passing  it  may  be  well  to  say  that 
as  at  present  organized  and  taught  few  studies  are  well 
adapted  to  any  of  those  ends. 

III.  GENERAL  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES 

177.  The  evolution  of  the  program  in  America.  The  his- 
tory of  the  development  of  the  program  of  studies  in  the 
American  public  secondary  school  is  illuminating  in  many 
ways  and  affords  clear  evidence  of  the  shifting  values  as- 
signed in  contemporary  theory  and  practice  at  different 
periods.  Thus  an  examination  of  the  data  provided  in 
Table  CXVIII  shows  that  three  main  periods  may  be  rather 
definitely  described  in  terms  of  the  prominence  attached  to 
different  classes  of  subject  matter.  During  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  dominant  values  in  public  second- 
ary education  in  this  country  were  attached  to  the  human- 
istic studies.  During  the  nineteenth  century  such  human- 
istic studies  gave  way  in  part  to  natural  sciences,  although 
retaining  much  of  their  former  prestige.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  nineteenth  century  directly  vocational  studies  began 
to  become  important  and  give  signs  of  becoming  increasingly 
important  at  the  present  time. 

A  study  of  the  history  of  the  program  of  studies  of  the 
secondary  school  shows  clearly  that  the  values  attached  to 
different  subjects  of  study  have  varied  at  different  times. 
Thus  the  study  of  logic  was  deemed  sufficiently  valuable  to 
be  included  in  the  State  requirements  in  Massachusetts  from 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  413 

TABLE  CXVIII.  SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY  INTRODUCED  AT  DIFFERENT 
TIMES  INTO  THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SECOND- 
ARY SCHOOL  OF  AMERICA* 

English :  Reading  (1821?),  Writing  (1821  or  1635),  Spelling  (1821  or  1635), 
Grammar  (1821  or  1635),  Composition  (1821  or  1635),  Rhetoric  (1823  or 
1635),  Declamation  (1821?),  Literature  (1821),  Forensics  (1821),  Etymology 
(1839),  History  of  English  Literature  (1841). 

Foreign  Language:  Latin  (1635),  Greek  (1635),  French  (1826),  German 
(1838),  Spanish  (1830),  Italian  (1843),  Anglo-Saxon  (1850). 

Mathematics:  Arithmetic  (1814-1821),  Algebra  (1814-1821),  Geometry 
(1814-1821),  Trigonometry  (1814-1821),  Surveying  (1821),  Navigation 
(1821),  Mensuration  (1821),  Analytical  Geometry  (1839),  Differential 
Calculus  (1841). 

Sciences:  Physics  or  Natural  Philosophy  (1821),  Chemistry  (1826),  As- 
tronomy (1821),  Physiology  (1839),  Botany  (1826),  Geology  (1837?), 
Zoology  (1842),  Hygiene  (1839),  Mineralogy  (1837?),  Natural  History 
(1833),  Meteorology  (1852),  Mechanics  (1839),  Physical  Geography  (1852?), 
Anatomy  (1837),  Technology  (1851),  Engineering  (1852),  Medicine  and 
Surgery  (1852?),  Household  Science  (1858),  General  Science  ("Elements  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,"  1823),  Agricultural  Chemistry  (1845). 

Social  Sciences:  History  of  the  United  States  (1821),  General  History 
(1823),  History  of  Civilization  (1849),  Ancient  History  (1821  or  1635), 
Mediaeval  History  (1842),  Modern  History  (1821),  History  of  England 
(1814-1828),  History  of  France  (1827?),  History  of  a  single  Federal  State 
(1839),  Constitution  of  the  United  States  (1828),  Constitution  of  a  single 
Federal  State  (1840),  City  Government  (1842),  "Community  Civics" 
(1849),  Political  Philosophy  (1821),  Political  Economy  (1821),  Ancient 
Geography  (1821  or  1635),  Sacred  Geography  (1823),  Modern  Geography 
(1821),  Ethics  (1839),  Moral  Philosophy  (1821),  Natural  Theology  (1823), 
Evidences  of  Christianity  (1823). 

Other  Subjects:  Logic  (1821),  Intellectual  Philosophy  (1829),  Bookkeep- 
ing (1823),  Commerce  (1838),  Sewing  (1840),  Stenography  (1849),  Manual 
Training  (1880),  and  all  the  various  vocational  and  industrial  subjects  in- 
troduced within  the  past  two  or  three  decades;  Drawing  (1826),  Music 
(1837). 

*  Table  compiled  from  numerous  sources.  The  first  appearance  of  many  subjects  in  the 
public  secondary  school  is  difficult  to  determine.  The  above  dates  are,  however,  fairly  sure. 

1827  to  1898.  It  is  seldom  if  ever  found  in  a  secondary- 
school  program  at  present.  Thus  botany,  astronomy, 
geology,  intellectual  science  (psychology),  moral  science 
(ethics)  were  required  in  certain  high  schools  in  that  State 
from  1857  to  1898.  Of  these  some  have  survived  and  others 


414      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


disappeared.  Of  all  the  various  subjects  mentioned  in  the 
above  list  of  subjects  in  the  program  of  studies  in  the  public 
secondary  school  and  others  which  should  be  added  to  make 
the  list  complete  twenty-one  enrolled  as  large  a  proportion 
as  five  per  cent  of  the  total  public  high-school  population 
in  1915. 

178.  The  relative  prominence  of  various  subjects.  While 
it  is  not  easy  to  determine  the  relative  values  attached  to 
the  various  subjects  of  study  in  the  secondary-school  pro- 

TABLE  CXIX.   PERCENTAGES  OF  PUPILS  IN  PUBLIC  HIGH 
SCHOOLS  PURSUING  CERTAIN  STUDIES  * 


Subjects  of  study 

1889- 
1890 

1894- 
1895 

1899- 
1900 

1904- 
1905 

1909- 
1910 

1914- 
1915 

Total 
number 
1914-15 

Latin  

34.69 

43.97 

50.61 

50.21 

49.05 

37.32 

434,925 

3.05 

3.10 

2.85 

1.47 

.75 

.29 

3,351 

French  

5.84 

6.52 

7.78 

9.14 

9.90 

8.80 

102,516 

10.51 

11.40 

14.33 

20.25 

23.69 

24.39 

284,294 

.67 

2.39 

31,743 

45.40 

54.27 

56.29 

57.51 

56.85 

48.84 

569,215 

21.33 

25.34 

27.39 

28.16 

30.87 

26.55 

309,383 

2.53 

1.91 

1.71 

1.87 

1  18 

17  220 

Astronomy  

4.79 

2.78 

1.22 

.53 

.28 

3,224 

Physics  

22.21 

22.77 

19.04 

15.66 

14.61 

14.23 

165,854 

10.10 

9.15 

7.72 

6.76 

6.89 

7.38 

86,031 

23.89 

23.37 

21.62 

19.34 

14.58 

169911 

Zoology 

8  02 

3  21 

37456 

16.83 

9.14 

106520 

General  biology  

6.90 

80,403 

Geology  

5.00 

3.61 

2.34 

1.16 

.48 

5,558 

Physiology  

29.95 

27.42 

21.96 

15.32 

9.48 

110,541 

Psychology  

2.74 

2.38 

1.81 

.96 

1.17 

13,626 

Rhetoric  

32.05 

38.48 

48.54 

57.10 

58.42 

680,871 

English  literature  

42.10 

49.34 

57.09 

55.82 

650,613 

27  31 

34.33 

38.16 

40.88 

55.03 

50  54 

589,067 

Civil  government  

21.66 

17.97 

15.55 

8.64 

100,730 

Civics  

7.08 

82,588 

Agriculture  

4.66 

7.17 

83,573 

3.78 

12  89 

150,270 

Industrial  '.  

.81 

9,424 

Manual  training  

11.17 

130,155 

22  87 

266  492 

Vocal  music  

31.50 

367,188 

3.42 

39,816 

No  such  figures  are  accessible  for  other  subjects  in  the  program  of  studies  in  the  second 
ary  school. 

*  Report  of  the  United  Stales  Commissioner  of  Education  (1910),  vol.  n,  p.  487. 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES 


415 


18wO       13S5 1300      1905 1010 

FIGURE  V.  ILLUSTRATING  TABLE  CXIX 

gram  at  present,  valuable  information  (as  far  as  it  goes) 
may  be  gained  from  the  data  presented  in  Table  CXIX  and 
in  Figure  V.  Unfortunately  the  reports  of  the  Federal 
Commissioner  of  Education  supply  data  for  certain  subjects 
of  study  only,  and  fail  to  supply  desirable  data  for  other 
subjects,  especially  subjects  of  a  technical,  vocational,  and 
industrial  character.  It  is  also  unfortunate  that  the  data 
available  do  not  afford  information  in  terms  of  the  numbers 
and  proportions  of  all  pupils  who  somewhere  in  then*  high- 
school  courses  study  the  various  subjects. 


416      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

In  interpreting  these  statistics  certain  facts  should  be 
noted: 

(1)  The  practice,  common  to  the  majority  of  secondary 
schools,  of  requiring  all  pupils,  or  certain  groups  of  pupils, 
to  study  certain  subjects,  e.g.,  English,  algebra,  tends  to 
raise  the  proportions  of  pupils  studying  those  subjects,  and 
the  figures,  therefore,  cannot  be  taken  as  measuring  the 
appeal  of  the  subjects  to  pupils. 

(2)  In  some  cases  the  unit  of  study  does  not  stand  out 
clearly  as  a  separate  subject  and  hence  figures  reported  fre- 
quently represent  a  number  of  pupils  in  excess  of  those 
taking  a  separate  and  distinct  course  in  the  subject.   Thus 
possibly  with  rhetoric  or  civics. 

(3)  In  some  cases  the  sequential  character  of  the  work 
in  a  subject,  tending  to  involve  two,  three,  or  four  years  for 
the  completion  of  the  subject,  gives  an  appearance  of  greater 
support  than  would  otherwise  be  indicated.  Thus  history  is 
grouped  under  one  title.   Latin,  engaging  about  one  third  of 
the  pupils  in  the  secondary  schools  in  1915,  may  not  have 
affected  more  individuals  than  German,  a  subject  which  was 
pursued  in  1915  by  approximately  one  quarter  of  all  second- 
ary-school pupils  —  Latin  at  that  time  commonly  compris- 
ing a  four-year  course  and  German  commonly  comprising 
a  two-  or  three-year  course. 

(4)  Within  the  past  two  decades  the  proportion  of  pupils 
studying  any  single  natural   science  has  apparently  de- 
creased.  Whether  or  not  this  means  that  the  total  number 
of  pupils  studying  natural  science  in  some  of  its  phases  has 
decreased  the  figures  afford  us  no  means  of  deciding.  In  this 
connection  it  should  be  noted  that  no  figures  are  presented 
in  the  table  above  for  general  science,  applied  science  in 
agriculture,  etc. 

(5)  Attempts  to  determine  the  proportions   of  pupils 
engaged  in  the  study  of  "foreign  languages,"  "natural 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  417 

science,"  etc.,  by  adding  together  the  different  percentages 
of  the  separate  languages,  sciences,  etc.,  involve  a  serious 
error  and  represent  no  real  situation,  since  a  large  number  of 
pupils  is  engaged  in  studying  two  or  more  languages,  two 
or  more  sciences  at  the  same  time. 

179.  The  necessity  of  selection.  It  is  obvious  that  all  the 
subjects  now  found  in  the  program  of  studies  of  the  second- 
ary school  cannot  and  should  not  be  studied  by  all  pupils. 
Selection  is  therefore  a  necessity  and,  since  it  is  a  necessity, 
it  follows  that  some  means  must  be  devised  to  determine  the 
relative  values  of  the  various  subjects  of  study  as  a  basis 
for  such  selection.  It  was  pointed  out  in  the  first  part  of 
this  chapter  that  the  various  subjects  of  study  are  to  be 
evaluated  in  terms  of  the  degree  in  which  those  subjects 
contribute  to  the  aims  and  functions  of  secondary  education. 
It  was  also  pointed  out  that  that  contribution  might  be 
direct  or  indirect.  One  may  readily  recognize  that  certain 
social  studies  may  contribute  directly  to  the  social-civic  aim 
of  secondary  education  in  such  a  way  that  the  values  of 
those  subjects  will  be  universal  and  direct.  One  may  readily 
recognize  that  other  subjects  may  contribute  directly  to  the 
vocational-economic  aim  of  secondary  education  in  such  a 
way  that  the  values  of  those  subjects  will  be  direct  and  lim- 
ited or  contingent.  However,  after  such  analysis  of  direct 
values  has  been  accomplished  there  still  remain  in  the  pro- 
gram of  studies  as  at  present  organized  certain  subjects 
whose  values,  if  they  possess  important  values,  cannot  be 
stated  in  terms  of  direct  contribution  to  the  aims  of  second- 
ary education  and  other  subjects  whose  position  and  popu- 
larity in  the  secondary-school  program  cannot  be  justified 
by  reliance  on  direct  but  limited  or  contingent  values.  Thus 
it  cannot  be  maintained  seriously  that  one  hah*  of  the  pupils 
in  the  secondary  school  in  1910  were  justified  in  studying 
Latin  on  the  basis  of  its  direct  values.  Neither  can  one  jus- 


418      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

tify  on  the  grounds  of  direct  values  alone  the  study  of  Ger- 
man by  nearly  one  quarter  of  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  public 
secondary  schools.  Further,  the  study  of  algebra,  undoubted 
though  its  limited  or  contingent  direct  values  are,  cannot  be 
justified  for  nearly  all  pupils  in  the  first  year  of  the  public 
secondary  school  on  the  ground  of  direct  values.  The  same 
is  the  case  with  geometry. 

For  some  of  the  subjects  now  found  in  the  secondary- 
school  program  of  studies  justification  must  rest,  if  justifica- 
tion be  found,  largely  on  the  indirect  values  which  may  be 
attached  to  them.  In  the  cases  of  several  other  subjects  of 
study  the  large  proportion  of  pupils  engaged  in  those  sub- 
jects cannot  be  justified  on  the  basis  of  direct  values  alone. 
To  the  first  group  belongs  Latin.  To  the  second  group  be- 
long algebra,  geometry,  and  German.  The  final  value  of 
subjects  of  study  in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school  is, 
therefore,  to  be  determined  by  an  analysis  of  the  degree  in 
which  the  subject  may  contribute  directly  or  indirectly 
to  the  aims  and  functions  previously  outlined.  Such  an 
analysis  is  attempted  for  the  various  subjects  in  the  follow- 
ing chapters  of  this  book. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  Consider  any  community  of  approximately  50,000  inhabitants.    Esti- 
mate roughly  the  proportions  of  the  population  who  may  reasonably 
be  expected  to  have  direct  use  for  the  various  subjects  of  study  in  the 
secondary-school  program;  e.g.,  what  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  will 
commonly  find  opportunity  to  use  algebra  or  chemistry  directly? 

2.  Make  a  critical  study  of  experiments  which  have  been  made  to  solve  the 
problem  of  transfer  of  improvement.    Interpret  the  conclusions  with 
respect  to  the  problem  of  indirect  values  in  the  secondary  school.  (Cf. 
Rugg,  Heck,  Ruediger,  Thorndike,  Coover,  in  list  of  references.) 

8.  Find  specific  examples  of  arguments  for  direct  values  of  subjects  of 
study  which  involve  one  or  more  of  the  fallacies  mentioned  in  section 
165. 

4.  Choose  any  subject  of  study  in  the  program  of  studies  of  the  secondary 
school.  Analyze  the  values  commonly  claimed  for  that  subject. 


THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  419 

5.  Find  specific  examples  of  arguments  for  or  against  indirect  values  of 
subjects  of  study  which  involve  one  or  more  of  the  fallacies  mentioned 
in  section  173. 

6.  Classify  subjects  of  study  in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school  ac- 
cording to  the  readiness  with  which  the  materials  may  be  or  are  manip- 
ulated for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  process  of  dissociation  of  any 
important  element. 

7.  To  what  degree  is  it  true  that  "  the  acceptance  of  the  fundamental  doc- 
trine of  modern  psychology,  that  there  are  no  faculties  in  the  mind,  of 
itself  necessitated  the  abandonment  of  the  doctrine  of  formal  training 
in  education."    (Moore,  E.  C.,  What  is  Education?  p.  99.) 

8.  How  is  the  problem  of  transfer  related  to  the  relative  values  of  "pure" 
and  "applied"  science?    (Cf.  Colvin,  S.  S.,  The  Learning  Process,  pp. 
247  /.) 

9.  How  is  the  problem  of  transfer  related  to  the  application  of  principles, 
methods,  etc.,  within  any  given  field  of  study? 

10.  Give  examples  of  different  subjects  of  study  masquerading  under  the 
same  name  in  the  program  of  study  of  the  secondary  school. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  Educational  Values,  especially  chaps,  vii-xv. 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  and  Snedden,  D.,  "Fundamental  Distinctions  Between 
Liberal  and  Vocational  Education,"  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educa- 
tion Association  (1914),  pp.  150-70. 

Colvin,  S.  S.,  The  Learning  Process,  chaps,  xiv-xvi. 

Coover,  J.  E.,  Formal  Discipline  from  the  Standpoint  of  Experimental 

Psychology,  Psychological  Monographs,  vol.  xx,  no.  3. 
-Davis,  C.  O.,  High-School  Courses  of  Study,  pp.  12-27. 

DeGarmo,  C.,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  vol.  i,  "The  Studies,"  pp. 
141-78  (new  edition). 

Gillette,  J.  M.,  Vocational  Education,  chaps,  rx-x. 

Heck,  W.  H.,  Mental  Discipline  and  Educational  Values. 

Henderson,  E.  N.,  A  Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Education,  chap.  X. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  The  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects,  chap.  xvn. 

Moore,  E.  C.,  What  is  Education?  especially  chap.  m. 

Parker,  S.  C.,  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,  chap.  n. 

Ruediger,  W.  C.,  Principles  of  Education,  especially  pp.  91-224. 

Rugg,  H.  O.,  The  Experimental  Determination  of  Mental  Discipline  in  School 
Studies.  Bibliography. 

Sleight,  W.  G.,  Educational  Values  and  Methods. 
-Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education. 

Spencer,  H.,  Education,  chap,  i,  "What  Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth?" 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Psychology  of  Learning,  chap.  xii. 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Report  (1916),  vol.  n,  pp.  487-528. 

Yocum,  A.  D.,  Culture,  Discipline,  and  Democracy. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES 

I.  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

1 80.  The  historic  dominance  of  linguistic  and  literary 
studies.  Linguistic  and  literary  studies  have  tended  to 
dominate  educational  institutions  from  their  very  beginning. 
For  the  Greeks  only,  and  at  certain  periods  only  for  them, 
would  this  general  statement  need  to  be  qualified.  In  the 
later  period  of  Greek  education  began  the  emphasis  on 
linguistic  and  literary  studies  which  they  contributed  to 
Roman  education  and  which  Roman  education  contrib- 
uted to  Europe  and  America.  Throughout  the  medieval 
period,  the  Renaissance,  and  the  Reformation  education 
in  the  schools  of  Europe  was  almost  exclusively  linguistic 
and  literary,  and  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  study 
of  Latin  and  Greek.  This  emphasis  on  the  Latin  and  Greek 
languages  and  literatures  was  not  surprising,  since  practically" 
all  existing  knowledge  was  preserved  in  those  tongues,  since 
Lathi  was  the  common  medium  of  communication  among 
the  learned,  and  since  literatures  in  the  vernaculars  began 
only  as  late  as  the  early  Renaissance.  Even  after  the  rise 
of  literatures  in  the  vernaculars,  however,  secondary  edu- 
cation was  restricted  to  the  study  of  the  classical  languages 
and  literatures  with  attention  here  and  there  only  to  the 
mother  tongues  and  their  literatures  —  a  state  of  affairs 
which  persisted  until  long  after  the  beginning  of  secondary 
education  in  America. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  during  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  secondary  education  in  America 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  421 

was  limited  to  the  study  of  the  Latin  and  Greek.  However, 
the  practice,  common  in  Europe,  of  making  instruction  and 
all  language  use  in  the  secondary  school  depend  on  the  ac- 
tual use  of  Latin,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  mother  tongue,  was 
never  successful  and  in  reality  was  seldom  attempted  in  the 
American  secondary  school  of  the  colonial  period.  Trans- 
lation was  regularly  employed  and  the  classical  languages 
were  constantly  brought  into  relation  with  the  mother 
tongue.  Thus,  while  it  is  true  that  English  literature  re- 
ceived little  if  any  attention  in  the  Latin  grammar  school 
of  America,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  English  language  was  indi- 
rectly a  very  real  study  in  the  colonial  secondary  school. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  realistic  movement  in  educa- 
tion (marked  by  the  beginning  of  the  Realschule  in  Ger- 
many and  by  the  academy  movement  in  England,  Scotland, 
and  America)  came  the  direct  study  of  the  native  language 
and  native  literature  in  the  secondary  school.  Through 
the  academy  the  study  of  the  English  language  and  litera- 
ture was  contributed  to  the  public  high  school  in  the  third 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.  From  that  time  the  study 
of  English  has  constantly  increased  in  the  American  second- 
ary school  until  at  the  present  time  it  occupies  by  far  the 
most  prominent  position  in  the  program.  Its  development 
since  1890  may  be  estimated  in  part  from  the  figures  pre- 
sented in  Table  CXIX  and  from  Figure  V. 

181.  The  present  status  of  English  in  the  program.  At 
the  present  time  English  is  probably  the  only  study  uni- 
versally required  of  all  pupils  in  the  secondary  school  at 
some  stage  or  stages  within  the  course.  Probably  one  sixth 
of  the  total  time  of  the  high-school  course  is  devoted  by 
most  pupils  to  the  study  of  the  mother  tongue  and  its  liter- 
ature. In  this  connection  we  may  note  current  practice  in 
Germany  and  in  France.  In  the  last  four  grades  of  the  Prus- 
sian Gymnasium  or  Realgymnasium  8.6  per  cent  of  the  total 


422     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

time  is  specifically  devoted  to  the  study  of  German.  In 
the  Oberrealschule  the  proportion  of  time  is  10.5  per  cent. 
German  is  required  of  every  pupil  in  every  grade  of  the 
higher  school  in  Germany.  In  France  a  larger  proportionate 
amount  of  time  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  French,  the  per 
cent  of  the  total  time  ranging  from  16.4  for  Sections  A  and 
B  to  19.1  for  Section  D  during  grades  IV-I.  Thus  it  would 
appear  that  for  corresponding  grades  a  larger  proportion 
of  time  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  English  in  the  American 
secondary  school  than  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  German 
in  the  Prussian  higher  school,  and,  possibly,  a  somewhat 
smaller  amount  of  time  than  is  devoted  to  the  study  of 
French  in  the  French  higher  school.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  both  in  Germany  and  France  some 
foreign  language  is  prescribed  for  all  pupils  in  the  higher 
schools  —  a  factor  of  no  small  importance. 

182.  English  and  the  aims  of  secondary  education.  The 
readiness  with  which  values  may  be  attached  to  the  study 
of  English  as  contributing  to  the  ultimate  aims  of  secondary 
education  tends  to  permit  teachers  of  English  and  others  to 
neglect  the  necessity  of  analyzing  the  various  factors  in- 
volved. In  English,  as  much  as  in  the  case  of  any  other  sub- 
ject, it  is  necessary  to  analyze  aims,  values,  materials,  and 
methods.  This  is  recognized  by  the  Committee  on  the  High- 
School  Course  in  English  when  it  states:  * 

These  fundamental  aims  should  be  implicit  in  the  teacher's  atti- 
tude and  in  the  spirit  of  the  class  work:  (a)  Cultural.  To  open  to 
the  student  new  and  higher  forms  of  pleasure.  (6)  Vocational.  To 
fit  the  student  for  the  highest  success  in  his  chosen  calling,  (c)  So- 
cial and  ethical.  To  present  to  the  student  noble  ideals,  aid  in  the 
formation  of  his  character,  and  make  him  more  efficient  and 

1  National  Education  Association,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  High- 
School  Course  in  Ejiglish,  pp.  7,  5.  Cf.  Reorganization  of  English  in  Sec- 
ondary Schools,  Report  by  the  National  Joint  Committee  on  English, 
Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1917),  no.  2,  pp.  30-32. 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  423 

actively  interested  In  his  relations  with  and  service  to  others  in  the 
community  and  in  the  nation. 

The  Committee  believes  that  a  single  statement  of  aims  will 
prove  serviceable  as  a  guide  to  the  English  work  of  all  schools. 
Stated  broadly,  it  should  be  the  purpose  of  every  English  teacher, 
first,  to  quicken  the  spirit  and  kindle  the  mind  and  imagination  of 
his  pupils  and  to  develop  habits  of  weighing  and  judging  human 
conduct,  with  the  hope  of  leading  them  to  higher  living;  second,  to 
supply  the  pupils  with  an  effective  tool  for  use  in  then-  future  pri- 
vate and  public  life,  i.e.,  the  best  command  of  language  which, 
under  the  circumstance,  can  be  given  them. 

The  particular  results  to  be  sought  may  be  somewhat  specifically 
indicated  as  follows: 

In  general,  the  immediate  aim  of  secondary  English  is  twofold: 

(a)  To  give  the  students  command  of  the  art  of  expression  in 
speech  and  writing. 

(b)  To  teach  them  to  read  thoroughly  and  with  appreciation, 
to  form  in  them  a  taste  for  good  reading,  and  to  teach 
them  how  to  find  books  that  are  worth  while. 

These  two  aims  are  fundamental;  they  must  be  kept  in  mind  in 
planning  the  whole  course  and  applied  in  the  teaching  of  every 
term. 

These  recommendations  are  here  presented  in  some  detail 
for  the  special  purpose  of  suggesting  that  the  analysis  of  aims 
in  teaching  English  as  stated  by  so  important  and  represent- 
ative a  body  as  a  national  committee  is  far  from  adequate. 
The  immediate  aims  of  the  teaching  of  English  as  thus 
stated  are  far  too  narrow  and  leave  out  of  account  values 
and  purposes  if  anything  more  fundamental  than  those  sug- 
gested or  implied.  Thus  in  aim  (a)  emphasis  is  placed  on 
"  the  art  of  expression  "  as  the  primary  aim  in  teaching 
language.  Language  is  far  more  important  as  an  instrument 
by  the  use  of  which  the  individual's  higher  mental  processes 
themselves  are  aided  —  as  an  instrument  conditioning  his 
very  thinking  —  than  as  an  instrument  by  which  he  may 
communicate  his  thought.  Language  is  a  tool  conditioning 
thinking  as  well  as  a  tool  for  communicating  thought  and  its 


424      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

use  for  thinking  is  prior  to  its  use  for  expression.  Thus  also 
in  aim  (6)  as  stated  (except  as  may  be  involved  in  the  am- 
biguous phrase  "  thoroughly  and  with  appreciation  ")  factors 
other  than  those  contributing  to  culture  and  literary  appre- 
ciation are  almost  if  not  quite  lacking  in  emphasis.  The 
point  of  these  criticisms  will  appear  more  clearly  in  the  fol- 
lowing sections  of  this  chapter. 

183.  The  aims  of  language  and  of  literature  distinguished. 
It  is  in  many  ways  unfortunate  that  the  study  of  language 
and  the  study  of  literature  have  been  grouped  under  the  one 
head  "  English  "  in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school. 
However  much  the  two  fields  of  study  may  be  correlated  in 
teaching,  however  much  they  may  depend  upon  and  con- 
tribute to  each  other,  the  values,  aims,  and  methods  of  the 
two  studies  are  as  widely  separate  as  of  any  two  studies  in  the 
program.  The  values  and  aims  of  language  study  in  the 
secondary  school  center  around  the  development  of  ability 
to  use  language  as  a  tool  and  methods  of  teaching  should  be 
determined  thereby.  Commonly  this  is  stated  to  mean  the 
development  of  an  ability  to  express  one's  own  thought  and 
to  understand  the  thought  of  others  as  expressed  in  oral  or 
written  speech.  Any  such  statement  emphasizes  the  func- 
tion of  language  as  a  medium  for  communication  and  fails 
to  recognize  the  fundamental  fact  that  language  is  not 
merely  a  medium  for  the  communication  of  thought,  but 
a  condition  and  tool  for  the  thinking  process  itself.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  values  and  aims  of  the  study  of  literature 
center  around  the  aesthetic  elements  of  form,  the  moral- 
social  elements  of  content,  and  the  avocational  elements  of 
reading  habits.  True  it  is  that  the  study  of  language  is 
closely  related  to  the  study  of  literature,  but  it  is  also  true 
that  it  is  closely  related  to  practically  every  other  subject 
of  study  in  the  program. 

Failure  to  recognize  the  distinct  and  separate  values  and 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  425 

aims  of  language  study  and  the  study  of  literature  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  most  serious  difficulties  in  the  teaching  of 
English  in  the  secondary  school.  On  the  one  hand  it  results 
in  a  tendency  to  minimize  the  study  of  language  or  to  deal 
with  it  incidentally  in  connection  with  the  study  of  litera- 
ture. On  the  other  hand  it  results  sometimes  in  making  a 
piece  of  literature  merely  a  basis  of  linguistic  study,  thus 
interfering  with  the  attainment  of  the  separate  aims  of  the 
study  of  literature. 

n.  THE  AIMS  AND  VALUES  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  LANGUAGE 

184.  The  relation  of  language  to  thought.  From  what- 
ever point  of  approach  we  consider  the  problem  of  language 
values  and  language  aims,  we  face  at  once  the  problem  of 
the  relation  of  language  to  thought.  The  relation  of  lan- 
guage to  the  communication  of  thought  is  readily  recog- 
nized. Therein  is  found  the  origin  of  articulate  language. 
However,  with  the  development  of  language  use  it  became 
an  instrument  not  only  for  the  communication  of  thought 
but  also  for  thinking  itself.  Created  primarily  for  the  pur- 
pose of  acquainting  others  with  the  mental  states  of  the 
individual  language  has  become  the  means  by  which  the 
individual's  own  mental  life  is  fundamentally  conditioned. 
In  its  broadest  sense  "  language  "  connotes  more  than  verbal 
symbols  alone  and  must  be  conceived  as  including  every  sign 
consciously  employed  to  convey  meaning.  Notwithstanding 
this  extended  meaning  of  the  term  language,  however,  it  is 
true  that  the  dominant  factor  in  language  for  adults  is  verbal 
imagery  of  some  sort.  Thus  Dewey  says:  l 

The  chief  intellectual  classifications  that  constitute  the  working  cap- 
ital of  thought  have  been  built  up  for  us  by  our  matlier  tongue. 

1  Dewey,  J.,  How  We  Think,  p.  175.  The  best  general  statement  of  the 
relation  of  language  to  thought  is  found  in  that  book,  especially  in  chap, 
xm.  The  extracts  quoted  are  copyrighted  by  the  publishers,  D.  C.  Heath 
and  Company,  and  are  quoted  with  their  permission. 


426      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

So  important  is  this  conception  of  the  relation  of  lan- 
guage to  the  process  of  thinking  and  so  important  is  the 
bearing  of  that  relation  on  the  study  of  the  mother  tongue 
we  may  follow  Dewey  in  further  analysis  and  attempt 
to  discover  what  functions  language  performs  in  assisting 
thought  and  its  communication. 

(1)  In  relation  to  individual  meanings  verbal  symbols 
perform  three  important  functions: 

(a)  They  select  and  detach  meanings  from  what  are 
otherwise  confused  and  confusing  blurs.  The  appropriate 
naming  of  anything  is  closely  related  to  the  identification  of 
that  thing  —  so  closely  that  there  is  a  necessary  parallelism 
between  the  development  of  vocabulary  and  the  develop- 
ment of  clearly  defined  percepts,  concepts,  feelings  of  mean- 
ing, and  the  like.  The  development  of  individual  meanings 
cannot  proceed  very  far  without  the  development  of  the 
corresponding  vocabulary. 

(6)  Verbal  symbols  register  and  preserve  meanings  which 
would  otherwise  be  limited  to  situations  of  direct  contact: 

Since  intellectual  life  depends  on  the  possession  of  a  store  of 
meanings,  the  importance  of  language  as  a  tool  of  preserving  mean- 
ings cannot  be  overstated.  To  be  sure,  the  method  of  storage  is 
not  wholly  aseptic;  words  often  corrupt  and  modify  the  meanings 
they  are  supposed  to  keep  intact,  but  liability  to  infection  is  a  price 
paid  by  every  living  thing  for  the  privilege  of  living.1 

(c)  They  apply  meanings  to  new  experiences: 

When  a  meaning  is  detached  and  fixed  by  a  sign,  it  is  possible  to 
use  that  meaning  in  a  new  context  and  situation.  This  transfer  and 
reapplication  is  the  key  to  all  judgment  and  inference  [without 
which]  no  cumulative  growth  of  intelligence  would  occur;  experi- 
ence might  form  habits  of  physical  adaptation  but  it  would  not 
teach  anything,  for  we  should  not  be  able  to  use  a  prior  experience 
consciously  to  anticipate  and  regulate  further  experience.  To  be 

1  Dewey,  J.,  op.  cit.,  p.  174. 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  427 

able  to  use  the  past  to  judge  and  infer  the  new  and  unknown  implies 
that,  although  the  past  thing  has  gone,  its  meaning  abides  in  such 
a  way  as  to  be  applicable  in  determining  the  character  of  the  new. 
Speech  forms  are  our  great  carriers:  the  easy-running  vehicles  by 
which  meanings  are  transported  from  experiences  that  no  longer 
concern  us  to  those  that  are  as  yet  dark  and  dubious.1 

(2)  In  relation  to  the  organization  of  meanings  verbal 
symbols  perform  equally  important  functions: 

Signs  not  only  mark  off  specific  or  individual  meanings,  but  they 
are  also  instruments  of  grouping  meanings  in  relation  to  one  an- 
other. Words  are  not  only  names  or  titles  of  single  meanings;  they 
also  form  sentences  in  which  meanings  are  organized  in  relation  to 
one  another.  .  .  .  Propositions,  sentences,  bear  the  same  relation 
to  judgments  that  distinct  words,  built  up  by  analyzing  proposi- 
tions in  their  various  types,  bear  to  meanings  or  conceptions;  and 
just  as  words  imply  a  sentence,  so  a  sentence  implies  a  larger  whole 
of  consecutive  discourse  into  which  it  fits.2 

Meager  though  this  statement  of  the  functions  of  lan- 
guage is,  it  is  sufficient  to  emphasize  the  view,  frequently 
minimized,  or  totally  ignored,  that  language  is  an  instru- 
ment even  more  important  for  the  individual's  thinking  than 
for  the  expression  of  his  thought  or  for  his  understanding 
of  the  thoughts  of  others  expressed  through  language.  The 
point  cannot  be  too  strongly  enforced  that  language  is  an 
instrument  on  which  must  depend  the  individual's  actual 
thinking  process  to  a  very  considerable  extent.  Any  method 
of  teaching  English  which  minimizes  that  fact  is  fundamen- 
tally at  fault,  and  any  course  of  study  in  English  which  sub- 
ordinates the  relationing  of  language  to  thought  is  open  to 
severe  criticism. 

185.  The  aims  and  values  of  the  study  of  language.  The 

values  of  the  study  of  one's  mother  tongue  are  twofold, 

being  found  in  the  use  of  language  (1)  as  an  instrument  by 

which  the  individual's  thinking  is  facilitated  and  condi- 

1  Dewey,  J.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  174-75.  2  Ibid.,  p.  175. 


428      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

tioned,  and  (2)  as  a  medium  of  communication  between 
individuals.  Failure  to  recognize  properly  the  first  of  these 
values  and  the  tendency  to  devote  attention  almost  exclu- 
sively to  the  second  constitutes  one  of  the  most  serious  de- 
fects in  the  teaching  of  the  mother  tongue  in  the  secondary 
school.  "  Teaching  pupils  to  express  themselves  in  speech  and 
writing"  is  psychologically  dependent  on  and  pedagogically 
subordinate  to  the  process  of  making  language  an  effective 
instrument  for  the  individual's  own  intellectual  enterprises. 
The  early  stages  of  language  development  are  affected 
extensively  by  the  necessity  of  providing  an  instrument  suit- 
able for  the  ordinary  affairs  of  everyday  life  and  especially 
involve  "  practical  "  and  social  uses.  Gradually,  however, 
must  become  more  and  more  prominent  the  need  of  language 
as  an  intellectual  instrument.  Hence  Dewey's  statements: 1 

This  distinction  of  the  practical  and  social  from  the  intellectual 
use  of  language  throws  much  light  on  the  problem  of  the  school  in 
respect  to  speech.  That  problem  is  to  direct  pupils'  oral  and  written 
speech,  used  primarily  for  practical  and  social  ends,  so  that  gradually 
it  shall  become  a  conscious  tool  of  conveying  knowledge  and  assisting 
thought.  How  without  checking  the  spontaneous  natural  motives  — 
motives  to  which  language  owes  its  vitality,  force,  vividness,  and 
variety  —  are  we  to  modify  speech  habits  so  as  to  render  them 
accurate  and  flexible  intellectual  instruments?  It  is  comparatively 
easy  to  encourage  the  original  spontaneous  flow  and  not  to  make 
language  over  into  a  servant  of  reflective  thought;  it  is  compara- 
tively easy  to  check  and  almost  destroy  (so  far  as  the  schoolroom 
is  concerned)  native  aim  and  interest,  and  to  set  up  artificial  and 
formal  modes  of  expression  in  some  isolated  and  technical  matters. 
The  difficulty  lies  in  making  over  habits  that  have  to  do  with 
"ordinary  affairs  and  conveniences"  into  habits  concerned  with 
"precise  notions." 

Proper  recognition  of  the  importance  of  language  use  as 
related  to  the  individual's  own  mental  development  should 
indicate  the  fallacy  of  those  who  state  that  the  language 
1  Dewey,  J.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  179-80. 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  429 

tool  should  or  can  be  acquired  by  the  end  of  the  elementary- 
school  period.  The  mechanics  of  language  use,  i.e.,  the 
ability  to  recognize  groups  of  letters  as  familiar  and  to  utter 
certain  sounds  when  those  symbols  are  seen  in  reading,  the 
ability  to  put  together  certain  letter  symbols  in  response  to 
specified  auditory  stimuli  in  spelling,  the  ability  to  make 
certain  motor  responses  in  writing,  etc.,  —  all  those  abilities 
may,  perhaps,  be  well  acquired  by  the  close  of  the  element- 
ary-school period.  However,  the  far  more  fundamental 
abilities  of  relating  verbal  symbols  and  word  uses  to 
thought  can  never  be  acquired  hi  anything  like  adequate 
form  within  that  period.  These  abilities  should,  of  course, 
begin  at  the  earliest  stages.  They  continue  to  be  funda- 
mental, or  even  increase  in  importance,  as  education  pro- 
ceeds. They  are  of  predominant  importance  in  the  second- 
ary school. 

186.  Language  as  an  intellectual  instrument.  Involved 
in  the  development  of  language  both  as  an  instrument  of 
thought  and  for  the  transmission  of  thought  are  three 
elements  or  processes:  (1)  the  development  of  the  capital 
stock  of  words  —  the  extensive  development  of  vocabulary; 
this  is  inextricably  related  to  (2)  the  development  of  in- 
creased precision  and  accuracy  in  the  use  of  words  as  related 
to  thought  —  the  intensive  development  of  vocabulary; 
this  again  is  inextricably  related  to  (3)  the  development 
of  habits  of  interrelating  those  words  so  as  to  facilitate 
consecutive  thinking  and  consecutive  discourse.  Each  of 
these  elements  deserves  attention  as  involved  in  the  study 
of  language  in  the  secondary  school. 

(1)  The  extensive  development  of  vocabulary :  The  proper 
development  of  vocabulary  comes  with  extended  experience 
with  tilings  and  persons  and  the  acquiring  of  words  cor- 
rectly related  thereto,  or  by  experiencing  the  use  of  words 
in  contexts. 


430      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

To  grasp  by  either  method  a  word  in  its  meaning  is  to  exercise 
intelligence,  to  perform  an  act  of  intelligent  selection  or  analysis, 
and  it  is  also  to  widen  the  fund  of  meanings  or  concepts  readily 
available  for  further  intellectual  enterprises.1 

The  greater  the  number  of  words  really  associated  with  their 
appropriate  percepts,  concepts,  feelings  of  meaning,  and  the 
like,  which  are  available,  the  greater  is  the  possibility  of 
organizing  and  expressing  thought:  the  more  limited  the 
stock  of  words  available,  the  more  limited  must  be  the  possi- 
bility of  thought  and  its  expression. 

This  is  far  from  meaning,  however,  that  extensive  vocab- 
ulary alone  is  sufficient  to  guarantee  any  great  amount  of 
ability  to  think  or  to  express  thought.  Extensive  thinking 
without  extensive  vocabulary  is  impossible.  Extensive  vo- 
cabulary without  extensive  thinking  is  quite  possible  and 
very  common.  This  arises  on  the  one  hand  from  the  fact 
that  verbal  symbolic  imagery  tends  constantly  to  outstrip 
the  concrete  imagery  without  ultimate  reference  to  which 
the  verbal  symbol  must  always  remain  vague,  general,  and 
ill-defined.  It  arises  on  the  other  hand  from  the  fact  that 
the  "  passive  vocabulary  "  tends  constantly  to  outstrip  the 
"  active  vocabulary."  By  "  passive  vocabulary  "  is  meant 
here  that  portion  of  one's  vocabulary  which  consists  of 
words  recognized  as  more  or  less  familiar  and  carrying  some 
meaning  of  a  vague  and  general  character  when  experienced 
in  a  context  or  situation  where  other  elements  lend  at  least 
some  temporary  clue  to  the  meaning,  but  which  carry  little 
or  no  meaning  in  isolation  and  cannot  be  employed  by  the 
individual  in  handling  or  expressing  his  own  thought.  It  is 
a  task  of  education  to  prevent  this  "  passive  vocabulary  " 
from  remaining  passive  and  to  make  it  a  real  instrument  of 
thought  and  expression.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  every 
evidence  that,  as  commonly  conducted,  education  in  the 
1  Dewey,  J.,  op.  cii.,  p.  180. 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  431 

school  tends  to  foster  the  development  of  a  "  passive  vocab- 
ulary "  or  even  to  develop  an  "expression  vocabulary  "  which 
is  far  from  being  closely  related  to  the  thought  elements  for 
which  it  should  stand.  By  the  close  of  the  elementary-school 
period,  if  not  long  before,  there  is  manifest  a  tendency  for 
pupils  to  associate  words  with  words  rather  than  with  the 
concrete  realities  for  which  they  stand  or  the  elements  of 
thought  to  which  they  should  be  related.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  is  one  of  the  foremost  aims  of  teaching  in  the 
school  to  prevent  this  mechanizing  of  language  and  to  estab- 
lish proper  language-thought  relations.  This  means  the 
extension  (or  correction)  of  vocabulary  with  real  relation 
to  the  mental  state  supposedly  represented.  Any  other 
extension  of  vocabulary  is  actually  harmful  rather  than 
helpful. 

(2}  The  intensive  development  of  vocabulary :  Discovering 
and  naming  differing  experiences  is  the  basis  of  vocabulary 
development.  Precision  and  accuracy  in  thinking  and  in 
the  expression  of  thought  is  vitally  conditioned  by  precision 
and  accuracy  in  word  uses.  Increase  in  the  precise  and 
accurate  use  of  words  is  no  less  important  than  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  words  more  or  less  at  one's  command. 
In  fact  it  is  largely  through  increased  differentiation  in  dis- 
covering and  naming  meanings  that  the  extensive  devel- 
opment of  vocabulary  becomes  possible. 

The  pupil  enters  the  secondary  school  with  a  fairly  ex- 
tensive vocabulary  already  acquired  —  acquired  in  the 
sense  that  he  has  already  come  into  contact  with  a  large 
number  of  words  so  that  he  may  recognize  them  in  a  context 
or  even  employ  them  in  certain  word-word  associations.  His 
symbolic  imagery  has  far  outstripped  his  concrete  imagery 
and  his  "  passive  vocabulary  "  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  his 
"  active  vocabulary."  On  the  whole,  his  vocabulary  is  char- 
acterized by  generality,  vagueness,  indefiniteness,  or  even 


432      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

error.  However  extensive  his  vocabulary  may  be,  unless  it 
is  characterized  by  precision  and  accuracy  and  definiteness 
in  use  for  thinking  and  expression,  it  must  fail  to  be  an 
efficient  instrument  for  those  processes,  and  must  lead  to 
looseness  and  error  in  thinking. 

Vagueness  disguises  the  unconscious  mixing  together  of  differ- 
ent meanings  and  facilitates  the  substitution  of  one  meaning  for 
another,  and  covers  up  the  failure  to  have  any  precise  meaning  at 
all.  It  is  the  aboriginal  logical  sin  —  the  source  from  which  flow 
most  bad  intellectual  consequences.1 

The  first  meanings  of  terms,  since  they  are  due  to  superficial 
acquaintance  with  things,  are  general  in  the  sense  of  being  vague. 
.  .  .  Such  vagueness  tends  to  persist  and  to  become  a  barrier  to  the 
advance  of  thinking.  Terms  that  are  miscellaneous  in  scope  are 
clumsy  tools  at  best;  in  addition  they  are  frequently  treacherous, 
for  their  ambiguous  reference  causes  us  to  confuse  things  that 
should  be  distinguished.2 

It  has  long  been  recognized  that  our  feelings  aroused 
through  the  senses  (percepts,  etc.,  when  identified  or  inter- 
preted in  connection  with  previous  experiences)  are  at  first 
vague,  general,  ill-defined,  and  that  with  a  series  of  subse- 
quent experiences  only  do  they  become  clear,  specific,  defin- 
ite, well-defined,  clear-cut  and  precise  percepts,  etc.,  which 
have  gradually  emerged  into  clearness  out  of  their  original 
hazy  and  foggy  condition.  So  terms  (the  symbolic  images 
standing  for  those  percepts,  etc.)  only  gradually  emerge 
into  clearness  and  definiteness  out  of  their  original  vague- 
ness and  generality.  The  two  processes  —  development  of 
percepts,  etc.,  and  development  of  related  vocabulary  — 
are  so  closely  related  that  neither  process  can  proceed  far 
without  the  other.  The  two  proceed  by  climbing  on  each 
other's  shoulders.  As  the  relation  between  percepts  and 
vocabulary  develops,  so  develops  the  relation  between  con- 
cepts or  general  notions  and  their  corresponding  symbolic 
1  Dewey,  J.,  op.  cit.,  p.  130.  2  Ibid.,  p.  182. 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  433 

images  —  general  words  or  names  —  and  so  develops  the 
relation  between  feelings  of  abstraction,  feelings  of  relation- 
ship, etc.,  and  their  corresponding  terms.  Finally,  without 
such  development  the  complex  processes  of  selective  think- 
ing are  impossible. 

(3)  The  development  of  habits  of  consecutive  thinking  and 
consecutive  discourse :  Aside  from  what  we  may  call  the 
"  intrinsic  "  meaning  of  a  word  —  the  relatively  constant 
element  of  the  fundamental  root  idea  (that  which  makes 
it  possible  for  us  to  recognize  a  term  in  different  contexts)  - 
there  is  always  in  actual  use  what  we  may  call  an  "  extrin- 
sic "  meaning  —  the  varying  element  attached  to  the  con- 
stant element  or  root  idea  as  a  modification  of  it  when 
used  contextually  in  relation  to  other  terms  (that  which 
makes  it  possible  for  us  to  use  the  same  word  with  some- 
what different  shades  of  meaning  determined  by  its  sur- 
roundings). As  a  matter  of  fact,  seldom,  if  ever,  does  the 
same  term  (the  auditory,  visual,  motor,  or  other  image) 
carry  the  same  meaning  in  any  two  different  contexts,  and 
therefore  the  readiness  with  which  varying  meanings  may 
be  attached  to  the  same  term  is  the  real  desideratum  both 
for  thinking  and  for  the  expression  of  thought.  The  develop- 
ment of  a  rather  extensive  vocabulary  in  which  the  intrinsic 
meanings  of  terms  are  fairly  adequate  is  a  relatively  simple 
task  and  one  which  may  possibly  be  accomplished  through 
elementary  education.  The  development  of  an  extensive 
vocabulary  in  which  the  extrinsic  meanings  of  terms  are 
adequately  mastered  is  an  extremely  difficult  task  of  great 
importance  in  secondary  education.  This  can  be  accom- 
plished only  by  constant  practice  in  the  organization  of 
consecutive  thinking  and  consecutive  discourse. 

187.  The  dominant  purposes  of  language  studies.  If  the 
assumptions  outlined  at  some  length  in  the  preceding  sec- 
tions are  sound,  it  follows  that  the  language  studies  of  the 


434      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

secondary  school  should  find  their  fundamental  values  and 
primary  aims  in  the  development  of  ability  to  employ  lan- 
guage as  an  instrument  of  thinking  and  thereby  as  an  instru- 
ment for  the  expression  of  thought.  Such,  therefore,  should 
be  the  primary  aim  of  the  teaching  of  composition,  and 
all  elements  which  may  be  involved  in  the  teaching  of  that 
subject  should  be  considered  of  minor  importance.  Such 
also  should  be  the  aim  in  teaching  those  portions  of  grammar 
and  rhetoric  which  may  be  justified  in  secondary  education. 
With  these  criteria  in  mind  there  should  be  little  danger  that 
an  all-embracing  study  of  formal  grammar  would  usurp  the 
place  of  functional  or  applied  grammar,  or  that  an  elabo- 
rately formal  rhetoric  would  carry  the  study  of  that  subject 
far  beyond  the  legitimate  limits  of  its  applications  in  the 
secondary  school. 

The  study  of  language  in  the  secondary  school  should  in 
all  cases  be  dominated  by  the  conception  that  only  exercise 
in  the  use  of  language  can  achieve  the  desired  aims.  Some 
knowledges  about  language  are  legitimate  aids  and  many 
lend  a  stimulating  interest  to  its  study.  No  excuse  can  be 
found,  however,  for  the  practice  at  present  common  of 
emphasizing  information  about  language  and  minimizing 
training  in  the  use  of  language. 

188.  Limitations  of  the  study  of  the  mother  tongue.  Un- 
questioned though  the  importance  of  the  study  of  language 
is,  it  must  be  recognized  that  in  the  development  of  the 
ability  to  use  one's  mother  tongue  as  a  tool  for  thinking 
and  for  communicating  thought  the  study  of  English  suffers 
certain  important  limitations,  most  of  which  center  around 
the  difficulty  of  making  over  habits  that  have  to  do  with 
"  ordinary  affairs  and  conveniences  "  into  habits  which  are 
concerned  with  "precise  notions."  Here  several  considera- 
tions may  be  adduced. 

(1)  In  the  development  of  speech  use  there  comes  a  time 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  435 

when  the  use  of  one's  mother  tongue  for  expression  and  in- 
terpretation (especially  in  reading)  becomes  so  mechanical 
that  the  very  facility  with  which  one  employs  the  language 
constitutes  the  greatest  barrier  to  interfere  with  its  further 
extension  and  its  transformation  from  an  instrument  for 
ordinary  use  into  an  instrument  for  precise  and  accurate 
thinking  and  expression.  The  laws  of  habit  tend  inevitably 
to  confirm  the  practice  of  grasping  the  general  meaning  of  an 
expression  seen  in  print  or  heard  and  of  utilizing  somewhat 
stereotyped  expressions  which  but  partially  and  approxi- 
mately convey  the  correct  thought.  Attention  sinks  to  a 
low  level  and  the  conscious  relationing  of  words  to  thought 
is  minimized.  Mental  inertia  leads  to  following  the  line  of 
least  resistance  and  results  in  the  individual  taking  the  eas- 
ier path  around  rather  than  the  more  effortful  path  through 
the  thinking  process.  Comparison,  contrast,  and  selection, 
necessary  for  the  development  of  vocabulary  and  language 
habits  if  they  are  to  be  made  more  precise  and  accurate,  are 
not  forced  on  the  individual  when  employing  his  own  lan- 
guage where  its  facile  use  permits  looseness  and  vagueness. 

(2)  Closely  related  to  the  previous  consideration,  if  not 
really  a  part  of  it,  is  the  fact  that  our  methods  of  education, 
with  emphasis  on  the  printed  page,  and  the  ordinary  usages 
of  everyday  life  tend  to  foster  the  development  of  an  ex- 
tensive vocabulary,  portions  of  which  consist  of  words  and 
expressions  whose  interpretation  for  the  individual  depends 
largely,  if  not  wholly,  in  the  context  in  which  they  occur 
and  which  have  such  vague  and  ill-defined  meanings  for  him 
that  they  are  practically  useless  as  instruments  for  inde- 
pendent thiiiking  and  expression.    Here  belong  the  passive 
vocabulary  previously  mentioned  and  a  large  number  of 
terms   which   have   but   symbol-symbol   associations   and 
almost  entirely  lack  symbol-thought  associations. 

(3)  In  the  preceding  section  attention  was  called  to  the 


fact  that  the  development  of  language-use  as  an  instru- 
ment for  thinking  and  expressing  thought  is  dependent  on 
rendering  terms  more  precise  and  more  accurate  and  on  the 
ordering  or  relationing  of  terms  in  connected  thought  and 
connected  discourse.  The  most  important  study  for  the 
accomplishment  of  that  purpose  is  composition.  Yet  it  is 
particularly  in  the  teaching  of  composition  that  the  greatest 
difficulties  are  encountered  in  utilizing  the  English  language 
to  transform  the  use  of  that  language  from  an  instrument  for 
the  ordinary  affairs  and  conveniences  of  everyday  life  to  an 
instrument  for  precise  and  accurate  thinking.  The  only  way 
in  which  terms  (in  their  intrinsic  and  extrinsic  meanings) 
may  be  rendered  more  precise  and  accurate  is  through  the 
constantly  refining  process  of  comparison,  contrast,  and 
selection  of  terms  whose  connotation  and  denotation  more 
or  less  overlap.  Such  a  process  involves  selective  thinking 
(reasoning)  which  can  only  arise  when  there  is  a  felt  diffi- 
culty and  can  take  place  only  when  an  attempt  is  made  to 
solve  that  difficulty.  But  in  composition  it  is  by  no  means 
easy  to  render  conditions  favorable  to  that  process  of  selec- 
tive thinking  which  is  necessary  if  effective  comparison, 
contrast,  and  selection  of  terms  are  to  be  achieved.  In  the 
secondary  school  composition  ordinarily  means  one  of  two 
things  —  either  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  to 
"  compose  "  an  essay  or  theme  out  of  whole  cloth  on  a  topic 
assigned  or  chosen,  or  to  take  a  given  piece  of  writing  which 
he  is  to  imitate  or  "  reproduce  "  in  expanded  or  constricted 
form.  Imitative  writing  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
the  present  problem.  Reproduction  as  far  as  exact  thought 
is  involved  is  a  total  impossibility  in  the  same  language. 
In  any  case  it  is  extremely  difficult  if  not  impossible  for  the 
teacher  to  control  or  even  to  know  the  thought  and  vocabu- 
lary of  the  pupil  clearly  enough  to  enable  him  to  direct  the 
process  of  their  interrelation.  In  writing  a  composition  the 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  437 

pupil  comes  to  a  point  where  the  right  word  to  express  his 
half -formed  thought  does  not  at  once  come  to  him.  Does 
the  pupil  then  enter  on  a  process  of  reflective  thinking  in- 
volving comparison,  contrast,  and  the  selection  of  the  right 
word?  Barrie's  Tommy  is  a  rare  exception  and  in  nine  cases 
out  of  ten  the  pupil  follows  the  line  of  least  resistance,  walks 
around  the  boulder  in  his  way,  revamps  his  thought  to  meet 
the  narrow  confines  of  his  customary  vocabulary,  and  the 
opportunity  for  improvement  is  forever  lost.  Able  to  know 
the  pupil's  thought  only  as  it  may  be  expressed  the  teacher 
is  powerless  to  prevent  such  "  side-stepping  "  practice  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil,  can  judge  only  the  composition  as  written 
(or  spoken),  and  hence  can  to  a  limited  degree  only  control 
the  relating  of  terms  and  language  to  the  thought  process 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil.1 

(4)  It  scarcely  needs  to  be  mentioned  here  that  the  study 
of  language  in  the  school  is  seriously  handicapped  by  the 
fact  that  the  use  of  language  outside  the  school  is  so  loose 
that  it  is  extremely  difficult  through  the  English  class  to 
overcome  the  laxity  of  language-thought  relating  in  the 
ordinary  use  of  the  language  outside  the  school.  The  study 
of  one's  own  language  does  not  compel  conscious  attention 
to  the  language-thought  relation  without  which  conditions 
are  unfavorable  for  the  transformation  of  language  as  a  tool 
for  ordinary  social  use  into  a  tool  for  precise  and  accurate 
thinking. 

(5)  Even  within  the  school  the  teaching  of  language 
suffers  serious  limitations.     Habit  formation  demands  as 
one  of  its  essential  conditions  that  associations  suffer  few 
exceptions.    Whatever  habits  may  be  successfully  fostered 
in  the  English  class  they  are  commonly  counteracted  by 
interfering  conditions  in  other  classes.    Unless  the  work  hi 

1  Space  limits  attention  here  to  written  composition  only.  Oral  com- 
position suffers  the  same  limitations. 


438      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

English  is  closely  correlated  with  the  work  of  other  classes, 
unless  the  relation  of  language  and  thought  is  carefully 
attended  to  in  the  study  of  other  subjects,  the  constructive 
work  of  the  English  class  will  be  in  great  part  offset  by  the 
destructive  work  in  other  classes.  The  teaching  of  language 
usage  is  primarily  the  work  of  the  English  teacher.  It  is  also 
an  important  part  of  the  work  of  every  other  teacher. 

Of  the  limitations  for  teaching  language  through  the 
medium  of  the  English  class  the  first  three  mentioned  are 
of  great  importance  in  connection  with  the  study  of  foreign 
languages.  The  position  will  be  taken  in  Chapter  XIII 
that  the  most  general  and  fundamental  values  of  the  study 
of  foreign  languages  in  the  American  secondary  school  are 
found  in  connection  with  the  language-thought  relation  and 
serve  to  aid  the  study  of  English  at  the  points  where  the 
limitations  of  the  latter  are  greatest. 

III.  THE  AIMS  AND  VALUES  OF  THE  STUDY  OP 
LITERATURE 

189.  Literature  and  the  social-civic  aim  of  education. 
Whenever  we  deal  with  the  social-civic  aim  of  secondary 
education  we  deal  with  an  aim  which  is  general  and  uni- 
versal. Hence,  whatever  study  contributes  directly  or 
indirectly  to  the  attainment  of  the  social-civic  aim  must 
be  conceived  as  offering  general  and  universal  values. 
Here  the  study  of  literature  is  of  value  in  two  related  ways : 
(a)  it  affords  contact  with  human  experiences  and  human 
conduct  in  complete  variety;  (6)  by  bringing  pupils  into 
contact  with  the  experiences,  traditions,  conventions,  and 
customs  of  society  it  possesses  great  integrating  values. 

In  a  very  important  sense  literature  is  to  be  conceived  as 
a  social-science  study  in  the  secondary  school,  when  prop- 
erly conducted  occupying  a  position  by  no  means  inferior 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  439 

to  that  of  history,  economics,  and  civics.  History  deals 
primarily  with  group  experiences  and  economics  or  sociology 
with  abstract  principles.  Civics  and  literature  both  reach  the 
field  of  individual  conduct,  but  start  from  opposite  extremes, 
literature  dealing  predominantly  with  individual  conduct 
and  having  little  to  do  with  the  formal  duties  of  citizenship. 
With  the  thousand  and  one  phases  of  everyday  behavior 
history,  sociology,  and  economics  have  little  or  nothing  to 
do.  Even  civics  hi  its  broadest  sense  has  relatively  little  to 
do  with  those  phases  of  life's  activities.  On  the  other  hand 
that  is  exactly  the  field  where  literature,  in  its  broadest  and 
best  sense,  reigns  supreme.  The  experiences  which  go  to 
determine  the  individual's  action  and  conduct  in  the  ordi- 
nary affairs  of  life  may  be  provided  directly  or  vicariously. 
One's  environment  must  needs  limit  the  direct  experiences: 
the  vicarious  experiences  may  be  provided  through  reading 
and  are  limited  only  by  the  opportunities  and  acquired  hab- 
its of  reading.  The  study  of  literature,  properly  conducted, 
may  and  should  extend  the  range  of  one's  experiences  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  one's  immediate  environment. 

Turning  our  attention  in  a  somewhat  different  direction 
we  may  note  that  the  study  of  literature  may  be  made  a 
powerful  factor  for  social  integration.  The  dominant  ideals 
of  any  society,  its  traditions,  its  thought,  its  customs,  its  life 
are  embodied  in  its  literature.  Acquaintance  with  national 
or  racial  literature  has  something  more  than  merely  conven- 
tional value.  It  has  value  as  instilling  in  the  individual  all 
that  has  gone  to  make  a  society  what  it  is  and  of  creating  in 
him  unconsciously  its  own  ideals,  thought,  and  aspirations. 
The  spiritual  inheritance  of  the  race  is  best  conveyed  to  the 
pupil  through  the  study  of  its  literature. 

190.  Literature  and  the  economic-vocational  aim.  Liter- 
ature, as  any  other  subject  of  study  in  the  secondary-school 
program,  may  become  a  vocational  subject  for  certain  indi- 


440      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

viduals.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  as  a  vocational 
study  in  the  secondary  school  literature  can  have  but  lim- 
ited values  and,  indeed,  it  may  well  be  that  attention  to  the 
vocational  values  of  literature  is  entirely  out  of  place  there. 
Certainly  this  must  be  so  save  in  very  few  cases. 

If  the  limited  vocational  values  of  the  study  of  literature 
in  the  secondary  school  were  fully  recognized  in  high-school 
teaching,  further  consideration  of  literature  in  connection 
with  the  economic-vocational  aim  would  be  superfluous. 
Attention  was  called  above  to  the  fallacy  of  failing  to  dis- 
tinguish between  values  of  production,  accomplishment,  or 
technical  knowledge  and  values  of  consumption,  utilization, 
or  appreciation.  This  fallacy  is  not  without  exemplification 
in  the  teaching  of  English  literature  which  is  preeminently 
a  subject  whose  dominant  values  are  those  of  utilization 
and  appreciation.  No  justification  can  be  found  for  the 
extensive  attention  paid  in  many  schools  to  the  formal  side 
of  literature  and  to  literary  technique. 

191.  Literature  and  the  individualistic-avocational  aim. 
Probably  no  other  study  in  the  secondary-school  program 
can  compete  with  literature  as  a  study  contributing  to 
the  individualistic-avocational  aim  of  secondary  education. 
Two  thousand  years  ago  Cicero  praised  literature  as  a  source 
of  enjoyment  suited  to  all  times,  all  ages,  and  all  places  as 
contrasted  with  other  sources  of  enjoyment  of  more  limited 
scope.  To-day  his  praise  may  be  extended  to  apply  to  all 
individuals  as  well.  As  a  universal  source  of  enjoyment  for 
the  utilization  of  leisure  literature  affords  universal  values 
which  cannot  be  neglected.  The  increasing  amount  of 
leisure  afforded  the  individual  and  the  increasing  facilities 
for  "  reading  "  make  the  study  of  literature  of  constantly 
increasing  importance  in  the  secondary  school.  People  will 
read :  what  practically  all  people  will  do  they  must  be  trained 
how  best  to  do.  Assuming  that  people  will  read,  the  question 


441 

becomes  important  as  to  what  they  will  read  and  how  they 
will  read. 

In  the  field  of  literature  the  social-civic  and  the  individ- 
ualistic-avocational  aims  of  secondary  education  meet.  In 
considering  the  latter  aim  the  point  was  made  that  from  a 
social  viewpoint  the  aim  of  the  secondary  school  to  afford 
preparation  for  the  enjoyment  of  life  is  negative  in  the  sense 
that  it  purposes  not  so  much  to  build  up  civilization  as  to 
prevent  its  impairment.  In  the  case  of  teaching  literature 
for  its  individualistic-avocational  values  the  aim  must  be  to 
develop  such  standards  of  taste  and  appreciation  as  may 
afford  enjoyment  to  the  individual  without  allowing  those 
values  to  interfere  with  the  social-civic  values  of  the  study. 
The  tremendous  influence  of  modern  literature  on  the  indi- 
vidual has  created  a  problem  which  cannot  safely  be  neg- 
lected by  the  secondary  school.  Some,  perhaps  much,  of 
that  literature  is  good  and  valuable.  Much  also  is  bad  and 
harmful.  Which  of  the  two  sorts  will  prove  strong  influences 
in  the  lives  of  secondary-school  pupils  may  be  determined 
in  part  by  the  study  of  literature  in  the  school.  To  expect 
such  study  wholly  to  determine  this  is  to  expect  the  impossi- 
ble. To  attempt  to  establish  too  high  a  standard  (especially 
from  the  artistic  and  aesthetic  viewpoints)  is  in  many  cases 
to  defeat  the  very  purpose  aimed  at. 

Have  we  not  here  the  criteria  of  materials  to  be  intro- 
duced in  the  secondary  school  for  the  study  of  literature? 
Two  important  values  are  to  be  attained:  (a)  the  social- 
civic  values  (including  moral  values) ,  and  (&)  the  individu- 
alistic-avocational values  (including  aesthetic  values).  Such 
pieces  of  literature  as  may  be  made  the  object  of  study  in 
the  secondary-school  course  must  conform  to  one  or  both 
of  those  values.  Pieces  of  literature  introduced  primarily 
for  their  social-civic  values  must  secondarily  possess  indi- 
vidualistic-avocational values  or  be  balanced  by  others 


442      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

designed  to  produce  such  values.  Pieces  of  literature  intro- 
duced primarily  for  their  individualistic-avocational  values 
must  secondarily  possess  social-civic  values  or  at  least  be 
such  as  do  not  tend  to  counteract  social-civic  influences. 
Any  course  in  literature  which  subordinates  either  of  the 
two  principal  aims  of  the  study  is  faulty.  The  maximum  of 
values  will  accrue  when  a  proper  balance  is  maintained  be- 
tween the  two  values. 

One  point  further  requires  attention  before  this  topic  is 
left.  Since  the  main  values  of  the  study  of  literature  as  con- 
tributing to  the  social-civic  aim  are  to  be  found  in  the  influ- 
ence of  its  content  and  since  the  main  values  of  its  study  as 
contributing  to  the  individualistic-avocational  aim  of  sec- 
ondary education  are  to  be  found  in  the  development  of  a 
sense  of  enjoyment  in  reading  and  taste  in  the  choice  of  such 
reading,  it  would  appear  to  follow  that  in  all  cases  highly 
formal  study  and  attention  to  the  technique  of  literature 
should  be  subordinated  to  those  more  important  values. 
The  study  of  literary  technique,  except  within  such  limit? 
as  obviously  affect  the  general  appreciation  of  literature,  has 
no  place  in  the  study  of  literature  in  the  secondary  school. 
The  aesthetics  of  style,  when  carried  beyond  the  elements 
and  made  an  important  part  of  the  work  in  literature,  bene- 
fit a  few  exceptional  pupils,  but  seriously  encroach  on  much 
more  important  phases  of  the  work  for  the  vast  majority  of 
pupils.  It  must  be  constantly  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  of 
literature  that  the  values  of  utilization  and  appreciation  are 
dominant  in  that  subject  and  that  high-school  pupils  are  to 
be  trained  to  utilize  and  appreciate  literature,  not  to  pro- 
duce it,  to  become  intelligent  consumers  of  literature,  not 
producers  nor  yet  even  literary  critics.  The  former  function 
is  general  and  universal :  the  latter  is  extremely  limited  and 
restricted. 

192.  Criticism  of  English  study  as  now  organized.    To 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  443 

criticize  the  general  economy  of  the  study  of  English  in  the 
American  secondary  school  is  to  criticize  as  many  economies 
as  there  are  schools  and  is  therefore  hopeless  except  in  the 
most  general  terms.  Nevertheless,  a  number  of  important 
points  deserve  some  attention. 

(1)  There  is  a  grave  tendency  in  many  quarters  to  mini- 
mize the  study  of  the  language  and  to  give  disproportionate 
attention  to  the  study  of  literature.  The  adequate  teaching 
of  language  is  an  extremely  difficult  task.    The  teaching  of 
literature  sometimes  appears  easy.  The  one  task  is  relatively 
irksome  both  to  pupil  and  to  teacher:  the  other  is  relatively 
pleasant.  The  one  apparently  exhibits  rather  indefinite  and 
intangible  results  not  readily  measured  or  observed:  the 
other  exhibits  rather  definite  and  tangible  results,  somewhat 
readily  measured  and  observed.  The  line  of  least  resistance 
favors  the  greater  attention  to  literature  and  in  the  average 
school  the  study  of  language  per  se  suffers  in  consequence. 
For  this  there  is  no  justification. 

(2)  A  second  tendency  commonly  manifested  is  that  of 
emphasizing  certain  formal  phases  of  the  use  of  language 
for  expression,  a  failure  adequately  to  recognize  the  impor- 
tance of  the  study  of  language  as  an  instrument  for  thinking 
itself,  and  hence  a  failure  to  emphasize  values  which  are 
fundamental  even  to  the  values  of  language  for  expression. 

(3)  The  proportionate  attention  to  either  of  the  two  im- 
portant aims  of  the  study  of  literature  (social-civic  and  indi- 
vidualistic-avocational)  tends  toward  an  overemphasis  on 
the  individualistic-avocational  side  and  toward  a  relative 
neglect  of  the  social-civic  side.    An  overemphasis  in  either 
direction  is  undesirable. 

(4)  Apparently  the  tendency  is  constant  to  overempha- 
size the  formal  side  of  literature  at  the  risk  of  failing  to 
arouse  in  the  majority  of  pupils  that  abiding  liking  for 
"  reading  "  which  is  the  special  purpose  of  the  individualistic- 


444      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

avocational  aim  of  the  study  of  literature  in  the  secondary 
school. 

(5)  However  much  teachers  in  the  secondary  school  may 
recognize  the  validity  of  the  abstract  proposition  that  re- 
sponsibility for  language  work  is  theirs  as  well  as  the  English 
teacher's,  their  practice  is  far  from  recognizing  the  respon- 
sibility.   Until  that  proposition  is  as  thoroughly  recognized 
in  practice  as  it  is  in  theory  the  adequate  teaching  of  the 
English  language  cannot  be  attained. 

(6)  In  view  of  the  general  and  universal  values  of  the  study 
of  English  a  serious  question  arises  when  it  is  proposed  that 
in  certain  courses  (especially  in  vocational  courses  and  vo- 
cational schools)  attempts  are  made  to  substitute  applied 
forms  of  English  in  special  fields,  e.g.,  "  business  English," 
for  more  general  courses.*  If  the  moral-social,  the  integrat- 
ing, and  the  avocational  values  of  the  study  of  literature  are 
sound,  if  the  fundamental  values  of  the  study  of  language  as 
an  instrument  for  thinking  and  for  the  expression  of  thought 
are  valid,  there  can  be  no  justification  for  their  elimination 
in  favor  of  "  applied  forms  "  of  English.    Wherever  such 
forms  as  "  business  English,"  etc.,  are  justified,  they  must 
be  justified  primarily  on  the  basis  of  vocational  studies  and 
not  as  taking  the  place  of  studies  which  have  an  entirely 
different  aim  —  social-civic  or  individualistic-avocational. 

(7)  Probably  the  greatest  loss  of  efficiency  in  the  study  of 
English  in  the  American  secondary  school  results  from  the 
failure  on  the  part  of  school  officers,  teachers,  and  pupils  to 
distinguish  carefully  between  the  aims  and  values  of  the 
various  phases  of  the  work  included  under  the  ambiguous 
term  "  English."    In  the  preceding  analysis  of  aims  and 
values  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  a  number  of  quite  differ- 
ent purposes  are  involved  in  the  different  phases  of  work  in 
the  study  of  "  English."    That  numerous  interrelations  are 
legitimate  between  these  different  phases  is  clear  and  it  is 


THE  PLACE  OF  ENGLISH  445 

true  that  correlation  and  cooperation  are  eminently  desir- 
able. It  is  nevertheless  true  that  failure  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  primary  aims  and  values  of  the  study  of  language 
per  se,  the  study  of  literature  for  social-civic  ends,  and  the 
study  of  literature  for  individualistic  ends,  etc.,  leads  to 
confusion  in  the  study  of  "  English  "  in  the  average  second- 
ary school.  The  gravest  error  here  is  that  frequently  noted 
in  the  burdening  of  the  study  of  literature  with  detailed 
language  analysis  and  with  elaborately  formal  study  of  the 
technique  of  literary  composition.  In  the  average  "English  " 
class  the  teacher  either  fails  to  analyze  the  special  values  to 
be  emphasized  in  the  particular  phase  of  work  involved  or 
attempts  to  meet  too  many  aims  and  to  develop  too  many 
values  at  the  same  time. 

• 

PROBLEMS  FOB  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  separation  of  language  and 
literature  studies  in  secondary-school  English?     (Cf.   Snedden,   D., 
Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  pp.  171  jf.) 

2.  What  differences  in  teaching  would  follow  from  the  organization  of 
language  courses  in  English  designed  to  emphasize  the  use  of  language 
as  an  instrument  for  the  pupils'  thinking  rather  than  to  emphasize  his 
ability  in  expression  ? 

3.  Devise  methods  of  testing  a  pupil's  "passive"  and  "active"  vocabu- 
laries. 

4.  Make  a  study  of  the  relative  proportions  of  time  now  devoted  to  lan- 
guage and  literature  studies  in  a  number  of  different  high  schools. 

5.  What  means  might  be  devised  to  emphasize  the  relationing  of  language 
use  to  thought  in  English  composition? 

6.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  study  of  "formal  gram- 
mar"? 

7.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  study  of  logic  in  the  second- 
ary school? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  books  for  high-school  reading  which  would  emphasize 
both  social  and  avocational  values. 

9.  Analyze  the  books  now  commonly  read  in  the  public  high  schools  in 
terms  of  the  values  suggested  in  this  chapter. 

10.  Devise  methods  of  determining  the  character  of  pupils'  vocabularies 
on  entrance  to  the  secondary  school. 


446      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

11.  Consider  the  various  scales  for  measuring  English  composition  with 
reference  to  the  degree  in  which  they  measure  the  language-thought 
relations  emphasized  in  this  chapter. 

12.  Consider  the  various  "reading  tests"  with  reference  to  language- 
thought  relations. 

13.  Apply  various  "opposites  tests,"  "part-whole  tests,"  "genus-species 
tests, "  etc.,  to  secondary-school  pupils.  (Cf .  Whipple,  G.  M.,  Manual 
of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests.) 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Bates,  A.,  Talks  on  the  Teaching  of  Literature. 

Bolenius,  E.,  Teaching  Literature  in  the  Grammar  Grades  and  High  School. 

Brown,  R.  W.,  How  the  French  Boy  Learns  to  Write. 

Campagnac,  E.  T.,  The  Teaching  of  Composition. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.,  Baker,  F.  T.,  and  Scott,  F.  N.,  The  Teaching  of  English 
in  Elementary  and  Secondary  School,  especially  pp.  3-66,  188-292. 

Chubb,  P.,  The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Elementary  and  the  Secondary 
Schod,  especially  pp.  235-50,  371-95. 

Dewey,  J.,  How  We  Think,  especially  chap.  xin. 

Fairchild,  A.  H.  R.,  Teaching  Poetry  in  the  High  School. 

Farrington,  F.  E.,  French  Secondary  Schools,  pp.  187-212  ("The  Teaching 
of  French  in  French  Secondary  Schools"). 

Hall,  G.  S.,  Educational  Problems,  vol.  n,  pp.  397-492. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  Teaching  the  Language  Arts. 

Huey,  E.  B.,  The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading,  chaps,  v-vin,  xix. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  The  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects,  pp.  133-210. 

Klapper,  P.,  The  Teaching  of  English. 

National  Education  Association,  Committee  of  Ten,  Report  on  Secondary 
School  Studies,  pp.  86-95  (Bureau  of  Education  edition). 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of 
Secondary  Education,  and  the  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English, 
Report  by  the  National  Joint  Committee,  Reorganization  of  English  in 
Secondary  Schools,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1917)  no.  2. 

Neal,  R.  W.,  Thought-Building  in  Composition. 

O'Shea,  M.  V.,  Linguistic  Development  and  Education,  especially  pp.  124-97. 

Russell,  J.  E.,  German  Higher  "Schools,  pp.  227-44  ("The  Teaching  of  Ger- 
man in  German  Higher  Schools"). 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xv. 

Thomas,  C.  S.,  The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Secondary  School,  chap.  I. 

Extended  bibliographies:  Thomas,  C.  S.,  as  above,  pp.  346-50;  Bureau  of 
Education  Bulletin  (1917)  no.  2,  pp.  156-77. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE   PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES   IN  THE 
PROGRAM   OF  STUDIES 

193.  Historical  development  in  America.  Attention  has 
previously  been  called  to  the  fact  that  during  the  colonial 
period  the  studies  of  the  secondary  school  were  exclusively 
linguistic  and  literary  and  were  confined  to  Latin  and  Greek. 
The  study  of  the  ancient  languages  and  literature,  therefore, 
has  had  an  unbroken  history  since  the  beginning  of  second- 
ary education  in  America,  being  perpetuated  through  the 
academy  and  the  public  high  school.  From  about  1900  the 
study  of  Greek  has  tended  to  disappear  from  the  program 
of  the  public  secondary  school,  its  demise  being  assisted  by 
the  removal  of  the  protecting  influence  of  college  admission 
requirement.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  note  that 
common  opinion  has  always  ascribed  to  the  study  of  Greek 
in  the  public  secondary  school  of  the  nineteenth  century  a 
prominence  which  it  never  really  attained.  As  a  matter  of 
historical  fact  it  is  quite  improbable  that  the  proportion  of 
pupils  studying  Greek  in  the  public  high  schools  of  this 
country  ever  was  as  high  as  five  per  cent  of  the  total  enroll- 
ment.1 The  assumed  popularity  of  Greek  in  the  public  high 
schools  of  America  never  was  a  reality. 

The  modern  foreign  languages  found  their  way  into  the 
program  of  the  modern  secondary  school  via  the  academy 
which  contributed  the  study  of  French  and  German  to  the 
early  high  school.  Thus  French  was  introduced  into  the 
Girls'  High  School  of  Boston  as  an  optional  subject  in  1826 

1  Inglis,  A.  J.,  The  Rise  of  the  High  School  in  Massachusetts,  pp.  89-94, 
108-10. 


448      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


and  into  the  program  of  the  English  Classical  (High)  School 
of  Boston  in  1836. l  German  was  introduced  at  least  as  early 
as  1838-39  in  the  Central  High  School  of  Philadelphia.  Dur- 
ing the  earlier  period  the  study  of  French  and  German  wa: 
upheld  for  its  cultural  values  primarily.  Latin  sentiment 
and  race  influences  extensively  affected  the  study  of  the 
modern  foreign  languages,  especially  German.  Finally, 
within  the  past  decade  or  so,  the  commercial  values  of  such 
study  have  received  increased  emphasis. 

The  development  of  the  study  of  foreign  languages  in  the 
public  secondary  schools  from  1890  to  1915  is  indicated  in 
Table  CXIX.  The  data  presented  in  the  following  table  will 
further  illustrate  that  development. 

TABLE  CXX.  NUMBERS  OF  PUPILS  ENGAGED  IN  FOREIGN 
LANGUAGE  STUDIES  * 


Year 

Latin 

German 

French 

Spanish 

Greek 

1890  

70,411 

21,338 

11,858 

6,202 

;§>       1895  

163,950 

39,901 

22,813 

10,859 

w"8    1900... 

262,767 

74,408 

40,395 

14,813 

3-8    1905... 

341,248 

137,661 

62.120 

10,002 

£       1910  

362,548 

175,083 

73,161 

4,920 

5,511 

1915  

434,925 

284,294 

102,516 

81,743 

3,351 

1890  

100,144 

34,208 

28,032 

12,869 

1      1895  
|g    1900  

205,006 
314,856 

58,921 
94,873 

45,746 
65,684 

22,159 
24,869 

Si    1905... 

391,067 

160,066 

89,777 

17,158 

**    1910  

405,502 

192,933 

95,671 

5,283 

10,739 

3       1915  

503,985 

312,358 

136,131 

35,148 

10,671 

*  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  n,  pp.  487-89.   The 
figures  are  actually  higher  since  not  all  schools  reported  the  necessary  data. 

Between  1890  and  1900  the  public  secondary-school  en- 
rollment increased  140  per  cent,  the  number  of  pupils  study  - 

1  First  appearance  in  the  Regulations  for  1836;  claimed  for  1832. 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        449 

ing  Latin  increased  273  per  cent,  the  number  of  pupils 
studying  German  increased  249  per  cent,  the  number  of 
pupils  studying  French  increased  241  per  cent,  and  the 
number  of  pupils  studying  Greek  increased  139  per  cent. 
Between  1900  and  1910  the  total  enrollment  increased  78 
per  cent,  the  number  of  pupils  studying  Latin  increased  38 
per  cent,  the  number  of  pupils  studying  German  increased 
135  per  cent,  the  number  of  pupils  studying  French  in- 
creased 81  per  cent,  and  the  number  of  pupils  studying 
Greek  decreased  63  per  cent.  Between  1910  and  1915  the 
total  enrollment  of  the  public  secondary  school  increased 
45  per  cent,  the  number  of  pupils  studying  Latin  in- 
creased 20  per  cent,  the  number  of  pupils  studying  Ger- 
man increased  62  per  cent,  the  number  of  pupils  studying 
French  increased  40  per  cent,  the  number  >  of  pupils  study- 
ing Greek  decreased  39  per  cent,  and  the  number  of  pupils 
studying  Spanish  showed  a  noticeable  increase. 

194.  Present  status.  Few,  if  any,  high  schools  in  the 
United  States  (other  than  certain  special  schools)  fail  to 
offer  foreign  languages  in  their  programs  of  study.  Com- 
monly at  least  two  foreign  languages  are  offered.  In  many 
high  schools  some  foreign  language  study  is  required  of  the 
majority  of  pupils  at  some  stage  in  the  secondary  school 
course. 

Such  figures  as  those  presented  in  Table  CXX  emphasize 
the  necessity  of  analyzing  the  values  claimed  to  accrue  from 
the  study  of  foreign  language,  which  at  the  present  time 
occupies  the  attention  of  considerably  more  than  one  half 
of  the  entire  number  of  pupils  in  the  secondary  schools 
and  (at  a  rough  estimate)  consumes  about  one  seventh  to 
one  fifth  or  more  of  all  the  time  spent  by  all  students 
in  the  secondary  school.  Here  some  comparisons  with 
the  higher-school  programs  of  Germany  and  France  are 
instructive. 


450      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  CXXI.    FOREIGN  LANGUAGES  IN  THE  PRUSSIAN 
HIGHER  SCHOOLS  FOR  BOYS* 


• 

Latin 

Greek 

French 

English 

Total 

Gymnasium: 

Number  of  years  studied  .  .  . 

9 

6 

7 

Total  number  of  "periods"  . 

68 

36 

20 

i24 

Per  cent  of  total  time  

26.3 

13.9 

7.7 

Elective 

47.9 

Realgymnasium  : 

Number  of  years  studied.  .  .  . 

9 

7 

6 

Total  number  of  "periods"  . 

49 

29 

18 

96 

Per  cent  of  total  time  

18.7 

11.0 

6.9 

36.6 

Oberrealschule: 

Number  of  years  studied  .  .  . 

9 

6 

Total  number  of  "periods". 

47 

25 

72 

Per  cent  of  total  time  

18.0 

9.5 

27.5 

*  Compiled  from  Lehrplane  und  Lehraufgaben  fur  die  hSheren  Schulen  in  Preussen  (1901), 
pp.  4-6. 

From  these  figures  it  appears  that  in  the  Prussian  Gymna- 
sium nearly  one  half  of  the  entire  course  is  devoted  to  the 
study  of  foreign  languages,  more  than  two  fifths  of  the  entire 
time  being  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages. 
In  the  Realgymnasium  nearly  three  eighths  of  the  course  is 
devoted  to  the  study  of  foreign  languages,  about  equally 
divided  between  Latin  and  the  modern  languages.  In  the 
Oberrealschule  more  than  one  quarter  of  the  entire  course  is 
devoted  to  the  modern  foreign  languages  —  French  and 
English.  It  will  be  noted,  of  course,  that  the  modern  foreign 
languages  are  of  much  greater  social  and  commercial  value 
in  Germany  than  in  America. 

In  the  French  secondary  school  also  the  study  of  foreign 
languages  plays  an  important  role. 

From  the  figures  in  Table  CXXII  it  appears  that  from 
one  fifth  to  one  half  of  the  course  in  the  French  lycee  or 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        451 


TABLE  CXXII.    FOREIGN  LANGUAGES  IN  THE  FRENCH 
SECONDARY  SCHOOL  FOR  BOYS  * 


Latin 

Greek 

Modern 
Languages 

Total 

Section  A: 
Length  of  course  in  years  .  . 
Number  of  "periods"  
Per  cent  of  total  time  

6-7 
33 

23.6 

4-5  . 
16 
11.5 

6-7 
20 
14.3 

69 
49.4 

Section  B: 
Length  of  course  in  years  .  . 
Number  of  "periods"  

6-7 
33 

6-7 
32 

65 

Per  cent  of  total  time  

23.3 

22.6 

45.9 

Section  C: 
Length  of  course  in  years  .  . 
Number  of  "periods"  

6-7 
33 

6-7 

22 

55 
55 

Per  cent  of  total  time  

21.6 

14.4 

36.0 

Section  D: 
Length  of  course  in  years  .  . 
Number  of  "periods"  
Per  cent  of  total  time  

6-7 
33 

22.7 

33 

22.7 

*  Plan  d'Etudet  et  Programmes  de  VEnseignement  Secondaire  des  Garyons,  p.  S&-177  (llth 
edition). 

college  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  foreign  languages,  more 
than  one  fifth  of  the  entire  time  being  devoted  to  the 
study  of  Latin  except  in  Section  D.  Here  again  compari- 
sons with  the  situation  in  America  are  difficult  because  of 
the  social  and  commercial  importance  of  the  modern  for- 
eign languages  in  France  and  because  of  the  close  relation 
between  the  Latin  and  French  languages. 

195.  A  preliminary  analysis  of  aims  and  values.  Values 
claimed  for  the  study  of  foreign  languages  in  the  American 
secondary  school  may  be  readily  classified  under  two  broad 
heads:  (1)  those  which  arise  from  the  relatively  direct  and 
specific  use  of  the  foreign  language  as  a  medium  of  communi- 
cation for  the  expression  of  the  user's  thoughts  or  for  the 


452      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

interpretation  of  the  thoughts  of  others;  (2)  those  which 
arise  indirectly  from  the  study  of  the  foreign  language  either 
by  the  effect  of  that  study  on  the  language-thought  relation 
or  through  the  improvement  of  certain  general  mental  traits. 
Either  of  these  grouped  values  may  be  further  subdivided 
Thus  under  the  head  of  direct  and  specific  values  should  be 
considered:  (a)  the  use  of  the  foreign  language  for  purposes 
of  social  intercourse,  including  its  use  in  travel,  etc. ;  (b)  its 
use  for  commercial  purposes;  (c)  its  instrumental  use  for 
reading  purposes  —  its  propaedeutic  values;  (d)  its  social- 
cultural  use  as  a  means  for  extending  one's  understanding 
and  appreciation  of  the  literature,  history,  life,  customs,  etc., 
of  other  peoples.  Under  the  head  of  indirect  and  general 
values  should  be  considered:  (a)  the  use  of  the  study  of  a 
foreign  language  for  the  development  of  ability  to  associate 
language  and  thought  in  one's  native  tongue;  (6)  the  use  of 
the  study  of  a  foreign  language  to  development  of  certain 
general  mental  traits.  For  purposes  of  further  analysis  in 
the  following  sections  all  these  values  may  be  classified  as 
follows : 

(1)  Direct  and  specific  values: 
(a)  Social  values. 

(6)  Vocational  values. 

(c)  Instrumental-propaedeutic  values. 

(d)  Social-cultural  values. 

(2)  Indirect  and  general  values: 
(a)  General  linguistic  values. 
(6)  General  transfer  values. 

In  spite  of  the  recognized  interrelation  of  these  values  it 
is  profitable  to  consider  them  separately  in  the  following 
sections. 

196.  Values  for  social  intercourse.  In  attempting  to 
estimate  the  direct  and  specific  values  of  the  study  of  for- 
eign languages  for  purposes  of  social  intercourse,  e.g.,  in 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        453 

travel  or  in  this  country,  at  least  three  facts  are  obvious: 

(1)  that  such  values  apply  to  the  modern  languages  only; 

(2)  that  such  direct  and  specific  values  are  undoubted  and 
unquestioned  for  some  individuals;  (3)  that  such  values  are 
limited  and  contingent,  i.e.,  they  may  be  very  great  for  a 
limited  number  of  individuals  and  little  or  lacking  for  others. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  they  are  important  for  a  very  restricted 
number  of  individuals,  helpful  but  to  an  insignificant  de- 
gree for  a  few  others,  and  totally  lacking  for  the  great  ma- 
jority of  secondary-school  pupils.    Certainly  less  than  five 
per  cent  of  the  pupils  who  study  German  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  this  country  will  ever  have  the  slightest  need  of 
utilizing  that  language  for  purposes  of  social  intercourse  and 
certainly  less  than  one  per  cent  of  all  pupils  attending  the 
secondary  school  will  find  such  values  in  that  study.    The 
case  is  much  the  same  for  the  study  of  French  for  purposes 
of  social  intercourse.    The  contingency  that  such  a  small 
proportion  of  secondary  school  pupils  may  have  this  oppor- 
tunity (not  need)  for  the  use  of  a  foreign  language  for  such 
purposes  cannot  justify  any  important  position  for  the  study 
of  a  foreign  language  in  the  public  secondary  school.    The 
fact  that  in  this  country  are  large  numbers  of  people  whose 
native  tongue  is  German,  French,  or  any  other  tongue  is  an 
argument  not  for  attaching  importance  to  these  languages 
for  purposes  of  social  intercourse  but  rather  against  any 
such  procedure.  The  practice  obtaining  in  certain  communi- 
ties, where  racial  influence  is  strong,  of  giving  undue  prom- 
inence to  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  for  purposes  of 
social  intercourse  is  distinctly  un-American  and  contra- 
social. 

197.  Values  for  commercial  purposes.  In  the  case  of  the 
values  of  the  study  of  foreign  languages  for  commercial 
purposes,  as  in  the  case  of  values  for  purposes  of  social  inter- 
course, the  same  three  facts  are  obvious:  (1)  that  such 


454      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

values  apply  to  the  modern  languages  only;  (2)  that  such 
direct  and  specific  values  are  undoubted  and  unquestioned 
for  some  individuals;  (3)  that  such  values  are  limited  and 
contingent.  Within  the  past  decade  or  so  the  attention  of 
the  secondary  school  has  been  directed  more  toward  the 
importance  of  the  study  of  foreign  languages  for  vocational 
purposes.  This  has  resulted  from  two  facts,  the  recognition 
in  the  secondary  schools  of  the  vocational  aim  in  secondary 
education  and  the  recognition  of  the  relative  inefficiency  of 
our  machinery  for  international  commerce.  The  values  of 
the  study  of  certain  foreign  languages  for  commercial  use 
has  been  readily  accepted  as  valid  by  the  school  public  and 
by  school  authorities,  who  have,  however,  frequently  failed 
to  recognize  that  commonly  such  values  are  highly  limited 
and  highly  contingent.  They  have  failed  commonly  to 
appreciate  the  fact  that  bilingual  men  and  women  in  this 
country  are  in  plentiful  supply  in  the  great  majority  of  in- 
stances and  that  the  smattering  of  German,  French,  or 
Spanish  gained  in  the  secondary  school  does  not  enable  the 
individual  so  equipped  to  compete  on  anything  like  equal 
terms  with  the  German- American,  the  French-American, 
or  the  Spanish-American.  Whether  or  not  this  be  accepted 
as  a  fact  it  must  be  recognized  that  the  annual  increase  in 
the  number  of  those  added  to  the  commercial  population 
who  utilize  German,  French,  or  Spanish  is  relatively  small 
—  small  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  number  of  those  who 
leave  our  secondary  schools  equipped  with  some  knowledge 
of  one  or  more  of  those  languages.  That  as  high  as  five  per 
cent  of  the  pupils  in  the  public  secondary  schools  should 
study  a  foreign  language  for  commercial  or  vocational 
purposes  would  probably  be  a  gross  over-estimate. 

198.  Values  for  instrumental  purposes.  While  ordinarily 
stated  as  a  quite  subordinate  aim  of  the  study  of  foreign 
languages  in  the  secondary  school,  the  instrumental-propse- 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        455 

deutic  aim  of  the  study  may  deserve  passing  notice  if  for 
no  other  purpose  than  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  it 
is  limited  and  highly  contingent.  The  claims  for  this  value 
are  commonly  stated  somewhat  in  this  form:  in  the  higher 
vocations  one  should  be  able  to  keep  abreast  with  the 
thought  and  activities  of  those  in  the  same  vocation  in 
other  countries;  to  do  this  he  must  be  able  to  read  techni- 
cal journals,  etc.,  in  the  tongue  in  which  they  are  originally 
written;  hence  he  should  be  able  to  read  French,  German, 
etc.  In  such  an  argument  both  the  necessity  of  such  knowl- 
edge by  the  specialist  is  over-estimated  and  the  contingency 
that  many  individuals  will  be  concerned  is  over-estimated. 
In  these  days  few  writings  of  importance  fail  to  receive  no- 
tice by  translation  or  in  summary  in  the  technical  journals 
written  in  English.  When  such  means  are  not  adequate 
the  expenditure  of  a  little  money  for  translation  commonly 
saves  much  effort  and  produces  equally  valuable  results.  It 
is  to  be  noted,  too,  that  the  contingency  is  practically  limited 
to  secondary-school  pupils  who  are  destined  for  a  college 
course  which  may  well  include  the  study  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage for  instrumental  purposes. 

199.  Values  for  social-cultural  purposes.  Beyond  doubt 
one  of  the  desirable  results  of  the  study  of  the  language  and 
literature  of  a  foreign  people  may  be  an  increased  knowledge 
of  the  life,  customs,  institutions,  thought,  etc.,  of  that  peo- 
ple and  thereby  a  means  for  the  interpretation  of  one's  own 
country,  its  life,  thought,  institutions,  etc.  The  events  of 
the  present  time  illustrate  clearly  how  important  such  inter- 
national understanding  may  be  and  how  important  it  may 
be  to  have  citizens  of  one  country  understand  and  appreciate 
those  of  another.  In  this  connection,  however,  two  import- 
ant problems  arise:  (1)  How  far  can  the  ordinary  course  in 
a  foreign  language  offered  in  the  secondary  school  provide 
for  this  consummation?  and  (2)  How  far  could  the  desirable 


456      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

content  elements  of  the  study  of  foreign  literature  be  pro- 
vided without  involving  the  study  of  the  foreign  language? 
(1)  Whatever  be  the  possibility  of  deriving  social-cultural 
values  from  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  in  the  secondary 
school  we  may  be  sure  that  there  is  a  constant  tendency  on 
the  part  of  its  proponents  who  have  enjoyed  extended  con- 
tact with  its  literature  to  overestimate  the  values  commonly 
derived  from  the  limited  study  of  the  secondary  school  pupil 
and  to  interpret  those  values  in  terms  of  their  own  extended 
acquaintance  with  the  language,  literature,  and  life  of  the 
people  whose  language  is  studied.  It  is  at  least  questionable 
whether  the  secondary  school  pupil  through  a  course  of  study 
which  may  have  involved  from  two  or  three  hundred  hours 
to  a  thousand  hours  of  contact  with  the  field  (a  large  pro- 
portion of  which  has  been  devoted  to  the  language  side  pure 
and  simple)  ever  approaches  the  point  where  the  content 
values  of  the  study  assume  importance  for  social-cultural 
values.  Standards  set  by  the  Committee  of  Twelve  ap- 
pointed by  the  Modern  Language  Association  are  as  follows: 

TABLE  CXXIII 

French  German 

Pages  read  in  first  two  years 350  to    375  225  to  250 

Pages  read  in  third  year  of  course 400        600  400        400 

Pages  read  in  fourth  year  of  course 600      1000  500        500 

Total  for  four  years  of  study 1350  to  1975          1125  to  1150 

The  amount  of  Latin  literature  ordinarily  read  in  the 
secondary  school  is  about  500  to  550  pages  of  Caesar,  Cicero, 
and  Vergil.  How  much  content  value  (literature,  history, 
etc.)  can  be  gained  from  such  a  small  amount  of  study  can- 
not be  estimated  but  it  may  well  be  doubted  that  such  value 
is  very  great,  especially  when  it  is  realized  that  greater  atten- 
tion is  devoted  to  language  interpretation  than  to  the  con- 
tent. If,  however,  the  ability  to  use  the  foreign  language 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        457 

renders  it  possible,  as  it  does,  for  the  individual  to  continue 
and  extend  his  acquaintance  with  the  literature,  life,  etc., 
of  the  foreign  people  through  further  reading  of  that  liter- 
ature after  completing  the  secondary -school  course,  much 
greater  social-cultural  values  must  be  assigned  to  the  study 
of  the  foreign  languages.  Unfortunately,  save  in  the  case 
of  certain  pupils  who  continue  their  education  in  the  college, 
experience  has  shown  all  too  clearly  that  the  competition 
of  literature  in  the  mother  tongue  is  too  strong  and  that 
little  is  to  be  expected  in  the  continued  use  of  the  foreign 
language  after  the  school  course  is  ended. 

(2)  The  claim,  readily  granted,  that  certain  social-cul- 
tural values  may  be  derived  from  the  study  of  foreign  lan- 
guages has  raised  a  second  issue  in  the  question  whether  or 
not  such  values  cannot  be  more  easily  acquired  in  great  part 
at  a  less  expenditure  of  time  and  energy,  either  through  the 
study  of  history  (for  a  knowledge  of  the  life,  customs,  etc., 
of  the  foreign  people)  or  through  the  study  of  translations 
(for  acquaintance  with  the  literature,  thought,  customs,  etc., 
of  that  people).  Here  it  is  claimed  on  the  one  hand  that  by 
such  means  (somewhat  indirect)  much  of  the  charm  of  liter- 
ature and  much  of  the  characteristic  spirit  of  a  people  is  lost. 
This  is  doubtless  true.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  argued  that 
it  is  just  that  finer  element  of  "charm,"  just  that  subtler  ele- 
ment of  "spirit"  that  the  secondary-school  pupil  does  not 
and  cannot  get,  save  in  very  few  instances,  and  that  such  ele- 
ments as  may  be  extractible  from  the  study  of  the  foreign 
language  in  the  original  and  not  derivable  in  other  indirect 
ways  for  the  secondary-school  pupil  are  small  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  time  and  energy  expended.  In 
this  connection  it  may  be  observed  that  the  pieces  of  foreign 
literature  commonly  read  in  the  secondary  school  are  just 
those  for  which  there  already  exist  excellent  translations  or 
those  which  might  be  adequately  translated  with  ease. 


458      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

200.  Summary  and  correlation  of  direct  values.  In  the 
preceding  sections  each  of  the  direct  and  specific  values 
claimed  for  the  study  of  foreign  languages  has  been  consid- 
ered in  isolation  and  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  each  of 
those  values  is  limited  and  contingent.  This  is,  of  course, 
markedly  the  case  with  respect  to  the  study  of  the  ancient 
languages  where  direct  values  are  highly  restricted.  Thus 
the  values  of  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  for  purposes 
of  social  intercourse  and  for  commercial  purposes  are  nil. 
Their  vocational  and  instrumental  values  are  limited  to  a  few 
professions  such  as  the  ministry,  law,  medicine,  literature, 
teaching,  etc.  Less  limited  and  less  contingent  are  the  social- 
cultural  values  of  the  study  of  the  classical  languages,  but 
there  the  study  is  conditioned  by  the  considerations  adduced 
in  the  preceding  section.  In  the  case  of  the  modern  lan- 
guages the  direct  and  specific  values  of  their  study  are  much 
greater,  but  still  decidedly  limited  and  contingent. 

While  no  single  direct  value  of  the  study  of  foreign  lan- 
guages can  justify  any  great  amount  of  attention  to  those 
subjects  in  the  program  of  studies  and  while  their  direct  val- 
ues are  limited  and  contingent  to  a  degree  not  ordinarily  ap- 
preciated, the  coordination  and  correlation  of  all  those  direct 
and  specific  values  establishes  an  aggregate  value  which  is 
important  for  the  secondary-school  program.  The  number 
of  pupils  who  may  properly  study  a  modern  foreign  language 
for  purposes  of  social  intercourse,  plus  the  number  who  may 
study  it  for  vocational  purposes,  plus  the  number  of  those 
who  may  study  it  for  instrumental-propaedeutic  purposes, 
plus  the  number  of  those  who  may  study  it  for  social-cultu- 
ral values,  gives  an  aggregate  number  of  pupils  who  may 
legitimately  study  a  foreign  language  in  the  public  secondary 
school  large  enough  to  warrant  attention  to  its  study  therein. 
It  is  obvious,  however,  that  such  direct  and  specific  values 
cannot  justify  the  study  of  Latin  by  503,985  pupils,  the 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        459 

study  of  German  by  312,359  pupils,  and  the  study  of 
French  by  136,131  pupils  at  any  one  time  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  this  country,  and  the  prescription  or  semi-pre- 
scription of  the  study  of  sonic  foreign-language  study  by 
the  majority  of  pupils  in  such  schools.  If  any  such  justifica- 
tion can  be  found  for  the  prominent  position  which  foreign- 
language  study  now  occupies  in  the  schools  it  must  rest  in 
part  at  least  on  different  grounds  than  the  direct  and  specific 
values.  It  therefore  remains  to  consider  the  possible  indirect 
and  general  values  which  have  been  claimed  for  the  study 
of  foreign  languages.  This  is,  of  course,  particularly  true 
of  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages. 

201.  Foreign-language  study  and  "  general  discipline." 
In  common  with  most  subjects  in  the  secondary-school 
program  the  foreign  languages  have  always  been  justified 
by  their  proponents  in  part  on  the  basis  of  their  values 
for  training  such  general  mental  functions  as  "  concentra- 
tion," "  accurate  observation,"  "intelligent  discrimination," 
"  memory,"  "  reasoning,"  etc.  Such  claims  have  been  and 
are  made  for  each  of  the  foreign  languages,  but  have  been 
emphasized  particularly  in  the  case  of  the  ancient  languages 
for  which  relatively  little  direct  and  specific  value  can  be 
established.  An  excellent  example  of  this  argument  may  be 
found  in  Lodge's  eulogy  of  the  study  of  the  classical  lan- 
guages:1 

"The  first  and  dominant  object  of  all  education  is  to  teach  the 
child,  the  boy  or  girl,  to  use  his  or  her  mind;  that  is,  in  other  words, 
to  teach  them  so  to  control  their  minds  that  they  can  apply  them 
to  any  subject  of  study  and  especially  to  a  subject  which  it  is  a  duty 
and  not  a  pleasure  to  master  and  understand.  When  this  power  to 
use  and  control  the  mind  is  once  thoroughly  attained,  the  boy  or 

1  Lodge,  Senator  H.  C.,  Address  before  the  Classical  Conference  at 
Princeton  University,  June  2,  1917,  in  West,  A.  F.  (Editor),  Value  of  the 
Classics,  pp.  102-Oi 


460      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

girl  can  then  learn  anything  which  his  or  her  mind  is  capable  of 
receiving  and  acquiring.  Very  few  minds  can  master  every  branch 
of  learning.  The  man  who  can  learn  languages  may  be  wholly  un- 
able to  go  beyond  the  rudiments  of  mathematics.  Some  minds  again 
are  much  more  powerful  than  others,  just  as  some  bodies  are  much 
more  muscular  than  others,  and  are  able  to  go  further  in  any  direc- 
tion than  the  average  intelligence.  We  all  have  our  mental  limita- 
tions. But  it  is  none  the  less  profoundly  true  that  those  who  have 
been  taught  to  use  and  control  their  minds  can  apply  them  to  any 
subject  and  go  as  far  as  their  individual  limitations  permit.  So 
far  all,  I  believe,  who  have  reflected  upon  the  subject  will  agree. 
I  think  we  may  also  agree  that  as  any  form  of  exercise  will  develop 
some  muscles  and  some  forms  will  develop  all,  so  any  kind  of  study 
properly  pursued,  whether  it  is  arithmetic  or  Sanscrit  roots,  will 
develop  muscles  of  the  mind  and  give  it  the  power  of  continuous 
application  by  a  mere  exercise  of  the  will. 

Without  attempting  any  detailed  criticism  of  Senator 
Lodge's  statements  we  may  point  out  that  it  illustrates  an 
argument  for  education  which  is  based  on  a  theory  of  the 
mind  which  has  been  abandoned  by  practically  every  psy- 
chologist. The  thesis  to  which  he  assumes  that  "  all  who  have 
reflected  upon  the  subject  will  agree  "  is  exactly  the  thesis 
to  which  every  psychologist  will  disagree  or  at  least  ques- 
tion. 

In  considering  the  problem  of  "general  discipline,"  we 
may  safely  discard  the  implications  of  a  faculty  psychology 
and  turn  our  attention  to  the  question  of  the  transfer  or 
spread  of  mental  efficiency  acquired  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  foreign  language  to  non-linguistic  fields.  The  vital 
question  is  whether  efficiency  gained  in  and  through  and  for 
the  study  of  foreign  language  can  be  generalized  and  made 
operative  in  other  studies  and  activities.  In  Chapter  XI 
were  outlined  theories  of  the  possibility,  method,  and  extent 
of  the  "  transfer  of  improvement "  to  "  generalized  experi- 
ence." It  was  there  pointed  out  that  the  possibility  of  trans- 
fer is  universally  granted,  that  theories  differ  widely  as  to 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        461 

the  method  and  extent  of  such  transfer,  and  that  in  its  ulti- 
mate analysis  transfer  must  depend  on  the  operation  of  the 
laws  of  dissociation.  It  was  further  pointed  out  that  the 
degree  of  transfer  must  depend  on  the  degree  in  which  con- 
ditions are  favorable  for  the  operation  of  the  laws  of  disso- 
ciation and  therefore  on  the  degree  to  which  the  materials 
of  the  subject  may  be  manipulated  in  teaching  so  as  to  pro- 
vide conditions  favorable  for  those  processes,  the  character 
of  the  means  available,  and  the  methods  of  their  presenta- 
tion. It  is  for  these  reasons  erroneous  to  assume  that  all 
subjects  are  equally  valuable  for  transfer  or  that  transfer 
is  dependent  entirely  on  methods  of  teaching.  Here  as  else- 
where the  values  of  a  subject  are  to  be  determined  both  by 
the  nature  of  its  materials  and  by  the  methods  of  teaching 
employed. 

Doubtless  some  transfer  or  spread  of  improved  efficiency 
is  possible  from  the  study  of  any  subject  in  any  manner. 
If  such  transfer  is  to  be  made  extensive,  however,  the  most 
favorable  materials  must  be  chosen  and  the  most  favorable 
methods  employed  with  recognition  of  transfer  as  a  definite 
end.  At  present  neither  psychological  theory  nor  experi- 
mental evidence  can  afford  satisfactory  criteria  whereby 
to  estimate  the  transfer  values  of  the  study  of  foreign  lan- 
guage. However,  it  is  unjustifiably  arbitrary  to  ignore  or 
minimize  the  facts  that  (after  the  time  of  the  Greeks)  lan- 
guages were  almost  the  sole  materials  of  formal  education 
up  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  dominant 
materials  up  to  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  that  the 
materials  of  foreign  language  study  are  at  least  favorable 
for  exercise  in  mental  functions  of  the  greatest  value,  if  trans- 
ferable, that  such  materials  are  well  adapted  for  ready  man- 
ipulation and  may  be  made  favorable  for  transfer,  and  that, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  mathematics,  the  long-con- 
tinued study  of  foreign  languages  has  developed  a  body  of 


462      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

recognized  teaching  method  approached  by  no  other  sub- 
ject of  study  in  the  secondary-school  program. 

Pending  more  definite  knowledge  of  the  method  and 
extent  of  the  transfer  of  improved  efficiency  one  may  safely 
assume  the  position  of  the  Committee  on  Ancient  Lan- 
guages, mutatis  mutandis,  for  foreign  language  in  general.1 

Hence  the  Committee  suggests  that  teachers  of  Latin  and  those 
responsible  for  the  administration  of  the  schools  be  on  their  guard 
against  (1)  expecting  too  much  transfer,  (2)  expecting  too  little 
transfer,  (3)  expecting  transfer  to  be  automatic.  Pending  the  estab- 
lishment of  more  conclusive  theories  of  the  "transfer  of  improved 
efficiency,"  the  Committee  recommends  a  careful  analysis  of  the 
mental  traits  employed  in  the  study  of  Latin,  to  determine  what 
mental  traits  it  is  desirable  to  transfer  from  that  field  to  other 
fields,  what  traits  are  actually  transferred,  and  what  other  traits 
may  be  so  transferred. 

The  Committee  expresses  its  belief  that  among  the  mental 
traits  involved  in  the  study  of  Latin  wherein  transfer  is  most  to 
be  expected  will  be  found  the  following:  habits  of  mental  work, 
tendency  to  neglect  distracting  and  irrelevant  elements,  ideals  of 
thoroughness,  ideals  of  accuracy  and  precision,  and  attitudes  to- 
ward study  and  intellectual  achievement. 

The  character  of  the  Latin  language,  the  well-established  organ- 
ization of  materials  for  the  study  of  the  language,  and  the  existence 
of  a  well-defined  body  of  methods  of  teaching  the  language  con- 
tribute to  the  development  of  the  values  indicated  above. 

The  Committee  further  holds  that  in  proportion  as  such  po- 
tential values  are  consciously  the  aim  of  the  work  in  Latin  and 
consciously  developed,  in  like  proportion  conditions  are  favor- 
able to  their  realization  as  actual  results  of  the  work  in  Latin. 

202.  Values  for  language-thought  relations.  Among  the 
claims  for  the  values  of  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  is  the 
claim  that  it  aids  greatly  in  the  improvement  of  ability  to 
use  one's  native  tongue.  As  ordinarily  presented  arguments 
in  support  of  that  claim  deal  with  a  very  vital  issue  in  a  very 

*  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Ancient  Languages,  Commission  on  the  Re* 
organization  of  Secondary  Education,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        463 

superficial  way,  being  limited  to  etymological  and  vocabu- 
lary factors  and  almost  neglecting  the  close  relation  between 
language  use  and  the  mental  processes.  Here  we  may  revert 
to  considerations  adduced  in  Chapter  XII.  It  was  there 
stated  that  language  is  to  be  conceived  not  only  as  an  instru- 
ment for  the  communication  of  thought,  but  also  as  an  in- 
strument for  thinking  itself,  and  that  the  aims  and  values 
of  language  study  in  the  secondary  school  must  recognize 
that  fact.  It  was  also  pointed  out  that  the  problem  of  the 
school  in  respect  to  language  is  to  transform  the  pupil's 
language  into  an  instrument  for  assisting  and  conveying 
thought,  i.e.,  to  make  it  a  flexible  intellectual  instrument  as 
well  as  a  tool  for  ordinary  expression.  Finally,  Dewey's  sug- 
gestions concerning  the  way  hi  which  this  transformation  is 
to  be  accomplished  were  interpreted  to  involve  three  ele- 
ments: (1)  the  development  of  a  capital  stock  of  words; 
(2)  the  development  of  increasing  precision  and  accuracy  in 
the  use  of  words  as  related  to  thought;  (3)  the  development 
of  habits  of  interrelating  those  words  so  as  to  facilitate  con- 
secutive thinking  and  consecutive  discourse.  It  now  re- 
mains to  point  out  how  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  may 
aid  in  those  three  processes. 

(1)  Enlargement  of  vocabulary :  While  the  problem  of  the 
enlargement  of  vocabulary,  in  the  sense  of  increasing  the 
number  of  word  symbols  more  or  less  at  the  command  of  the 
individual,  is  in  many  ways  so  closely  related  to  the  pro- 
cesses of  rendering  terms  more  precise  and  accurate  tools 
that  the  two  processes  are  perhaps  best  considered  together, 
two  important  factors  involved  in  the  study  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage may  be  considered  here. 

(a)  Attention  has  been  called  previously  to  the  fact  that 
there  is  a  constant  tendency  for  the  individual  to  accumulate 
verbal  symbols,  particularly  abstract  and  general  words  and 
words  representing  qualities  and  relationships,  without  clear 


consciousness  of  their  meanings.  In  the  development  of  our 
use  of  language  there  comes  a  time  when  the  ability  to 
understand  words  heard  or  seen  (especially  in  a  context)  far 
outstrips  our  ability  to  use  those  words  to  assist  thought  or 
to  express  thought,  and  only  partially  to  grasp  the  thought 
expressed  by  those  words  when  heard  or  seen  in  any  new 
context.  In  the  study  of  a  foreign  language,  especially  in 
the  process  of  translation,  consciousness  of  the  meaning  of 
the  word  of  the  mother  tongue  is  a  necessity  before  the 
thought  can  be  interpreted,  though  exception  to  this  state- 
ment must  be  made  in  cases  where  the  term  to  be  translated 
has  a  single  equivalent  in  the  mother  tongue.  That  con- 
scious attention  to  the  meaning  of  terms  which  may  be  min- 
imized in  the  use  of  the  mother  tongue  when  its  use  becomes 
more  or  less  mechanical  is  highly  fostered  in  the  study  of  a 
foreign  tongue,  particularly  in  the  process  of  translation. 
This  arises  from  two  facts:  first,  that  in  a  large  proportion 
of  cases  terms  of  the  foreign  language  have  not  exact  equiv- 
alents in  the  mother  tongue;  second,  that  the  context  does 
not  give  meaning  to  the  specific  term  in  the  same  ready  way 
in  which  the  context  of  the  mother  tongue  has  rendered  aid 
to  its  interpretation. 

(6)  The  amount  of  aid  afforded  to  the  enlargement  of 
vocabulary  by  a  knowledge  of  words  in  a  foreign  tongue 
from  which  words  in  the  mother  tongue  have  been  derived 
or  to  which  they  are  etymologically  related  is  doubtless  at 
times  much  exaggerated.  This  should,  however,  not  blind 
us  to  the  undoubted  fact  that  such  etymological  values  exist 
and  ought  not  be  minimized.  The  number  of  words  in  the 
English  language  derived  directly  or  indirectly  from,  the 
Latin  has  been  estimated  as  high  as  fifty  or  sixty  per  cent 
of  our  total  vocabulary.  The  number  of  words  derived 
directly  or  indirectly  from  Greek  has  been  estimated  as  high 
as  twelve  per  cent.  The  number  of  words  derived  from 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        465 

French  has  been  estimated  as  high  as  one  third  of  our  total 
vocabulary.  The  Anglo-Saxon  element  of  our  language  is 
closely  related  etymologically  to  the  German  as  a  member 
of  the  same  family  of  languages.  These  are  facts  which 
cannot  safely  be  completely  ignored.  It  should  be  noted 
also  that  words  of  the  English  language  derived  from  Greek, 
Latin,  and  French  sources  are  those  most  closely  related  to 
precise  and  accurate  meanings  (many  were  introduced  for 
that  very  purpose),  while  our  Anglo-Saxon  words  are  the 
more  common  terms  for  "  ordinary  affairs  and  conveni- 
ences." 

(2)  Rendering  terms  more  precise  and  accurate  instruments 
of  thought  and  expression :  The  enlargement  of  the  capital 
stock  of  vocabulary  and  the  rendering  it  more  precise  and 
accurate  are  in  reality  part  and  parcel  of  the  same  process 
when  properly  conducted,  and  in  dealing  with  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  vocabulary  through  the  study  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage we  have  already  encroached  to  some  extent  on  the 
present  topic.  In  this  specific  connection  importance  may 
be  attached  to  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  because  of  the 
practice  which  it  affords  in  relating  words  to  the  thought. 
Terms  in  any  one  language  seldom  have  exact  equivalents 
in  any  other  language.  Hence  the  interpretation  of  one  lan- 
guage in  terms  of  another  necessarily  involves  a  constant 
comparison  and  weighing  of  terms  more  or  less  similar,  a 
selection  and  choice  of  the  correct  words  to  express  the 
thought,  and  a  judgment  of  the  thought  to  be  conveyed  by 
the  word  or  words  employed.  Thus,  consider  the  amount 
of  comparison,  discrimination,  and  choice  involved  in  the 
translation  of  the  Latin  word  res  under  varying  conditions 
—  thing,  object,  event,  circumstance,  occurrence,  matter,  con- 
dition, situation,  act,  property,  factor,  fact,  reality,  effect,  sub- 
stance, possession,  benefit,  profit,  advantage,  interest,  weal, 
cause,  reason,  ground,  account,  business,  case,  suit,  etc.,  etc. 


466      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Now,  increased  precision  and  accuracy  in  the  use  of  lan- 
guage and  thought  must  result  almost  exclusively  from 
practice  in  comparing,  discriminating,  and  selecting  the 
appropriate  word  for  the  desired  thought  element,  and  con' 
ditions  favorable  for  such  comparison,  discrimination,  and 
selection  for  the  better  relationing  of  words  and  thought  are 
those  which  do  not  merely  permit,  but  actually  demand,  the 
operation  of  those  processes.  Those  conditions  may  be 
amply  provided  in  the  study  of  a  foreign  language. 

It  is  to  be  noted  in  this  connection  that,  wherever  single 
exact  equivalents  are  associated  in  the  foreign  and  the 
mother  tongues,  no  such  comparison,  discrimination,  selec- 
tion, and  relationing  can  result,  the  mere  substitution  of 
symbols  results,  and  hence  increased  precision  and  accuracy 
is  impossible.  Since  the  proportion  pf  exact  equivalents 
differs  in  the  various  foreign  languages  this  factor  permits 
some  measure  of  the  relative  values  of  the  study  of  foreign 
languages  with  reference  to  those  now  under  consideration. 
It  is  to  be  noted  also  that  such  values  as  those  considered 
in  the  preceding  paragraphs  involve  the  close  relationing 
of  English  and  the  foreign  language  with  emphasis  on  trans- 
lation, etc.,  a  fact  to  be  recognized  as  an  element  affecting 
the  question  of  methods  of  teaching  foreign  languages  which 
will  be  briefly  discussed  in  a  later  section. 

(5)  The  development  of  habits  of  interrelating  words  so  as 
to  facilitate  consecutive  thinking  and  consecutive  discourse : 
Here  possibly  more  than  in  any  other  respect  the  study  of  a 
foreign  language  may  assist  expression  and  thought.  The 
English  language,  with  its  unusually  large  vocabulary  of 
words  borrowed  from  almost  every  possible  source,  with  its 
abundance  of  approximate  synonyms  well  adapted  to  ex- 
press numerous  shades  of  meaning  and  to  permit  extensive 
discrimination  in  thinking  and  expression,  is  well  adapted 
to  its  needs  as  an  instrument  of  expression  and  for  intellec- 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        467 

tual  enterprises.  To  these  ends  also  it  is  well  adapted  by 
reason  of  the  relative  flexibility  which  permits  its  easy 
manipulation.  However,  acquired  in  the  early  stages  for 
purposes  of  social  intercourse  and  employed  commonly  for 
purposes  of  everyday  use  in  circumstances  which  do  not 
emphasize  its  use  as  a  precise  and  accurate  instrument  of 
thinking  or  expression,  its  use  does  not  enforce  such  con- 
scious relationing  of  words  and  expressions  as  is  involved  in 
the  use  of  a  more  synthetic  language.  Without  a  certain 
amount  of  such  conscious  relationing  conditions  are  not 
favorable  for  the  transformation  of  the  use  of  language  for 
the  ordinary  affairs  of  everyday  life  into  its  use  as  an  intel- 
lectual instrument. 

It  is  just  here  that  the  study  of  a  foreign  language,  espe- 
cially a  language  which  is  more  synthetic,  may  be  made  of 
service  for  the  accomplishment  of  such  a  transformation. 
In  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  that  conscious  relationing 
of  terms  and  phrases  not  only  may  but  must  take  place  and 
wherever  translation  is  involved  it  must  take  place  in  the 
mother  tongue  as  well  as  in  the  foreign  language.  Such  a 
process  becomes  necessary  as  a  result  of  vocabulary  differ- 
ences previously  emphasized  and  as  a  result  of  differences 
in  word  order  and  differences  in  inflectional  usages  in  the 
mother  tongue  and  in  the  foreign  language. 

In  the  entire  discussion  of  this  section  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
there  is  emphasized  not  a  transfer  of  elements  from  one  lan- 
guage to  another,  not  a  transfer  of  mental  functions,  but 
the  development  of  improved  efficiency  in  the  use  of  the 
mother  tongue  as  related  to  the  mental  elements  which  can 
be  grasped  and  retained  only  by  means  of  its  terms.  In 
other  words  there  is  involved  no  question  of  general  dis- 
cipline or  transfer  except  as  language,  operating  as  an  instru- 
ment in  all  intellectual  enterprises,  may  be  considered  a 
common  element  in  the  training  and  application  situations. 


,8      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

203.  The  mother  tongue  and  foreign  languages.  It  is  im- 
portant to  remember  that  in  the  study  of  the  mother  tongue 
and  in  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  one  of  the  most  funda- 
mental objectives  is  in  many  respects  the  same  —  the 
development  of  an  ability  to  employ  language  (the  mother 
tongue)  as  an  instrument  for  thinking  and  for  expression, 
as  an  intellectual  instrument  and  as  a  social  instrument. 
It  is  important  also  to  remember  that,  while  the  use  of  lan- 
guage in  both  respects  must  ultimately  be  manifested  in  the 
use  of  the  mother  tongue,  there  is  really  involved  a  change 
in  the  mental  processes  which  underly  language  use,  i.e.,  the 
relation  of  language  to  mental  life  must  constantly  be  kept  in 
mind.  If  this  theory  be  recognized  as  valid  it  must  be  recog- 
nized also  that  the  general  values  of  the  study  of  the  mother 
tongue  and  the  indirect  values  of  the  study  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage involve  much  the  same  problem. 

One  of  the  most  important  and  most  persistent  problems 
involved  in  the  study  of  foreign  languages  in  the  secondary 
school  raises  the  question  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to 
devote  more  attention  to  the  mother  tongue  and  less  to  the 
foreign  languages,  whether  more  value  could  be  gained  from 
a  relatively  short  additional  period  devoted  to  the  study  of 
English  than  from  the  relatively  long  period  now  devoted 
to  the  study  of  foreign  languages.  Two  separate  questions 
are  involved  here,  one  affecting  the  matter  of  direct  social- 
cultural  values,  the  other  affecting  the  matter  of  indirect 
linguistic  values. 

(1)  Direct  values :  Among  the  direct  values  commonly 
claimed  for  the  study  of  foreign  languages  were  mentioned : 
(a)  social-intercourse  values;  (6)  vocational  values;  (c)  in- 
strumental-propaedeutic values;  (d)  social-cultural  values. 
All  those  values  may  be  justified  to  some  extent  when  con- 
sidered limited  and  contingent.  The  only  serious  point  of 
conflict  between  the  values  of  the  study  of  English  and  the 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        469 

study  of  a  foreign  language,  as  far  as  direct  values  are  con- 
cerned, is  found  in  connection  with  the  social-cultural  values 
claimed  for  the  study  of  a  foreign  language.  Here  the  ques- 
tion arises  whether  the  time  devoted  to  the  study  of  a  foreign 
language  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  acquainted  with  for- 
eign literature,  history,  life,  etc.,  through  the  medium  of  the 
foreign  language  can  be  justified  when  many  of  those  values 
can  be  attained  through  the  medium  of  the  mother  tongue 
or  can  be  evaluated  in  relation  to  other  studies  carried  on 
through  the  mother  tongue.  This  point  has  already  been 
considered  in  a  preceding  section.  It  need  only  be  repeated 
here  that  it  is  very  doubtful  that  the  study  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage can  be  justified  for  secondary-school  pupils  in  any 
high  degree  on  the  basis  of  such  values. 

(2}  Indirect  values :  The  indirect  values  commonly  claimed 
for  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  were  classified  as:  (a) 
transfer  values;  (6)  general  linguistic  values.  Concerning 
the  transfer  values  little  can  be  said  here  further  than  has 
already  been  said  in  chapter  XI.  This  much,  however,  may 
be  added,  that  methods,  habits,  ideals,  and  attitudes  cannot 
be  transferred  unless  they  are  actually  developed  in  the 
original  training.  It  requires  little  examination  to  learn  that 
as  yet  the  teaching  of  English  has  failed  to  secure  methods, 
habits,  ideals,  and  attitudes  of  learning  comparable  to  those 
secured  in  the  teaching  of  foreign  languages.  Whether  or 
not  transfer  is  possible,  this  much  is  sure,  that  nothing  can 
be  transferred  to  other  fields  which  has  not  been  developed 
in  the  original  training  situation. 

The  most  important  problem  involved  in  the  attempt  to 
evaluate  the  study  of  the  mother  tongue  and  the  study  of  a 
foreign  language  is  found  in  connection  with  the  relative 
merits  of  the  two  as  helps  in  the  employment  of  language 
as  an  instrument  for  intellectual  enterprises  and  the  com- 
munication of  thought.  Attention  has  previously  been  called 


470      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

to  the  fact  that  the  teaching  of  English  suffers  from  some 
serious  limitations,  most  of  which  arise  from  the  fact  that  it 
is  difficult  to  employ  the  language  which  is  used  primarily 
for  purposes  of  everyday  affairs  for  the  purpose  of  convert- 
ing that  same  instrument  into  a  tool  for  the  handling  of  pre- 
cise and  accurate  notions.  Training  pupils  in  language  use 
through  composition,  for  example,  suffers  from  the  fact  that 
the  teacher  can  tell  only  that  what  the  pupil  says  or  writes 
expresses  something  intelligible:  he  cannot  tell  that  it  ex- 
presses correctly  and  clearly  what  the  pupil  was  striving  to 
express.  In  other  words  he  cannot  relate  the  pupil's  English 
to  the  pupil's  thought.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  translation 
of  a  passage  in  a  foreign  language  the  exact  thought  to  be 
interpreted  is  a  known  factor  and  the  teacher  presumedly 
knows  what  use  of  the  mother  tongue  will  precisely  and 
accurately  express  that  thought.  For  the  teacher  to  know 
that  the  pupil  is  properly  relating  language  to  thought  he 
must  know  both  the  thought  to  be  expressed  and  the  lan- 
guage in  which  it  should  be  expressed.  This  is  possible  in 
a  foreign  language:  it  is  impossible  in  employing  English 
alone.  In  all  this  it  is,  of  course,  to  be  noted  that  detailed 
word  relationing  is  the  important  element.  The  interpreta- 
tion of  larger  thought  units,  the  general  -plot,  or  argument,  is 
quite  another  matter.  The  problem  here  involved  is  the 
improvement  of  language  use,  not  the  interpretation  in 
general  terms  of  content. 

The  very  facility  with  which  the  pupil  employes  his 
mother  tongue  in  ways  adequate  for  the  ordinary  affairs  and 
conveniences  of  everyday  life  is  one  of  the  greatest  handi- 
caps to  the  attempt  to  convert  it  into  a  more  effective  intel- 
lectual instrument.  The  pupil  rebels  against  attempts  to 
improve  an  instrument  which  is  quite  satisfactory  to  his 
immature  mind. 

204.  The  relative  values  of  foreign  languages.    The 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES 

preceding  considerations   have  established   some  critei 
for  judging  the  relative  values  of  the  study  of  the  different 
foreign  languages  commonly  found  in  the  program  of  the 
secondary  school.  Some  limited  application  of  those  criteria 
may  be  made  here. 

(1)  Direct  values,  with  emphasis  on  direct  and  specific  use : 
For  purpose  of  social  intercourse  and  for  commercial  pur- 
poses it  is  clear  that  the  values  of  the  ancient  languages, 
Latin  and  Greek,  are  nil  and  the  values  of  the  modern  lan- 
guages, while  high,  are  limited  to  a  relatively  small  number 
of  individuals  and  for  the  majority  of  secondary-school 
pupils  are  very  contingent.    For  certain  other  vocational 
purposes,  for  instrumental-propaedeutic  purposes  all  study 
of  foreign  language  is  limited  and  contingent.    For  social- 
cultural  purposes  it  would  be  difficult  to  estimate  the  rela- 
tive values  of  the  different  foreign  languages.   He  would 
be  a  daring  individual  who  would  attempt  to  estimate  the 
relative  social-cultural  values  of  Greek,  Roman,    German, 
French,  and  Spanish  civilizations  for  the  American  citizen. 
It  should  be  remembered  also  that  here  values  are  doubtful 
in  view  of  the  possibility  of  attaining  them  more  economi- 
cally through  the  medium  of  translations  and  through  the 
study  of  the  social  sciences. 

(2)  Indirect  values,  with  emphasis  on  general  values  and 
the  learning  process :  The  unsatisfactory  nature  of  our  knowl- 
edge of  transfer  values  makes  it  an  almost  hopeless  task  to 
attempt  to  estimate  transfer  values  of  the  various  foreign 
languages.  If  such  values  exist  to  an  appreciable  extent  it  is 
a  tenable  thesis  that  the  differences  which  are  found  be- 
tween the  analytic  character  of  English,  French,  and  Span- 
ish, and  the  synthetic  character  of  German,  Latin,  and 
Greek,  may  make  a  difference  in  transfer  values  between 
the  two  groups.    The  writer  would  hazard  as  an  a-priori 
estimate  the  transfer  values  of  foreign-language  study,  the 


472      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ascending  order  as  follows:  Spanish,  French,  German, 
Greek,  Latin.  Numerous  investigations  have  been  made  of 
the  relative  standing  of  pupils  studying  different  foreign 
languages  in  the  secondary  school.  The  results  of  those 
investigations  have  almost  invariably  indicated  some  super- 
iority in  favor  of  those  studying  Latin.  However,  the  inves- 
tigations themselves  have  been  so  unsatisfactory  for  the 
most  part  that  little  dependence  can  be  placed  on  the  re- 
sults, largely  because  they  have  failed  to  show  whether  that 
superiority  was  due  to  the  effect  of  the  study  of  Latin  or 
to  the  fact  that  pupils  of  higher  selection  study  Latin.1 

That  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  contributes  some- 
thing to  one's  ability  to  use  his  own  language  can  scarcely 
be  disputed.  The  pertinent  questions  are:  What  is  the 
amount  of  that  contribution?  and,  What  are  the  relative 
values  of  different  foreign  languages  for  that  purpose?  The 
first  of  these  two  questions  has  been  considered  above  and 
the  ground  taken  that  the  amount  of  that  contribution 
affords  justification  for  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  by 
secondary-school  pupils.  The  second  question  remains  to 
be  considered.  What  are  the  relative  linguistic  values  of 
the  study  of  Spanish,  French,  German,  Greek,  Lathi?  The 
answer  to  this  question  will  be  considered,  first,  in  a-priori 
theory,  and,  secondly,  by  interpreting  the  results  of  experi- 
mental investigations. 

In  the  a-priori  theory  presented  in  preceding  sections  it 
was  pointed  out  that  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  assists 
in  the  development  of  linguistic  ability  by  increasing  the 

1  Cf.  correlation  studies  by  Burris,  W.  P.,  Wissler,  C.,  Parker,  S.  C. 
Brinkerhoff,  Morris,  and  Thorndike  —  all  quoted  by  Thorndike,  E.  L., 
Educational  Psychology  (1903  edition),  pp.  35-38;  Dotey,  A.  1.,  reported  by 
Strayer,  G.  D.,  The  Abilities  of  Special  Groups  of  High-School  Students  in 
the  Subjects  which  they  Studied,  School  Review  Monographs,  vol.  m,  pp.  7-11 ; 
Starch,  D.,  "Some  Experimental  Data  on  the  Value  of  Studying  Foreign 
Languages,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxin,  pp.  C97-703;  vol.  xxv,  pp.  241-48. 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        473 

extent  of  vocabulary,  by  rendering  vocabulary  more  precise 
and  accurate  as  an  intellectual  instrument,  and  by  aiding 
the  development  of  habits  of  interrelating  words  so  as  to 
facilitate  consecutive  thinking  and  consecutive  discourse. 
It  was  pointed  out  also  that  vocabulary  development  is 
assisted  through  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  by  the  addi- 
tion of  new  terms,  by  the  necessary  comparison,  discrimina- 
tion, and  selection  of  terms  as  related  to  thought  elements. 
One  measure,  therefore,  of  the  relative  values  of  the  study  of 
foreign  languages  is  to  be  found  in  the  differences  in  their 
vocabularies  demanding  careful  comparison,  discrimination, 
and  selection  of  terms  in  the  mother  tongue  as  expressing 
the  intended  thought.  Now  in  this  respect  there  is  a  great 
difference  between  the  modern  languages  and  the  ancient 
languages.  The  modern  languages  all  express  modern 
thought  in  the  modern  way.  Both  the  thought  and  the 
manner  of  expressing  the  thought  are  much  closer  in  the 
case  of  modern  languages  than  in  the  case  of  an  ancient 
language  and  a  modern  language.  At  first  thought  this 
might  appear  to  offer  an  advantage  in  favor  of  the  study  of 
a  modern  language.  The  opposite  is,  however,  the  case 
where  not  content  but  practice  in  comparison,  discrimina- 
tion, and  selection  are  the  important  elements  involved. 
The  closer  the  vocabulary  and  the  manner  of  expressing 
thought  in  the  case  of  two  languages  the  less  is  the  oppor- 
tunity and  necessity  for  those  elements.  The  more  different 
the  vocabularies  and  the  manner  of  expressing  thought  the 
greater  is  the  opportunity  and  necessity  for  careful  compari- 
son, discrimination,  and  selection  without  which  the  inter- 
pretation into  the  mother  tongue  is  of  little  value  other 
than  for  content.  If  this  be  true  we  cannot  do  otherwise 
than  assign  superiority  to  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  as 
far  as  these  linguistic  values  alone  are  concerned. 

In  developing  habits  of  interrelating  words  for  the  pur- 


474     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

pose  of  facilitating  consecutive  thought  and  consecutive 
discourse  also  it  was  suggested  that  assistance  may  be  ren- 
dered by  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  through  practice 
in  analyzing  related  terms  and  expressions.  Here  the  factors 
involved  in  evaluating  foreign  languages  as  assisting  this 
process  are  (a)  differences  in  word  order,  and  (6)  differences 
in  inflectional  and  syntactical  usages.  The  greater  these 
differences,  the  greater  the  necessity  imposed  on  the  pupil 
of  consciously  attending  to  the  interrelating  of  terms  em- 
ployed for  the  expression  of  thought.  In  point  of  the  amount 
of  difference  in  word  order  there  can  be  no  hesitation  in 
classifying  the  Romance  languages,  French  and  Spanish, 
in  a  class  closely  similar  to  English,  classifying  Latin  and 
Greek  as  far  removed  from  English,  and  German  as  occupy- 
ing a  position  between  the  other  two  classes,  nearer  the  first 
than  the  second.  Such  values  as  arise  here  affect  the  lan- 
guages in  ascending  order:  French  and  Spanish,  German, 
Greek,  Latin.  In  point  of  the  amount  of  difference  in 
inflectional  and  syntactical  usages  the  classification  would 
place  French  and  Spanish  relatively  close  to  English, 
German,  Latin,  and  Greek  relatively  remote  from  English. 

Experimental  investagations  of  the  relative  values  of  the 
foreign  languages  as  studies  are  more  numerous  than  valu- 
able or  reliable.  As  samples  we  may  consider  two  investiga- 
tions, one  of  which  is  claimed  to  indicate  great  improvement 
of  linguistic  ability  as  the  result  of  the  study  of  Latin  as 
compared  with  the  results  of  the  study  of  German,  the  other 
held  by  the  investigator  to  indicate  little  improvement  as 
the  result  of  the  study  of  Latin. 

(a)  Perkins  conducted  an  experiment  in  the  commerical 
department  of  the  Dorchester  (Massachusetts)  High  School 
where  the  study  of  Latin  had  been  introduced  as  an  elective 
in  the  commercial  courses  on  the  theory  that  it  would  im- 
prove the  use  and  understanding  of  the  pupils'  English. 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        475 


After  the  course  had  been  put  into  operation  and  had  ap- 
proved itself  to  the  empirical  judgment  of  those  responsible 
an  attempt  was  made  to  secure  quantitative  measurements 
of  the  results.  The  methods  employed  and  the  results 
obtained  may  be  stated  in  the  investigator's  words : x 

Obviously,  the  first  step  was  to  select  two  sets  of  pupils  of  equal 
ability,  one  set  in  the  second  year  of  Latin,  and  the  other  in  the 
second  year  of  a  modern  language.  Accordingly  we  chose  pupils 
such  that  each  group  had  virtually  the  same  average  mark  in  Latin, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  modern  language,  on  the  other,  and  also  in 
English,  with  the  result,  in  actual  figures,  that  the  non-Latin  group 
in  the  two  studies  averages  0.5  of  1  per  cent  the  higher.  To  make 
doubly  sure  that  the  Latin  pupils  were  not  favored,  the  non-Latin 
group  were  taken  from  the  section  of  Mr.  Murdock,  a  classical 
scholar,  who  in  his  English  teaching  emphasizes  the  Latin  element 
in  the  language.  There  were  twenty -five  in  each  set,  all  in  the  second 
year  of  the  school. 

Six  measurements  were  made  with  the  results  indicated 
in  the  following  table. 

TABLE  CXXIV 


Averages  c 

/  groups 

Testt 

Latin 
(per  cent) 

German 
(per 
cent) 

1    Spelling                                                   

82.5 

72.6 

2.  Use  of  words  in  sentences  

57.5 

40.6 

3.  Definitions  and  parts  of  speech  

69.5 

33.3 

4.  Meanings  of  words  and  spelling  (first  test)  

57.0 

27.5 

5.  Excellence  in  vocabulary                                

36.0 

6.8 

6.  Meaning  of  words  and  spelling  (second  test)     

65.3 

12.3 

If  anything  this  table  proves  too  much. 

1  Perkins,  A.  S., "  Latin  as  a  Vocational  Study  in  the  Commercial  Course," 
The  Classical  Journal,  vol.  x,  pp.  7-16;  cf.  also  same  "Latin  as  a  'Practical' 
Study,"  The  Classical  Journal,  vol.  vm,  no.  7. 


476      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


Starch  investigated  a  number  of  phases  of  the  relation  of 
the  study  of  foreign  languages  to  linguistic  development. 
Some  of  the  results  obtained  are  indicated  in  the  following 
tables.1 

TABLE  CXXV.  MEDIAN  GRADES  IN  (UNIVERSITY) 
FRESHMAN  ENGLISH 

54  students  who  entered  with  Latin  only 83 . 9  per  cent 

97  students  who  entered  with  German  only 82.7  per  cent 

TABLE  CXXVI.  SIZE  OF  VOCABULARY  OF  LATIN  AND  NON- 
LATIN  STUDENTS 


University  students 

High-school  juniors 

Number 

Grade 
per  cent 

Number 

Grade 
per  cent 

Latin  groups  

139 
50 

60.9 

58.2 

14 
32 

54.7 
50.2 

Non-Latin  group  

TABLE  CXXVII.  EFFECT  OF  FOREIGN-LANGUAGE  STUDY  ON 
KNOWLEDGE  OF  GRAMMAR  AND  USAGE:  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS 


Yeart  of  foreign-language  study 

Number  of  pupils 

Average  scores 
for  knowledge  of 
grammar 

Average  scores 
for  correctness 
of  usage 

o            

12 

14.7 

32  2 

8  weeks  

50 

20.8 

43  0 

1  year  

18 

25.5 

43  4 

2  years  

39 

24.8 

45  9 

3  years  

27 

28.6 

47  7 

205.  The  place  of  foreign  languages.    The  place  which 
instruction  in  foreign  languages  is  to  occupy  in  the  American 
secondary  school  must  be  determined  by  the  relative  impor- 
1  Starch.,  D.,  loc.  cit. 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        477 

tance  which  is  to  be  attached  to  the  different  values  consid- 
ered in  the  preceding  sections.   Until  within  recent  years  the 
greater  importance  has  been  attached  to  the  indirect  and 
general  values  ascribed  to  the  study  of  a  foreign  language 
Within  recent  years  the  tendency  has  been  in  the  directiol 
of  emphasis  on  the  direct  values  of  such  study.   If  that  ten 
dency  proceeds  to  its  logical  end  it  must  be  recognized  that  j 
the  relative  prominence  heretofore  given  to  foreign  language  I 
should  be  greatly  decreased,  since  those  direct  values  are 
limited  and  contingent.  On  the  other  hand,  if  recognition  is 
to  be  given  to  indirect  and  general  values,  rather  extensive 
attention  must  be  given  to  the  study  of  foreign  languages. 
Justification  for  the  large  proportion  of  secondary-school 
pupils  at  present  studying  foreign  languages  and  for  the 
amount  of  time  at  present  devoted  to  the  study  of  foreign 
languages  in  the  secondary  school  cannot  be  found  on  the 
basis  of  direct  and  immediately  utilitarian  values.    On  the 
other  hand,  if  claims  for  general  and  indirect  values  are 
valid,  some  grounds  may  be  found  for  considerable  attention 
to  foreign-language  study. 

While  any  adequate  consideration  of  methods  of  teaching 
a  foreign  language  cannot  be  attempted  here,  it  may  be 
noted  in  passing  that  if  direct  values  alone  are  to  determine 
the  aims  of  foreign  language  instruction  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  so-called  "  direct  methods  "  in  some  form 
must  obtain.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  aims  are  dominantly 
determined  by  the  indirect  values  great  importance  must 
be  attached  to  the  use  of  the  mother  tongue  and  to  transla- 
tion. In  the  majority  of  classes  it  is  altogether  probable 
that  methods  of  teaching  are  demanded  which  emphasize 
the  best  elements  of  the  "  direct  method  "  without  sacrificing 
the  importance  of  the  mother  tongue  and  without  neglecting 
the  values  of  translation. 


478      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  Make  a  survey  of  the  commercial  houses  of  any  town  and  ascertain  the 
demand  for  those  who  have  a  knowledge  of  foreign  languages  for  com- 
mercial purposes. 

2.  Analyze  the  work  in  German  or  French  in  any  high  school  to  determine 
what  social-cultural  values  are  involved. 

3.  To  what  extent  is  a  knowledge  of  Latin  or  Greek  valuable  to  a  lawyer? 
—  to  a  physician?  —  to  a  clergyman? 

4.  Evaluate  the  various  methods  of  teaching  a  modern  foreign  language 
in  terms  of  the  values  considered  in  this  chapter. 

5.  In  a  large  high  school  carry  out  the  following  experiment:  From  pupils 
now  in  the  senior  class  select  two  groups,  group  1  composed  of  those 
who  studied  one  and  only  one  foreign  language  during  the  sophomore 
years,  group  2  composed  of  those  who  in  the  freshman  and  sopho- 
more years  studied  no  foreign  language;  examine  the  grades  in  English 
received  by  those  pupils  in  the  last  grade  of  the  elementary  school 
or  the  work  of   the  first  term  of  the  high  school;  pair  off  pupils  in  the 
two  original  groups  according  to  the  grades  received   in  the  earlier 
work  in  English,  so  as  to  secure  two  groups  of  equal  English  ability 
as  thus  measured,  leaving  exceptional  cases  out  of  further  considera- 
tion.   Compare  the  relative  standing  in  English  in  the  junior  year  of 
the  high  school  of  the  two  groups.   Compare  their  relative  standing  in 
all  other  high-school  work  in  the  junior  year. 

6.  Devise  a  study  of  the  relative  accomplishment  of  students  studying 
Latin  or  French,  or  German,  somewhat  along  the  lines  laid  down  in 
the  above. 

7.  In  any  high  school  estimate  as  nearly  as  possible  the  numbers  of  pupils 
who  may  properly  study  a  foreign  language  for  its  direct-use  values. 

8.  Make  a  study  of  the  college-entrance  requirements  in  foreign  languages. 

9.  In  any  high  school  determine  the  proportions  of  pupils  who  drop  Latin, 
French,  or  German  after  one  year  of  study;  after  two  years :  after  three 
years. 

10.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  study  of  a  foreign  language 
in  the  first  or  second  year  of  the  junior  high  school,  i.e.,  at  about  the 
ages  of  12-13. 

1 1 .  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  requirement  of  some  foreign- 
language  study  some  time  in  the  secondary-school  course? 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 
I.  General: 

Dewey,  J.,  How  We  Think,  especially  pp.  170-87. 
Flagstad,  C.  B.,  Psychologic  der  Sprachpadagogik. 
Henderson,  E.  N.,  Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  359-82. 


THE  PLACE  OF  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES        479 

Judd,  C.  H.,  The  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects,  chap.  vn. 

O'Shea,  M.  V.,  Linguistic  Development  and  Education,  pp.  298-327. 

Von  Sallwiirk,  E.,  Funf  Kapitel  vom  Erlemen  fremder  Sprachen. 

Starch,  D.,  Educational  Measurements,  chaps,  xi-xin. 
II.  Ancient  languages: 

Bennett,  C.  E.,  and  Bristol,  G.  P.,  The  Teaching  of  Latin  and  Greek 
in  the  Secondary  School,  especially  pp.  1^49,  217-24. 

Corcoran,  C.,  Studies  in  the  History  of  Classical  Teaching. 

Headlam,  J.  W.,  The  Teaching  of  Classics  in  the  Secondary  Schools 
of  Germany,  Board  of  Education  (England),  Special  Reports, 
vol.  xx. 

Kelsey,  F.  W.,  Latin  and  Greek  in  American  Education. 

Lodge,  G.,  "  The  Value  of  the  Classics  in  Training  for  Citizen- 
ship," Teachers  College  Record,  vol.  xvin,  pp.  111-121. 

National  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Educa- 
tion, Report  of  Committee  on  Ancient  Foreign  Languages,  Bureau 
of  Education  Bulletin. 

Perkins,  A.  S.,  "Latin  as  a  Vocational  Study  in  the  Commercial 
Course,"  The  Classical  Journal,  vol.  x,  pp.  7-16;  cf.  also  same, 
"Latin  as  a  'Practical'  Study,"  The  Classical  Journal,  vol.  vin, 
no.  7. 

Rand,  E.  K.,  Wenley,  R.  M.,  and  Shorey,  P.,  "A  Symposium  on 
the  Value  of  Humanistic,  Particularly  Classical,  Studies,"  School 
Review,  vol.  xvin,  pp.  441-59,  513-29,  585-617. 

Slaughter,  M.  S.,  The  High-School  Course  in  Latin. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xni. 

West,  A.  F.  (Editor),  Value  of  the  Classics. 

Committee  of  Ten,  Report  on  Secondary  School  Studies,  especially 
pp.  60-885. 

Committee  of  Twelve  of  the  American  Philological  Association 

Report  on  Courses  in  Latin  and  Greek  for  Secondary  Schools. 
III.  Modern  languages: 

Armstrong,  E.  C.,  "  The  Place  of  Modern  Languages  hi  American 
Education,"  School  Review,  vol.  xix,  pp.  596-609. 

Bagster-Collins,  E.  W.,  The  Teaching  of  German  in  Secondary  Schools, 
especially  pp.  6-38. 

Bahlsen,  L.,  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages. 

Board  of  Education  (England);  Special  Reports  on  Educational 
Subjects,  vol.  n,  pp.  648-79;  vol.  in,  pp.  461-533,  et  al. 

Breul,  K.,  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Foreign  Languages. 

Committee  of  Ten,  Report  on  Secondary  School  Studies,  especially 
pp.  86-103  (Bureau  of  Education  edition). 

Committee  of  Twelve  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  of 
America,  Report. 


480     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Eggert,  B.,  Der  Psychologische  Zusammenhang  in  der  Didaktik  des 

Neusprachlichen  Reformunterrichts. 
Hall,  G.  S.,  Educational  Problems,  vol.  n,  chap.  xv. 
Handschin,  C.  H.,  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  the  United 

States,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1913),  no.  3. 
Jespersen,  P.,  How  to  Teach  a  Foreign  Language. 
Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xiv. 

Extended  bibliographies:  On  Modern  Languages,  Handschin, 
C.  H.,  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  the  United  States; 
see  above,  pp.  107-49. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  PLACE  OF   MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  PROGRAM 
OF   STUDIES 

206.  Historical  development  of  the  study  of  mathematics. 
In  the  history  of  secondary  education  mathematics  has  held 
a  position  second  only  to  the  classical  languages  and  litera- 
tures. While  the  study  had  appeared  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  Europe  in  some  instances  before  the  beginning  of 
secondary  education  in  America,  it  had  never  gained  a  firm 
foothold,  appearing  but  occasionally  in  the  form  of  ele- 
mentary arithmetic.  In  the  Latin  grammar  schools  of 
the  American  colonies  elementary  instruction  in  arithmetic 
appeared  in  some  cases  at  an  early  period  but  never  became 
prominent  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. In  the  Public  Lathi  School  of  Boston,  for  example,  it 
was  not  until  some  time  between  1814  and  1828  that  arith- 
metic, algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry  were  intro- 
duced. 

Meanwhile  impetus  had  been  given  to  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  academy,  beginning  in  the  Franklin  Academy 
with  its  separate  mathematical  department.  It  soon  spread 
to  nearly  every  academy  established.  Thus,  when  the  high- 
school  movement  began  in  the  third  decade  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  mathematics  had  already  found  a  place 
in  the  secondary-school  program,  and  in  the  first  program 
of  the  English  Classical  (High)  School  of  Boston  in  1821 
were  included  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  trigonometry, 
navigation,  surveying,  and  mensuration.  Thus  also  by  the 
Massachusetts  act  of  1827  (the  first  high-school  law  in 
America)  the  teaching  of  algebra,  geometry,  and  surveying 


482      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

was  made  mandatory  in  the  high  school  of  every  town  in  the 
State  having  a  population  of  five  hundred  families  or  over. 
As  the  high-school  movement  spread  during  the  nineteenth 
century,  mathematics  (algebra, geometry,  and  trigonometry), 
became  a  regular  part  of  the  program  in  high  schools  through- 
out the  country. 

Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  fundamentals  of  arithmetic  constituted  the  only 
requirement  in  mathematics  for  college  entrance,  and  that 
requirement  was  not  universal  until  that  time.  Algebra  was 
made  an  admission  requirement  at  Harvard  in  1820  and  in 
many  other  colleges  by  the  middle  of  the  century.  By  that 
time  also  geometry  had  begun  to  find  a  place  in  college- 
entrance  requirements.  By  1875  algebra  and  geometry 
had  become  firmly  established  as  college-entrance  require- 
ments and  in  most  colleges  have  been  thus  retained  up  to  the 
present.  In  1912  every  college  which  prescribed  any  subject 
other  than  English  prescribed  algebra  and  geometry. 

The  position  which  mathematics  has  occupied  in  the 
program  of  the  public  secondary  school  for  the  period  1890 
to  1915  may  be  seen  from  the  figures  presented  in  Table 
CXIX.  Those  figures  indicate  that  during  the  greater  part 
of  that  period  at  any  one  time  approximately  one  half  of  all 
pupils  were  engaged  in  studying  algebra  and  nearly  one 
quarter  in  studying  geometry. 

From  this  brief  resume  it  may  be  seen  that  the  study  of 
mathematics  in  the  American  secondary  school  possesses 
all  the  advantages  and  all  the  disadvantages  which  arise 
from  the  prestige  of  tradition.  As  a  result  of  its  important 
position  in  the  program  of  studies  it  has  developed  a  body 
of  material  and  method  of  teaching  which  is  well-organized 
and  standardized.  Its  actual  values  have  doubtless  been 
enhanced  in  the  minds  of  the  public  by  the  force  of  tradition. 
It  has  benefited  by  the  fostering  protection  of  college- 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS 


483 


entrance  requirements  which  have  been  powerful  influ- 
ences determining  the  character  and  place  of  mathematics 
in  the  secondary  school. 

207.  Present  status  of  mathematics  instruction.  With 
the  possible  exception  of  a  few  special-type  schools  practi- 
cally every  secondary  school  in  the  United  States  includes 
algebra  and  plane  geometry  in  its  program  of  studies  and 
in  most  schools  those  subjects  are  rigidly  prescribed  for  the 
majority  of  pupils.  Hence  a  very  large  proportion  of  pupils 
in  the  secondary  school  are  always  engaged  in  the  study  of 
mathematics,  few  pupils  pass  through  the  first  part  of  their 
secondary  education  without  some  contact  with  the  subject, 
and  a  measurably  large  proportion  of  the  total  time  devoted 
to  secondary  education  is  occupied  in  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics. The  latest  available  returns  (those  for  1914-15) 
indicate  the  following  figures  for  the  numbers  of  pupils 
engaged  in  mathematical  studies. 

TABLE  CXXVIII.  PUPILS  ENGAGED  IN  MATHEMATICAL 
STUDIES  1914-15  * 


Public  schools 

Private  schools 

All  schools 

Algebra  

569,215 
309,383 
17,220 

48.84% 
26.55 
1.48 

66,801 
36,681 
5,258 

53.15% 
29.18 
4.18 

636,016 
346,064 

22,478 

49.26% 
26.80 
1.74 

Geometry  .... 
Trigonometry  . 

Total  

895,818 

76.87 

108,740 

86.51 

1,004,558 

77.80 

*  Report  of  the  United  Stales  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  n,  pp.  487-89.     The 
relatively  small  amount  of  overlapping  permits  totaling. 

Where  algebra  is  studied  five  periods  per  week  for  one 
year  and  geometry  for  a  like  amount  of  time  about  one 
eighth  of  the  total  time  of  a  pupil  who  remains  four  years  in 
the  secondary  school  is  devoted  to  mathematics.  If  he  re- 
mains one  or  two  years  about  one  fourth  of  his  total  time  is 


484      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


devoted  to  mathematics.  Schools  in  which  less  than  that 
amount  of  time  is  devoted  to  mathematics  are  fewer  than 
schools  in  which  a  greater  amount  of  time  is  devoted  to  it. 
Mathematics,  however,  is  seldom  required  for  all  pupils 
throughout  the  course,  and  in  this  respect  our  practice 
differs  from  practice  in  Prussia  and  France.  Conditions  in 
Prussia  may  be  seen  from  the  following  figures. 

TABLE  CXXIX  * 


Length  of  course 
in  years 

Total  number 
of  periods  t 

Per  cent  of 
total  time 

Gymnasium   

9 

34 

13  1 

Realgymnasium  

9 

42 

16.0 

Oberrealschule         .         .     . 

9 

47 

17  9 

*  Lehrplane  und  fehraufgaben  fur  die  hoheren  Schulen  in  Preussen  (1901),  pp.  4-6. 
t  Cf.  Tables  LXXXIV-LXXXVII. 

Until  within  recent  years  the  theory  was  almost  universal 
that  mathematics  (of  a  higher  grade  than  arithmetic)  should 
be  required  of  all  pupils  passing  through  the  secondary 
school.  Thus  in  the  programs  suggested  by  the  Committee 
of  Ten  in  1893  four  periods  per  week  of  algebra  were  pre- 
scribed for  all  pupils  in  all  courses  in  the  first  year  of  the 
high  school,  three  periods  of  geometry  per  week  in  the  sec- 
ond year,  two  periods  of  algebra  and  two  periods  of  geometry 
in  the  third  year.  In  addition  the  Committee  provided  an 
option  of  three  periods  of  trigonometry  and  higher  algebra 
in  the  fourth  year.1  Even  more  urgent  were  the  recommen- 
dations of  the  Committee  on  College  Entrance  Requirements 
through  its  sub-committee  on  mathematics  in  1899,  when  it 
stated  that :  "  To  the  close  of  the  secondary -school  course  the 

1  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Second- 
ary School  Studies,  pp.  46-47. 


485 

required  work  in  mathematics  should  be  the  same  for  all 
pupils,"  and  that  "  In  the  secondary  school,  work  in  mathe- 
matics should  be  required  of  all  pupils  throughout  each  of 
the  four  years  of  the  course."  1 

A  reaction  against  such  a  conception  has  been  growing  in 
force  within  the  past  decade  or  two,  the  bases  for  that  reac- 
tion being  found:  (1)  in  an  increased  recognition  of  the  factor 
of  individual  differences  in  the  capacities,  abilities,  interests, 
and  probable  futures  of  pupils;  (2)  in  an  increased  recogni- 
tion of  the  needs  of  children  who  leave  before  the  close  of 
the  high-school  course,  especially  their  vocational  and  social 
needs ;  (3)  in  a  re-interpretation  and  re-direction  of  theories 
of  the  transfer  of  improved  efficiency;  (4)  a  lessening  of  the 
influence  of  the  colleges  over  the  secondary  school;  (5) 
changing  conceptions  of  the  social  functions  of  the  public 
secondary  school;  and  (6)  a  recognition  of  the  meaning  of 
retardation  and  elimination. 

208.  Preliminary  analysis  of  aims  and  values.  For  pur- 
poses of  analysis  the  values  commonly  claimed  for  the  study 
of  secondary-school  mathematics  may  profitably  be  con- 
sidered under  two  general  headings:  (1)  those  values  which 
arise  from  the  relatively  direct  and  specific  use  of  mathe- 
matics; (2)  those  values  which  may  arise  indirectly  through 
the  development  of  mathematical  concepts  or  through  the 
transfer  of  improved  efficiency.  Either  of  these  grouped 
values  may  again  be  subdivided.  Thus  under  the  head  of 
direct  and  specific  values  should  be  considered:  (a)  the 
values  of  mathematics  as  measured  by  the  directly  practical 
application  of  its  principles  and  processes  to  those  affairs 
of  life  common  to  most  people  whatever  be  their  vocations; 
(6)  the  values  of  mathematics  as  measured  by  the  directly 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  on  College  Entrance  Requirements  (July,  1899), 
published  by  the  National  Educational  Association,  University  of  Chicago 
Press,  p.  148. 


486      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

practical  application  of  its  principles  and  processes  in  special 
professions  or  special  parts  of  certain  vocations;  (c)  the 
values  of  mathematics  as  measured  by  the  direct  application 
of  its  principles  and  processes  to  other  sciences.  Under  the 
head  of  indirect  values  may  be  considered:  (a)  values 
claimed  to  arise  from  the  study  of  mathematics  as  meas- 
ured by  the  development  of  generally  valuable  concepts  of 
number  and  space  relations,  together  with  the  development 
of  certain  mathematical  thought  modes;  (6)  the  values 
claimed  to  arise  from  the  study  of  mathematics  as  measured 
by  the  transfer  or  spread  to  other  fields  of  improved  effi- 
ciency gained  in  that  field.  For  the  purpose  of  further 
analysis  in  the  following  sections  those  claimed  values  may 
be  classified  and  considered  under  the  following  heads: 

(1)  Direct  and  specific  use  values: 

(a)  General  use  values; 

(b)  Specific  vocational  values; 

(c)  Propaedeutic  values. 

(2)  Indirect  and  general  values: 
(a)  Conceptual  values; 

(6)  Transfer  values. 

The  interrelation  of  these  values  is  recognized.    Neverthe- 
less separate  analysis  of  each  group  is  profitable. 
209.  Mathematics  in  the  affairs  of  everyday  life. 

There  is  no  subject,  except  the  use  of  the  mother  tongue,  which 
is  so  intimately  connected  with  everyday  life,  and  so  necessary  t& 
the  successful  conduct  of  affairs.  Wherever  we  turn  in  these  days 
of  iron,  steam,  and  electricity,  we  find  that  mathematics  has  been 
the  pioneer  and  guarantees  the  results.  Were  its  backbone  ot 
mathematics  removed,  our  material  civilization  would  inevitably 
collapse. 

But  widespread  as  are  the  applications  of  mathematics  and 
enormous  as  is  its  practical  value,  it  may  be  justly  urged  that 
to  the  large  majority  of  people  its  importance,  though  great,  is 
indirect,  and  that  the  average  citizen  has  but  little  need  of  mathe- 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS  487 

matical  facts,  or  even  an  opportunity  to  use  them  beyond  the 
merest  elements  of  arithmetic.1 

In  this  passage  Young  has  well  stated  a  truth  almost 
universally  recognized  by  the  mathematician  but  frequently 
ignored  by  the  layman  and  even  by  schoolmen,  who  often 
fall  into  one  or  both  of  two  fallacies  by  (a)  failing  to  recog- 
nize the  relative  values  of  different  parts  of  a  field  of  knowl- 
edge which  go  under  the  same  name,  or  (6)  failing  to  dis- 
tinguish between  knowledge  which  is  of  universal  value  to 
civilization  through  a  relatively  few  specialists  and  that 
which  all  should  possess.2  The  second  fallacy  is  recognized 
by  Schultze:  3 

It  would  be  an  error  to  infer,  from  the  great  usefulness  of  math- 
ematics to  our  civilization,  an  equal  practical  usefulness  to  every 
individual.  The  percentage  of  students  who  are  likely  to  have 
practical  use  for  mathematics,  after  leaving  school  or  college,  is  cer- 
tainly small. 

And  by  Yocum 4  who 

emphasizes  the  distinction  ignored  by  Mr.  Spencer  between 
subject  matter  useful  to  the  race  through  the  specialist,  and  sub- 
ject matter  directly  useful  to  the  majority  of  individuals  who  are 
not  specialists. 

Little  of  the  secondary -school  mathematics  as  it  is  now 
organized  can  be  considered  of  direct  value  to  the  average 
individual  for  the  practical  purposes  of  everyday  life.  The 
general-use  values  of  secondary-school  mathematics  are 
small. 

1  Young,  J.  W.  A.,  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics,  p.  13.   This  and  other 
extracts  are  quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co. 

2  Cf.  Section  165. 

3  Schultze,  A.,  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  Secondary  Schools,  pp. 
17-18.  This  and  other  extracts  are  quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  pub- 
lishers, The  Macmillan  Company. 

4  Yocum,  A.  D.,  "Mathematics  as  a  Means  to  Culture  and  Discipline," 
The  Mathematics  Teacher,  vol.  vi,  p.  136. 


488      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

210.  Mathematics  in  various  vocations. 

A  subject  is  also  valuable  as  preparation  for  the  contingency  that 
the  child  in  the  future  may  take  up  an  occupation  requiring  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  in  question.  For  mathematics  this  value  is 
marked,  because  there  is  a  large  and  growing  number  of  occupations 
which  require  a  knowledge  of  mathematical  results.1 

It  must  be  recognized  that  certain  occupations  call  for 
an  extended  knowledge  not  only  of  mathematical  results, 
but  also  of  mathematical  principles  and  processes.  The 
number  of  persons  engaged  in  such  occupations  is  small. 
Many  other  occupations  call  for  some  knowledge  of  mathe- 
matical results.  A  knowledge  or  use  of  mathematical  results 
is,  however,  a  far  different  thing  from  a  knowledge  of  math- 
ematical principles  and  processes  or  the  ability  to  derive 
mathematical  results.  In  the  majority  of  occupations  which 
involve  the  use  of  mathematical  results  those  who  employ 
them  commonly  depend  on  fairly  simple  formulae  which 
ordinarily  are  reduced  to  arithmetical  terms  in  tables.  This 
is  recognized  by  Schultze: 2 

The  majority  of  business  or  professional  callings  require  no 
algebra,  geometry,  or  trigonometry,  and  even  the  professions  which 
use  those  subjects  do  so  to  a  much  smaller  extent  than  is  generally 
supposed.  There  are  navigators,  surveyors,  and  engineers  who 
make  their  calculations  in  an  almost  mechanical  manner,  without 
having  perfectly  clear  notions  of  the  underlying  mathematical 
principles.  Only  for  those  few  men  who  become  original  designers 
and  investigators  is  true  mathematical  skill  and  knowledge  indis- 
pensable. 

And  by  Smith:3 

It  is  well  to  understand,  in  the  first  place,  that  geometry  is 
not  studied,  and  never  has  been  studied,  because  of  its  positive 
utility  in  commercial  life  or  even  in  the  workshop. . .  . 

1  Young,  J.  W.  A.,  op.  cit.,  p.  14.  2  Schultze,  A.,  op.  dt.,  p.  18. 

3  Smith,  D.  E.,  Tlie  Teaching  of  Geometry,  pp.  7,  90. 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS  489 

All  the  facts  (of  geometry)  that  a  skilled  mechanic  or  an  engineer 
would  ever  need  could  be  taught  in  a  few  lessons.  All  the  rest  is 
either  obvious  or  is  commercially  and  technically  useless. 

The  actual  amount  of  algebra  needed  by  a  foreman  in  a  machine 
shop  can  be  taught  in  about  four  lessons,  and  the  geometry  or 
mensuration  that  he  needs  can  be  taught  in  eight  lessons  at  the 
most.  The  necessary  trigonometry  may  take  eight  more.  .  .  . 

The  values  of  secondary-school  mathematics  (or  some 
parts  of  it)  are  undoubted  for  some  parts  of  certain  profes- 
sions. They  are,  however,  less  than  is  commonly  thought 
and  must  be  considered  as  highly  contingent  for  most  pupils. 

211.  The  propaedeutic  values  of  mathematics. 

So  completely  is  nature  mathematical  that  some  of  the  more 
exact  natural  sciences,  in  particular  astronomy  and  physics,  are 
in  their  theoretic  phases  largely  mathematical  in  character,  while 
other  sciences  which  have  hitherto  been  compelled  by  the  com- 
plexity of  their  phenomena  and  the  inexactitude  of  their  data  to 
remain  descriptive  and  empirical,  are  developing  towards  the 
mathematical  ideal,  proceeding  upon  the  fundamental  assumption 
that  mathematical  relations  exist  between  the  forces  and  the 
phenomena,  and  that  nothing  short  of  the  discovery  and  formula- 
tions of  these  relations  would  constitute  definitive  knowledge  of  the 
subject.  Progress  is  measured  by  the  closeness  of  the  approxima- 
tion to  this  ideal  formulation.1 

That  a  knowledge  of  mathematical  results,  principles,  and 
processes  is  requisite  for  advanced  work  in  the  various  sci- 
ences, mental  and  social  as  well  as  material,  is  obvious. 
Propaedeutic  values  are  real  values  for  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics. It  should  be  obvious,  however,  that  for  secondary- 
school  pupils  those  values  are  limited  and  contingent.  As 
propaedeutic  for  secondary-school  science  and  the  elementary 
science  courses  in  college  the  values  of  secondary-school 
mathematics  is  commonly  over-estimated,  though  attention 
has  frequently  been  called  to  the  very  small  amount  of 
1  Young,  J.  W.  A.,  op.  cit.,  p.  15;  cf.  Schultze,  A.,  op.  cit.,  p.  15. 


490      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

mathematical  knowledge  required   for  effective  study  of 
physics  and  chemistry.   Thus  Milliken:  1 

There  is  no  mathematics  needed  in  elementary  physics  even  as 
it  is  now,  except  the  simplest  algebraic  equations  with  one  un- 
known, and  the  single  geometrical  proposition  of  the  proportion- 
ality of  the  sides  of  similar  triangles. 

On  the  whole  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  the  number  of 
pupils  for  whom  the  propaedeutic  values  of  the  study  of 
mathematics  are  appreciably  important  is  relatively  small, 
being  somewhat  less  than  the  number  of  pupils  who  continue 
their  education  beyond  the  secondary -school  stage. 

212.  Direct  values  limited  and  contingent.  Critics  of  the 
study  of  supra-arithmetical  mathematics  are  almost  unani- 
mous in  their  judgments  that  the  study  of  algebra,  geome- 
try, and  other  higher  mathematics  in  the  secondary  school, 
as  they  are  at  present  organized,  cannot  be  justified  for  all 
pupils  or  even  for  any  large  proportion  of  pupils  on  the  basis 
of  their  direct  and  specific  values.  Thus  Schultze: 2 

If  mathematics,  however,  had  no  value  as  a  mental  discipline, 
its  teaching  in  the  secondary  schools  could  hardly  be  justified 
solely  on  grounds  of  its  bread-and-butter  value. 

And  Karpinski: 3 

The  practical  side  of  mathematics  has  frequently  been  over- 
emphasized in  popular  discussions  of  its  function.  .  .  .  And  yet, 
were  we  to  confine  the  instruction  in  arithmetic,  geometry,  algebra, 
and  trigonometry  to  these  phases  which  enjoy  a  reasonable  meas- 
ure of  actual  application,  the  time  devoted  to  these  subjects  could 
be  cut  in  half.  Mathematical  instruction  must  justify  itself  as 
educational  material  aside  from  its  applied  values. 

1  Milliken,  R.  A.,  School  and  Society,  vol.  in,  p.  167. 

2  Schultze,  A.,  op.  dt.,  p.  18. 

3  Karpinski,  L.  C.,  p.  132,  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High-School 
Education. 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS  491 

And  Young: l 

The  average  citizen  has  but  little  need  of  mathematical  facts, 
or  even  opportunity  to  use  them  beyond  the  merest  elements  of 
arithmetic. 

In  interpreting  such  statements  as  these  three  facts 
should  be  kept  in  mind:  (1)  that  the  direct  and  specific  val- 
ues of  algebra,  geometry,  and  other  secondary -school  mathe- 
matics as  at  present  organized  must  always  be  limited  to 
certain  groups  of  pupils  and  cannot  be  universal;  (2)  that 
they  are  contingent  rather  than  certain;  (3)  that  the  state- 
ments refer  to  mathematics  as  organized  into  systematic 
sciences,  wherein  logical  and  purely  mathematical  relation- 
ships determine  the  choice  and  arrangement  of  materials  and 
the  methods  of  their  presentation  in  teaching.  Points  (1) 
and  (2)  have  already  been  considered.  Point  (3)  deserves 
some  further  consideration. 

For  pupils  who  may  become  mathematical  specialists  or 
who  may  have  opportunity  to  employ  mathematical  facts, 
principles,  and  processes  extensively  in  advanced  work, 
systematic  and  logically  organized  courses  in  algebra, 
geometry,  and  other  higher  mathematics,  are  justified  on  the 
basis  of  their  direct  values.  For  other  pupils  no  such  justi- 
fication can  be  found.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  certain 
mathematical  facts,  principles,  and  processes,  involved  in 
those  subjects,  which  are  of  sufficiently  common  applica- 
tion in  the  affairs  of  life  to  warrant  their  acquirement  on  the 
part  of  many  if  not  most  individuals.  Here  are  to  be  con- 
sidered elements  classified  by  Yocum:  2 

(1)  All  mathematical  material  specifically  useful  to  those  not 
specialists,  that  is  sufficiently  many-sided  and  recurring  in  its 
applications  or  essential  in  some  unique  usefulness,  to  be  made 
definite  and  certain  for  all.  .  .  . 

1  Young,  J.  W.  A.,  op.  cit.,  p.  13. 

2  Yocum,  A.  D.,  "Mathematics  as  a  Means  to  Culture  and  Discipline," 
The  Mathematics  Teacher,  vol.  vi,  pp.  136-37. 


492      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

(2)  All  mathematical  material  sufficiently  useful  to  those  not 
specialists  which,  while  not  sufficiently  many-sided  and  recurring 
to  be  made  certain  for  all,  is  many-sided  and  recurring  enough  and 
strong  enough  in  its  sensational  or  emotional  appeal  to  be  presented 
for  such  individual  comprehension  and  retention  as  may  result. 

Recognition  of  the  importance  of  some  mathematical 
facts,  principles,  and  processes  for  the  majority  of  individ- 
uals, on  the  basis  of  direct  and  specific  values,  would  justify 
the  organization  of  a  course  in  mathematics  to  meet  the 
needs  common  to  most  individuals.  Such  a  course  would 
include  those,  and  only  those,  mathematical  facts,  principles, 
and  processes  which  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  have 
practical  applications  in  the  lives  of  most  people,  involving 
elements  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  such  other 
mathematics  as  may  be  appropriate.  Some  such  course  of 
"composite"  or  "combined"  mathematics  might  well  find 
its  place  in  the  junior  high  school  where  it  would  serve  not 
only  to  provide  useful  mathematical  knowledges  to  those 
who  will  leave  school  early  and  to  those  who  will  not  further 
study  mathematics,  but  would  also  serve  as  a  valuable  prog- 
nostic factor  for  those  who  would  later  in  the  senior  high 
school  undertake  the  systematic  study  of  algebra,  geometry, 
or  other  higher  mathematics.  Such  further  mathematical 
knowledges  as  may  be  appropriate  to  industrial  or  other 
vocational  courses  should  be  provided  in  the  vocational 
courses  themselves  in  direct  connection  with  their  vocational 
applications. 

213.  Indirect  values  claimed :  number  and  space  concepts. 
Among  claims  sometimes  made  for  the  study  of  mathemat- 
ics is  the  claim  that  it  develops  number  and  space  concepts 
which  are  fundamental  elements  in  mental  life.  Thus  the 
National  Committee  of  Fifteen  states:  l 

1  National  Committee  of  Fifteen,  Final  Report  on  Geometry  Syllabus, 
The  Mathematics  Teacher,  vol.  v,  p.  44. 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS  493 

The  study  of  geometry  leads  also  to  an  appreciation  of  the 
dependence  of  one  geometric  magnitude  on  another,  in  other  words 
to  the  tangible  concept  of  functionality. 

The  study  of  geometry  cultivates  space  intuition  and  an  appre- 
ciation of  and  control  over  forms  existing  in  the  material  world, 
which  can  be  secured  from  no  other  topic  in  the  high  school  cur- 
riculum. 

Likewise  the  study  of  algebra  has  frequently  been  urged 
as  a  means  of  extending  the  concept  of  number  relations 
to  desirable  limits  beyond  the  concrete  field  of  arithmetic. 
Beyond  doubt  number  and  space  concepts  play  an  important 
part  in  the  interpretation  of  all  quantitative  phenomena.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  say,  however,  whether  additions  to  such 
concepts  as  arithmetic  has  developed  are  important  enough 
for  the  majority  of  individuals  to  justify  any  extensive  study 
of  algebra  or  geometry.  None  but  an  a-priori  or  empirical 
answer  can  be  given  to  this  question. 

Closely  related  to  the  development  of  number  and  space 
relations  is  the  development  of  "the  language  of  mathe- 
matics." Thus  Karpinski: l 

Equally  important  is  the  fact  that  like  the  mother-tongue  the 
language  of  mathematics  is  employed  in  the  daily  life  of  the  child; 
to  formulate  this  in  the  language  of  the  psychologist  there  is  a 
related  body  of  apperceptive  material  already  present  in  the  child 
consciousness. 

The  literature  of  almost  all  fields  of  science  (in  the  broad- 
est  sense  of  that  term)  is  replete  with  "  mathematical  lan- 
guage," and  the  "  general  reader  "  should  have  some  un- 
derstanding of  it.  Again,  however,  research  is  necessary  to 
determine  how  far  supra-arithmetical  study  is  necessary  for 
the  development  of  "  mathematical  language  "  valuable  for 
the  average  individual.  None  but  empirical  estimates  are 
at  present  possible. 

1  Karpinski,  L.  C.,  op.  tit.,  p.  133. 


494      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

2 14.  Mathematics  and  the  transfer  of  improved  efficiency. 
From  the  time  of  its  introduction  into  the  program  of  the 
secondary  school  the  study  of  mathematics  has  been  justified 
by  its  advocates  to  a  considerable  extent  on  the  basis  of  its 
values  as  a  means  of  "  mental  discipline."  With  the  growing 
realization  of  the  limitations  of  its  direct  values  and  their 
contingent  character  greater  and  greater  emphasis  has  been 
placed  on  the  disciplinary  values  of  secondary-school  mathe- 
matics. Thus  Schultze : l 

Mathematics  is  primarily  taught  on  account  of  the  mental  train- 
ing it  affords  and  only  secondarily  on  account  of  the  knowledge  of 
facts  it  imparts. 

Thus  also  Smith : 2 

Here,  then,  is  the  dominating  value  of  geometry,  its  value  as 
an  exercise  in  logic,  as  a  means  of  mental  training,  as  a  discipline 
in  the  habits  of  neatness,  order,  diligence,  and  above  all,  of  honesty. 

Likewise  Young: 3 

But  the  facts  of  mathematics,  important  and  valuable  as  they 
are,  are  not  the  strongest  justification  for  the  study  of  the  subject 
by  all  pupils.  Still  more  important  than  the  subject  matter  of 
mathematics  is  the  fact  that  it  exemplifies  most  typically,  clearly, 
and  simply  certain  modes  of  thought  which  are  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  every  one. 

Since  mathematics  is  a  preferential  if  not  a  required  study 
in  most  secondary  schools,  and  since  such  general  study  of 
mathematics  cannot  be  justified  on  the  basis  of  direct  values 
alone,  it  is  clear  that  the  problem  of  the  possibility,  method, 
and  amount  of  the  transfer  or  spread  to  non-mathematical 
fields  of  improved  efficiency  gained  in  and  through  the  study 

1  Schultze,  A.,  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  the  Secondary  School, 
p.  29. 

2  Smith,  D.  E.,  The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics,  p.  239. 

1  Young,  J.  W.  A.,  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  the  Elementary  and 
the  Secondary  School,  p.  17. 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS  495 

of  mathematics  is  by  far  the  most  important  problem  to  be 
considered  in  connection  with  the  values  of  the  study  of 
secondary-school  mathematics.  No  theory  can  justify  the 
prescription  of  mathematics  or  any  other  study  for  all  pu- 
pils in  the  secondary  school.  On  the  other  hand,  if  exten- 
sive transfer  values  can  be  established  for  that  subject,  its 
position  as  a  leading  study  in  the  secondary  school  can  be 
justified.  If  transfer  values  are  lacking  or  insignificant, 
mathematics  must  cease  to  occupy  a  prominent  position  in 
most  curriculums. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  study  of  mathematics 
affords  abundant  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  numerous 
valuable  mental  traits,  that  its  subject-matter  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  development  of  those  traits  as  far  as  they 
may  be  applied  to  mathematical  content,  and  that  the  ma- 
terials of  mathematics  lend  themselves  readily  to  manipula- 
tion for  whatever  purpose  desired.  The  important  question 
is,  of  course:  Can  those  traits  be  generalized,  divorced  from 
mathematical  content,  and  utilized  in  their  improved  effi- 
ciency for  other  content  and  other  situations  in  life? 

Before  attempting  to  answer  that  question,  it  is  well  to 
consider  just  what  traits  are  commonly  claimed  by  propo- 
nents of  mathematical  study  in  the  secondary  school  to  afford 
such  improved  efficiency.  Most  prominent  among  those 
traits  are  those  involved  in  reflective  thinking  (reasoning).1 
This  claim  has  been  considered  specifically  in  Chapter  XI 
and  little  more  can  be  said  here.  It  may,  however,  be  re- 
peated (a)  that  such  transfer  is  possible;  (6)  that  the  method 
of  transfer  depends  on  the  ordinary  laws  of  dissociation; 
(c)  that  the  extent  of  such  transfer  depends  on  the  degree 
in  which  materials  are  organized  and  presented  so  as  to  make 
conditions  favorable  for  dissociation.  It  may  further  be 
repeated  that  whatever  transfer  is  possible  it  cannot  be 

1  Cf.  Schultze,  A.,  op.  oil.,  pp.  18-26;  Young,  J.  W.  A.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  17 /- 


496      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

expected  to  operate  automatically  in  all  cases  but  should 
be  aimed  at  definitely.  The  amount  of  actual  transfer  is 
conditioned  both  by  the  character  of  subject  matter  and 
also  by  the  methods  employed. 

In  addition  to  the  claim  made  for  the  transfer  of  ability 
in  reasoning  the  many  claims  commonly  made  for  transfer 
values  include  the  following:  i  (a)  development  of  the 
"power  of  concentration";  (6)  development  of  the  "con- 
structive imagination";  (c)  growth  of  "mental  self-reli- 
ance"; (d)  development  of  "character";  (e)  capacity  for 
"generalizing  conceptions";  (/)  cultivation  of  "reverence 
for  the  truth";  (gr)  cultivating  the  "habit  of  self-scrutiny," 
etc.  That  these  desirable  mental  traits  may  be  exercised  in 
the  study  of  mathematics  is  undisputed.  The  central  prob- 
lem, however,  here  as  elsewhere,  is  the  problem  of  their 
transferability,  and  the  validity  of  the  claims  that  mathe- 
matics may  foster  such  general  traits  must  be  tested  by 
theories  of  the  method  and  extent  of  transfer  in  general. 
Here  in  particular,  however,  one  must  be  on  guard  against 
the  conception  that  separate  "faculties"  or  "powers"  of 
concentration,  attention,  constructive  imagination,  etc., 
exist.  For  the  rest  the  discussion  of  the  general  problem 
of  transfer  in  Chapter  XI  must  here  suffice. 

215.  Characteristics  claimed  to  favor  transfer  values. 
The  first  condition  for  the  successful  transfer  of  improved 
efficiency  is  that  the  trait  which  it  is  desired  to  transfer  be 
developed  in  connection  with  the  content  of  the  training 
study.  In  the  general  discussion  of  transfer  values  it  was 
suggested  that  subjects  of  study  differ  in  the  degree  in  which 
favorable  conditions  are  afforded  for  the  exercise  of  the 
desired  trait  and  that  the  transfer  of  improved  efficiency  is 
primarily  conditioned  by  the  character  of  the  original  train- 
ing material.  Secondary-school  studies  differ  in  the  extent 

1  Cf.  Schultze,  A.,  op.  cit.,pp.  26-27;  Young,  J.  W.  A.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  41  /. 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS  497 

to  which  desirable  mental  traits  may  be  exercised,  in  the 
fitness  of  the  materials  for  purposes  of  manipulation  in 
teaching,  and  in  the  character  of  the  materials  as  already 
organized  for  teaching.  In  these  three  respects  mathematics 
possesses  advantages  over  many  subjects  of  study.  The 
materials  of  mathematics,  ranging  all  the  way  from  the  sim- 
plest to  the  most  complex,  may  be  manipulated  almost  at 
will,  thus  permitting  the  arrangement  of  conditions  most 
favorable  to  dissociation.  The  organization  of  materials 
in  the  field  of  mathematics  has  been  determined  from  the 
start  for  purposes  of  teaching.  With  regard  to  the  ready 
manipulation  of  materials  for  the  purpose  of  fostering  trans- 
fer values  mathematics  shares  prominence  with  the  language 
studies.  With  regard  to  the  certainty  and  accuracy  of  its 
data  it  supersedes  all  other  subjects.  With  regard  to  the 
opportunity  which  it  affords  for  the  exercise  of  valuable 
mental  traits  most  desirable  to  transfer,  if  possible,  it  is 
equaled  by  few  and  surpassed  by  none  of  the  other  subjects 
in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school. 

216.  Rugg's  experiment.  The  majority  of  investigations 
designed  to  determine  elements  of  transfer  have  dealt  with 
memory  or  sense  and  perceptual  factors  and  for  the  most 
part  under  laboratory  rather  than  school  conditions. 
Among  the  most  noteworthy  transfer  investigations  con- 
cerned directly  with  subjects  of  study  and  conducted  under 
school  (college)  conditions  is  that  of  Rugg,  who  attempted 
to  determine  the  transfer  effect  of  the  study  of  descriptive 
geometry  by  college  students.  The  limitations  of  space  per- 
mit here  only  the  Summary  of  Conclusions  arrived  at  by 
Rugg:  l 

The  study  of  descriptive  geometry  (under  ordinary  classroom 
conditions  throughout  a  semester  of  fifteen  weeks)  in  which  such 

1  Rugg,  H.  O.,  The  Experimental  Determination  of  Mental  Discipline 
in  School  Studies,  pp.  114-15,  6.  Quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  pub- 
lishers, Warwick  and  York. 


498      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

natural  and  not  undue  consideration  is  given  to  practice  in  geo- 
metrical visualization  as  is  necessary  for  the  solution  of  descriptive 
geometry  problems  operates:  — 

(1)  Substantially  to  increase  the  students'  ability  in  solving 
problems  requiring  the  mental  manipulation  of  a  geometricaf 
nature,  the  content  of  which  are  distinctly  different  from  the  visua 
content  of  descriptive  geometry  itself. 

(2)  Substantially  to  increase  the  students'  ability  in  solving 
problems  requiring  the  mental  manipulation  of  spacial  elements 
of  a  slightly  geometrical  character,  i.e.,  problems  utilizing  the  fun- 
damental elements  of  geometry  (the  point,  line,  and  plane),  but 
apart  from  a  geometrical  setting,  and  in  such  form  as  to  offer  no 
geometrical  aids  in  solution. 

(3)  Substantially  to  increase  the  students'  ability  in  solving 
problems  requiring  mental  manipulation  of  spacial  elements  of  a 
completely  non-geometrical  nature,  i.e.,  problems  in  which  the 
straight  line  and  plane  do  not  appear  in  any  way  whatsoever. 

(4)  The  training  effect  of  such  study  in  descriptive  geometry 
operates  more  efficiently  hi  those  problems  whose  visual  content 
more  closely  resembles  that  of  the  training  course  itself,  i.e.,  in 
those  problems  whose  imagery  content  is  composed  of  combina- 
tions of  points,  lines,  and  planes,  and  in  which  the  continuity  of 
the  manipulating  movements  approaches  the  continuity  of  those  in 
the  training  course. 

The  possibility  of  one  disciplinary  outcome  of  a  specific  school 
subject,  i.e.,  the  ability  in  the  mental  manipulation  of  special  ele- 
ments, has  been  established  in  this  investigation.  The  experi- 
menter believes  that,  hi  general,  disciplinary  outcomes  of  school 
studies  will  be  found  hi  the  above-listed  agencies  of  transfer, 
i.e.,  the  development  of  concepts  of  method  in  analyzing  'problem' 
situations  and  organizing  methods  of  procedure,  the  habitualizing 
of  reaction  to  specific  cues,  the  development  of  attitudes  of  orien- 
tation and  familiarity  with  the  type  of  situation  to  be  met,  and  the 
extension  of  the  range  of  attention. 

The  numerous  difficulties  which  surround  the  investigator 
in  such  a  study  as  that  conducted  by  Rugg  prevent  us  from 
accepting  the  conclusions  reached  otherwise  than  as  sugges- 
tive and  tentative.  Many  more  investigations  in  this  field 
must  be  made  before  any  assured  judgment  can  be  reached. 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS  499 

217.  Criticism  of  mathematics  as  now  organized.  In  the 
preceding  discussion  several  points  have  been  raised  which 
afford  some  basis  for  criticism  of  the  economy  of  the  study 
of  mathematics  as  at  present  organized  in  the  American 
secondary  school. 

(1)  Previously,  attention  was  called  to  the  common  fal- 
lacy of  assuming  values  for  a  whole  subject  on  the  basis  of 
values  which  are  valid  for  parts  only  of  that  subject.   This 
fallacy  is  found  in  the  tendency  to  assign  universal  values 
to  secondary-school  mathematics  on  the  basis  of  values 
which  are  valid  for  elementary  phases  of  the  field  (arith- 
metical material)  only.    The  resultant  emphasis  on  direct 
values  of  the  study  of  algebra  and  geometry  is  unjustified. 

(2)  Current  teaching  of  secondary-school  mathematics 
commonly  errs  in  expecting  to  take  place  too  much  transfer 
of  mental  traits  exercised  in  the  study  to  non-mathematical 
fields.    It  also  errs  in  expecting  such  transfer  as  may  be 
hoped  for  to  take  place  automatically  and  without  proper 
provision  for  fostering  dissociation.  Teachers  of  mathemat- 
ics must  recognize  that  there  are  no  general  "faculties  "  such 
as  concentration,  attention,  memory,  reasoning,  and  the 
like,  which  can  be  developed  independently  of  specific  con- 
tent. The  most  that  can  be  hoped  for  is  that  valuable  meth- 
ods of  mental  activity  may  be  transferred,  that  ideals  of 
accuracy,  standards  of  certainty,  and  the  like,  may  be  so 
established  that  they  will  be  generalized  from  a  type  form 
and  dissociated  from  mathematical  content.   Further,  they 
must  realize  that,  while  a  limited  amount  of  transfer  can  be 
secured  under  almost  any  conditions,  the  desired  amount  of 
transfer  can  be  secured  only  when  materials  and  methods  of 
teaching  are  deliberately  adapted  to  that  end  and  conditions 
fostering  extensive  transfer  are  provided.    It  is  futile  and 
criminal  to  establish  the  study  of  secondary-school  mathe- 
matics on  the  basis  of  extensive  transfer  values  and  then  to 


500      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

fail  to  meet  the  conditions  necessary  if  any  extensive  amount 
of  transfer  is  to  be  accomplisLed. 

(3)  Attempts  to  emphasize  applied  mathematics  do  not 
meet  the  conditions  favorable  to  extensive  transfer.    Valu- 
able though  applied  mathematics  is  and  important  though 
"  real "  problems  may  be,  their  function  is  to  attain  direct 
values  and  not  to  foster  conditions  favorable  for  transfer. 
It  is  a  tenable  thesis  that  for  most  pupils  pure  mathematics 
is  superior  to  applied  mathematics  because  of  its  greater 
transfer  values.   Thus  Colvin :  * 

We  may  then  conclude  that  pure  science  is  of  greater  disciplin- 
ary value,  because  (1)  through  the  facts  which  it  presents,  ideals 
of  procedure  and  of  truth  may  be  developed  which  function  in  a 
wider  human  experience,  greatly  to  the  uplift  of  the  race;  (2)  the 
content  and  method  of  pure  science  is  such  that  it  has  a  broader 
field  of  application  than  has  applied  science,  and  can  function  as  an 
identical  or  similar  element  in  more  situations  than  can  applied 
science;  (3)  the  emotion  which  the  pure  seeking  after  truth  arouses 
is  higher  and  less  likely  to  be  deadened  by  other  emotions  than  are 
the  ideals  of  economic  improvement  and  social  betterment,  which 
are  the  ideals  of  applied  science. 

It  is  to  be  noted  here  that  applied  forms  of  mathematics 
have  their  place,  and  an  important  place  in  the  program  of 
studies,  but  that  importance  attaches  to  the  study  of  applied 
mathematics  on  the-  basis  of  its  direct  values  for  special 
groups  of  pupils. 

(4)  The  fact  that  justification  can  be  found  for  the  teach- 
ing of  secondary-school  mathematics  on  the  basis  of  its 
indirect  values  and  the  fact  that  those  values  are  not  limited 
to  special  curriculum  groups  of  pupils  do  not  justify  any 
assumption  that  all  pupils  should  study  algebra  and  geome- 
try.  The  common  requirement  of  the  study  of  algebra  and 
geometry  on  the  part  of  all  pupils  is  opposed  to  the  concep- 

1  Colvin,  S.  S.,  The  Learning  Process,  pp.  249-50  et  circ.  Quoted  with 
the  permission  of  the  publishers,  The  Macmillan  Company. 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS  501 

tion  that  individual  differences  in  capacities,  interests,  and 
future  activities  must  be  recognized.  This  is  true  whether 
we  accept  or  reject  indirect  values. 

(5)  From  whatever  angle  we  approach  the  problem  of  the 
organization  of  mathematics  the  present  method  of  isolating 
arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry,  and  other  departments 
of  mathematics  raises  serious  questions.  If  we  approach  the 
problem  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  nature  of  mathematics 
as  a  science,  we  face  the  fact  that  mathematical  thought  is  a 
complex  unit  and  that  the  various  phases  are  so  interwoven 
that  separation  is  a  tour  de  force  for  supposed  educational 
advantage.    If  we  approach  it  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
applications  of  mathematics,  we  face  at  once  the  fact  that 
the  various  phases  are  or  may  be  so  interrelated  that  a 
single  application  may  involve  at  the  same  time  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry.  If  we  approach  the  problem  from  the 
viewpoint  of  direct  values,  we  find  that  the  study  of  arithme- 
tic, algebra,  and  geometry  separately,  in  sequence,  and  as 
completely  organized  sciences  is  wasteful  of  time  and  energy 
and  little  suited  to  the  effective  application  of  direct  values. 
Finally,  if  we  approach  the  problem  from  the  viewpoint  of 
indirect  values,  we  find  that  the  separation  in  learning  of  the 
various  phases  of  the  science  is  one  of  the  surest  ways  to 
lessen  conditions  favorable  for  transfer.    Current  criticism 
is  sound  in  its  insistence  on  a  closer  correlation  of  the  depart- 
ments of  mathematics  in  the  schools.  It  is  not  so  sound  when 
it  bases  that  correlation  on  direct  and  applied  values  alone. 

(6)  In  common  with  other  studies  in  the  secondary  school 
mathematics  suffers  from  its  isolation.    One  of  the  surest 

'  ways  in  which  transfer  values  may  be  materialized  from  the 
study  of  mathematics  is  to  see  that  methods,  ideals,  and  the 
like,  exemplified  in  its  study  may  also  be  exemplified  in  sub- 
jects dealing  with  content  material  of  a  different  sort  and  so 
recognized  by  the  pupil.  Any  number  of  examples  afforded 


502      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

must  be  of  relatively  little  value  unless  application  is  made 
in  the  fields  where  the  application  is  desired.  Until  the 
teacher  of  mathematics  fully  recognizes  the  fact  that  the 
pupil,  not  the  subject,  is  the  unit  to  be  considered  and  that 
the  mathematical  experiences  of  the  pupil  constitute  but  a 
small  part  of  his  total  experiences,  much  of  the  value  of  the 
study  of  mathematics  must  be  lost.  No  education  can  be 
successful  unless  the  experiences  of  the  individual  are  uni- 
fied. The  correlation  of  the  work  in  mathematics  with  the 
work  in  other  subjects  and  with  experiences  outside  the 
school  must  be  effected  if  the  values  of  mathematics  itself 
are  to  be  developed. 

218.  The  order  and  position  of  mathematical  studies. 
The  Committee  of  Ten  recommended  the  earlier  introduc- 
tion of  algebra  and  geometry,  suggesting  that  certain  ele- 
ments of  those  subjects  be  introduced  into  the  work  of  the 
later  grades  of  the  elementary  school.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  plans  for  the  reorganization  of  the  school  system, 
particularly  in  connection  with  the  junior-senior  high-school 
plan,  emphasis  has  been  placed  on  the  earlier  introduction 
of  some  mathematics  now  commonly  restricted  to  the  later 
grades.  Reasons  for  this  change  are  the  following:  (1)  the 
study  of  arithmetic  is  prolonged  beyond  desirable  bounds 
in  the  American  schools;  (2)  a  closer  correlation  between 
arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry  is  desirable;  (3)  many 
boys  and  girls  now  leave  school  before  they  come  into  con- 
tact with  any  forms  of  algebra  and  geometry;  (4)  those  who 
continue  their  education  through  the  high  school  are  delayed 
in  the  acquirement  of  a  valuable  tool;  (5)  at  present  the  only 
opportunity  to  gain  any  knowledge  of  algebra  or  geometry 
is  that  afforded  through  the  study  of  either  in  the  form  of  a 
complete  and  logically  organized  science;  (6)  the  change 
from  the  familiar  field  of  arithmetic  to  the  higher  mathe- 
matics is  too  abrupt. 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS  503 

To  ameliorate  conditions  implied  in  the  reasons  given  for 
the  earlier  introduction  of  algebra  and  geometry  it  has  been 
suggested  that  a  course  or  courses  in  "  composite  "  or  "  com- 
bined "  mathematics  be  provided  in  the  junior  high  school 
and  that  logically  organized  courses  in  algebra,  geometry, 
and  other  higher  mathematics  be  reserved  for  the  senior 
high  school.  The  course  in  "  composite  "  mathematics  in  the 
junior  high  school  would  then  be  organized  so  as  to  include 
those  elements  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry  which 
may  be  considered  as  of  reasonably  direct  value  to  the  aver- 
age individual.  Not  only  would  such  a  course  provide  a 
diagnostic  or  prognostic  element  for  later  mathematical 
study  and  afford  instruction  in  mathematical  elements  most 
useful  directly  to  the  average  person,  but  it  would  also  pro- 
vide whatever  elements  of  number  and  space  concepts  or  of 
"  mathematical  language  "  may  legitimately  be  expected  to 
result  from  some  contact  with  algebra  and  geometry.  In 
the  senior  high  school  provision  could  then  be  made  for  the 
systematic  study  of  algebra,  geometry,  and  other  mathe- 
matics by  those  mathematically  inclined  and  mathematically 
capable. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  Compare  the  organization  of  mathematical  study  in  the  American 
schools,  in  Prussian  higher  schools,  and  in  the  French  lycie. 

2.  Examine  elementary  textbooks  in  physics  and  chemistry  to  ascertain 
the  mathematical   facts,  principles,  and   processes  necessary  for  ele- 
mentary study  in  those  fields.   Do  the  same  for  more  advanced  study 
in  those  fields. 

3.  What  specific  mathematical  abilities  are  required  of  the  machinist, 
electrician,  and  similar  artisans? 

4.  What  specific  mathematical  abilities  are  required  of  the  civil  engineer? 
—  of  the  mechanical  engineer?  —  of  the  mining  engineer? 

6.  Make  a  list  of  the  supra-arithmetical  facts,  principles,  and  processes  of 
mathematics  that  appear  to  be  sufficiently  applicable  to  the  ordinary 
affairs  of  life  to  warrant  their  inclusion  in  a  course  for  average  pupils 
on  the  basis  of  their  direct  and  practical  values. 


504      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

6.  Examine  any  textbook  in  geometry  and  classify  the  materials  presented 
accordingly  as  (a)  they  deal  with  matters  ordinarily  accepted  as  valid 
on  the  basis  of  general  experience;  (6)  they  deal  with  facts,  principles, 
or  processes  valuable  for  their  application  in  science  or  occupations' 
(c)  they  deal  with  facts,  principles,  or  processes  themselves  not  im 
portant   but  forming  the   basis   of   important   facts,   principles,   or 
processes. 

7.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  requirement  of  the  study 
of  algebra  on  the  part  of  all  pupils?  —  geometry? 

8.  Trace  the  historical  development  of  the  study  of  mathematics  in  the 
American  secondary  school. 

9.  Make  a  study  of  college  admission  requirements  in  mathematics. 

10.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  study  of  algebra  by  girls? 
—  geometry? 

11.  Determine  the  correlation  between  ability  to  perform  the  formal  oper- 
ations in  algebra  and  ability  to  perform  applied  problems. 

12.  Determine  the  correlation  between  ability  to  handle  the  propositions 
of  geometry  and  ability  to  handle  "originals." 

13.  Determine  the  correlation  of  ability  in  arithmetic  and  ability  in  alge- 
bra; between  arithmetic  and  geometry;  between  algebra  and  geometry. 

14.  Determine  the  correlation  between  accuracy  in  handling  algebra  and 
accuracy  in  copying  a  page  of  printed  English. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Brown,  J.  C.,  and  others,  Curricula  in  Mathematics,  Bureau  of  Education 
Bulletin  (1914),  no.  45. 

Committee  of  Ten,  Report  on  Secondary  School  Studies,  pp.  104-16  (Bureau 
of  Education  edition). 

Committee  on  Entrance  Requirements  in  Mathematics,  National  Educa- 
tion Association,  Proceedings  (1903),  pp.  481  jf. 

Committee  on  Secondary  Mathematics,  Report  of  Commission  on  the  Reor- 
ganization of  Secondary  Education,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 

Evans,  G.  W.,  The  Teaching  of  High-School  Mathematics. 

International  Commission  on  the  Teaching  of  Mathematics,  Mathematics 
in  the  Public  and  Private  Secondary  Schools  of  the  United  States,  Bureau 
of  Education  Bulletin  (1911),  no.  16. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  The  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects,  chaps,  n-vr. 

Moore,  E.  C.,  "Does  the  Study  of  Mathematics  Train  the  Mind  Specifi- 
cally or  Universally?"  School  and  Society,  vol.  vi,  pp.  481-91. 

National  Committee  of  Fifteen  on  Geometry  Syllabus,  The  Mathematics 
Teacher,  vol.  v,  no.  2  (December,  1912). 

New  England  Association  of  Teachers  of  Mathematics,  Report  of  Com- 
mittee on  Secondary  School  Mathematics,  The  Mathematics  Teacher, 
vol.  vm,  pp.  191-218. 


THE  PLACE  OF  MATHEMATICS  505 

Rugg,  H.  O.,  The  Experimented  Determination  of  Mental  Discipline  in  Softool 
Studies. 

Schorling,  R.,  Kahler,  F.  A.,  and  Miller,  O.  M.,  "The  Place  of  Mathe- 
matics in  the  High  School,"  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  October, 
1916. 

Schultze,  A.,  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  Secondary  Schools,  pp.  15-29. 

Smith,  D.  E.,  The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics,  especially  chaps, 
vii  and  x. 

Smith,  D.  E.,  The  Teaching  of  Geometry,  especially  chaps,  i-n. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xvm. 

Yocum,  A.  D.,  "Mathematics  as  a  Means  to  Culture  and  Discipline,"  The 
Mathematics  Teacher,  vol.  vi,  pp.  135-57. 

Young,  J.  W.  A.,  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics,  chap.  H. 

Extended  bibliography:  Bibliography  of  the  Teaching  of  Mathematics  (1900" 
12),  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1912),  no.  29. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE   PLACE   OF  THE   NATURAL   SCIENCES   IN  THE 
PROGRAM   OF   STUDIES 

219.  Historical  development.  Though  some  beginnings 
were  made  in  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  in  the  second- 
ary school  through  the  sense-realism  movement  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  no  appreciable  study  of  natural  science 
found  a  place  in  the  secondary  school  until  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  or  even  until  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Its  real  beginning  was  found  in  the 
development  of  the  realschule  and  academy  as  a  part  of  the 
expansion  of  the  curriculum  of  the  secondary  school  which 
characterized  those  movements.  In  America  no  natural 
science  was  found  in  the  colonial  grammar  school.  From  the 
inception  of  the  academy  movement,  however,  the  natural 
sciences  found  an  increasingly  important  place  in  the  second- 
ary school.  By  the  beginning  of  the  high-school  movement 
the  time  was  ripe  for  the  introduction  of  natural  science  into 
the  program  of  the  public  secondary  school. 

In  the  first  high  school  established  (the  Boston  English 
Classical  School,  opened  in  1821)  "natural  philosophy 
(physics),  including  astronomy"  was  required  of  all  pupils 
in  the  last  year  of  the  course.  By  the  regulations  of  1823- 
24  natural  philosophy  was  required  in  the  second  year  of  the 
course  in  that  school  and  "  a  course  of  experimental  lectures 
on  the  various  branches  of  natural  philosophy  "  in  the  last 
year.  In  addition  Blair's  Elements  of  Arts  and  Sciences  was 
prescribed  for  the  first  year  of  the  course.  In  the  Girls'  High 
School  of  Boston  (established  in  1826)  natural  philosophy 
was  a  prescribed  study  in  the  second  year  of  the  course, 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     507 

chemistry  in  the  third  year,  and  botany  was  made  an  elective 
study.  No  natural-science  study  was  required  by  law  in  a 
public  high  school  until  the  prescription  by  the  law  of  1857 
in  Massachusetts.  By  this  law  high  schools  in  that  State 
were  required  to  give  instruction  in  natural  philosophy, 
chemistry,  and  botany.  In  addition  all  high  schools  in  towns 
of  four  thousand  inhabitants  or  over  were  required  by  that 
law  to  provide  instruction  in  astronomy  and  geology.  Such 
provisions  remained  in  the  statutes  of  Massachusetts  until 
1898  when  all  natural-science  subjects  were  made  permis- 
sive. Interest  in  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  developed 
faster  than  the  public  high  schools.  Thus  in  1840  (when 
there  were  less  than  eighteen  high  schools  in  the  State)  170 
towns  in  Massachusetts  claimed  to  provide  instruction  in 
natural  philosophy,  58  to  provide  instruction  in  astronomy, 
and  57  to  provide  instruction  in  chemistry. 

The  entrance  of  natural  sciences  into  the  program  of 
studies  of  the  public  secondary  school  was  in  answer  to  the 
interest  in  and  the  development  of  the  natural  sciences  dur- 
ing the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  must  be 
noted,  however,  that  they  were  for  the  most  part  taught  as 
informational  subjects  and  with  little  reference  to  their  logical 
organization  as  sciences  in  the  technical  sense  of  that  term. 
During  the  early  period  laboratory  work  was  all  but  unknown 
and  little  applied  work  was  done  except  in  experiments  by 
the  teacher.  With  the  possible  exception  of  requirements 
for  certain  courses  in  such  colleges  as  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  at  Harvard,  the  earliest  recognition  of  a  natural 
science  for  college  entrance  was  that  of  physical  geography 
at  Harvard  and  Michigan  in  1870.  Natural  philosophy  was 
first  recognized  for  college  entrance  at  Syracuse  University 
in  1873  and  in  1876  entrance  examinations  were  conducted 
at  Harvard  in  elementary  botany,  the  rudiments  of  physics, 
chemistry,  and  descriptive  astronomy.  Laboratory  work 


508      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


as  a  part  of  the  study  of  natural  science  accepted  for  admis- 
sion to  college  was  first  inaugurated  at  Harvard  in  1887. 

The  study  of  the  natural  sciences  during  the  second  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  spread  to  almost  all  fields,  so  that, 
during  the  last  quarter  of  the  century,  numerous  natural- 
science  subjects  were  found  in  different  high  schools  and 
practices  were  widely  variable.  Hence,  in  1892-93  the  Com- 
mittee of  Ten  attempted  to  organize  and  standardize  the 
secondary-school  work  in  the  natural  sciences.  For  the  four 
years  of  high-school  work  in  the  natural  sciences  it  sug- 
gested the  following  program. 

TABLE  CXXX* 


Number  of  periods  per  week  and  proportion  of  time 

recommended 

Subject 

Grade 

English 
course 

Latin 
scientific 
course 

Modern 
language 
course 

Classical 
course 

Pe- 

Per 

Pe- 

Per 

Pe- 

Per 

Pe- 

Per 

riods 

cent 

riods 

cent 

riods 

cent 

riods 

cent 

per 

of 

per 

of 

per 

of 

ptr 

of 

week 

time 

week 

time 

week 

time 

week 

time 

Physical  geography. 

I 
II 

3 
3 

15.0 
15.0 

3 
3 

15.0 
15.0 

3 
3 

15.0 
15.0 

3 
3 

15.0 
15.0 

Botany  or  zoology  .  . 

II 
III) 

3 
(  1.5 

15.0 

7.5 

3 
1.5 

15.0 

7.5 

3 
1.5 

15.0 

7.5 

0 
0 

0.0 
0.0 

IIU 

{l.fi 

7.5 

1.5 

7.6 

1.5 

7.5 

0 

0.0 

IV 

3 

15.0 

3 

15.0 

3 

15.0 

3 

15.0 

Geology  or  physiog- 

IV) 

(  1.5 

7.5 

1.5 

7.5 

1.5 

7.5 

0 

0.0 

Anatomy,      physiol- 

ogy, hygiene  

IV) 

(1.8 

7.5 

1.5 

7.5 

1.5 

7.5 

0 

0.0 

Total      natural 

science  

I-IV 

18 

22.5 

18 

22.5 

18 

22.5 

9 

H.3 

*  Committee  of  Ten,  Report  on  Secondary  School  Studies,  pp.  46—17  (Bureau  of  Education 
edition).  Compilation  and  arrangement  by  the  author. 

The  recommendation  of  the  Committee  accomplished 
much  to  organize  the  work  in  the  natural  sciences  in  the 
secondary  school:  (1)  it  tended  to  standardize  the  sciences 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     509 

to  be  studied;  (2)  it  tended  to  standardize  the  order  in  which 
the  sciences  should  be  studied;  (3)  it  gave  great  impetus  to 
the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  as  sciences  with  emphasis 
on  laboratory  work;  (4)  it  emphasized  the  study  of  some 
natural  science  by  every  pupil.  Some  results  of  the  recom- 
mendations of  that  committee,  however,  were  not  so  satis- 
factory: (1)  the  committee  failed  to  arrange  the  work  so  as 
to  meet  the  needs  of  pupils  who  left  school  before  the  close 
of  the  course;  (2)  its  recommendations  tended  to  organize 
the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  in  terms  of  the  subjects 
rather  than  in  terms  of  the  capacities  of  the  pupils  and  their 
later  needs;  (3)  it  supported  the  study  of  several  natural 
sciences  which  were  of  questionable  value  (in  a  relative 
sense)  in  the  secondary  school  and  which  in  later  develop- 
ment were  discarded,  at  least  as  separate  subjects  of  study, 
e.g.,  astronomy,  geology,  meteorology;  (4)  it  failed  to  recog- 
nize the  need  of  relating  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences 
more  directly  to  life,  especially  with  reference  to  vocations. 

The  status  of  the  study  of  natural  sciences  from  1890  to 
1915  may  be  noted  from  the  figures  presented  in  Table 
CXIX  and  from  its  accompanying  graph  illustrating  the 
trend  of  the  secondary  school  program  during  those  years. 
From  those  figures  it  may  be  seen  that  the  study  of  the 
natural  sciences  has  in  some  cases  noticeably  declined  within 
the  past  quarter-century.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  applied  forms  of  the  natural  sciences,  not  reported  in 
the  table  referred  to,  have  markedly  increased  within  that 
period,  e.g.,  agriculture,  general  science,  etc.,  thus  offsetting 
largely  the  decline  (real  or  apparent)  in  the  study  of  the 
natural  sciences. 

On  the  whole,  three  periods  in  the  development  of  the 
study  of  the  natural  science  in  the  secondary  school  are  to  be 
distinguished.  During  the  first  period  (about  1800  to  1870) 
the  natural  sciences  were  studied  and  organized  largely  as 


510      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


informational  courses.  During  the  second  period  (about 
1870  to  1900)  the  tendency  was  to  organize  the  study  of  the 
natural  sciences  according  to  the  demands  of  pure  science. 
The  third  period  (about  1900  to  the  present)  has  been  char- 
acterized by  attempts  to  organize  the  study  of  natural 
sciences  in  part  according  to  their  applications.  This  move- 
ment, however,  is  as  yet  in  its  formative  stage. 

220.  Present  status.  According  to  the  latest  returns 
available  (1914-15)  the  natural  sciences  are  studied  in 
secondary  schools  to  the  extent  indicated  in  the  following 
table. 

TABLE  CXXXI.   PUPILS  ENGAGED  IN  NATURAL-SCIENCE 
STUDIES  1914-15* 


Subjects 

Public  schools 

Private  schools 

Att  schools 

Physical  geog- 
raphy .  . 

169,911 
165,854 
110,541 
106,520 
86,031 
80,403 
37,456 
5,558 
3,224 

14.58% 
14.23 
9.48 
9.14 
7.38 
6.90 
3.21 
.48 
.28 

19,318 
18,572 
17,802 
11,673 
12,485 
4,936 
4,437 
2,032 
2,543 

15.37% 
14.78 
14.16 
9.29 
9.93 
3.93 
3.53 
1.62 
2.02 

189,229 
184,426 
128,343 
118,193 
98,516 
85,339 
41,893 
7,590 
5,767 

14.66% 
14.28 
9.94 
9.15 
7.63 
6.61 
3.24 
.59 
.45 

Physics  

Physiology  
Botany  

Chemistry  

General  biology  . 
Zoology.  .  . 

Geology  

Astronomy  

*  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  n,  pp.  487-89. 

In  the  interpretation  of  these  figures  it  may  be  noted: 
(1)  that  certain  sciences  once  popular  (astronomy  and  geol- 
ogy) have  almost  disappeared  from  the  programs  of  the 
public  secondary  schools;  (2)  that  the  relatively  large  num- 
ber of  pupils  engaged  in  the  study  of  physical  geography  is 
in  part  explained  by  the  fact  that  it  is  commonly  taught  in 
the  first  year  of  the  high  school  where  about  forty  per  cent 
of  all  pupils  are  enrolled;  (3)  that  botany,  zoology,  and 


physiology  are  frequently  combined  in  one  course  of  "  biol- 
ogy," a  fact  which  in  part  explains  the  relatively  large  num- 
bers of  pupils  enrolled  in  those  studies;  (4)  that  the  relatively 
large  enrollment  in  physiology  is  in  part  explained  by  the 
fact  that  its  study  is  a  common  form  of  legal  prescription 
demanded  by  "temperance"  reformers  and  its  teaching 
or  popularity  is  frequently  more  apparent  than  real;  (5) 
general  science  courses  and  special  forms  of  applied-science 
courses  are  not  reported.  An  increasingly  large  number  of 
pupils  is  being  enrolled  in  courses  in  "  general  science," 
agricultural  science,  domestic  science,  etc.  In  so  far  as  there 
may  properly  be  said  to  be  a  usual  course  covering  the  four 
years  of  high-school  work  in  the  natural  sciences  it  appears 
to  be  as  follows :  — 

First  year:  Physical  geography  or  general  science; 
Second  year:  Biology,  or  biological  sciences  of  some  sort; 
Third  year:  Physics; 
Fourth  year:  Chemistry. 

Rarely  more  than  one  unit  of  science  is  required  of  all 
pupils  and  the  proportion  of  pupils  who  study  natural  sci- 
ence for  four  full  years  is  almost  negligible. 

TABLE  CXXXII  * 


Entire  course  VI-0  I 

Last  four  years 
U  11-01 

Total 
periods  per 
week 

Per  cent 
of  time 

Total 
periods  per 
week 

Per  cent 
of  time 

Gymnasium  

18 
29 
36 

5.9 
9.4 
11.7 

8 
19 
24 

5.7 
13.3 
16.8 

Realgvmnasium  

Oberrealschule  

*  Cf.  Tables  LXXXIV-LXXXVII. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


In  Prussia  the  study  of  natural  science  is  required  of  all 
pupils  throughout  the  entire  course  of  the  higher  schools 
for  boys.  The  amount  of  time  devoted  to  such  study  is  indi- 
cated in  Table  CXXXII.  During  the  earlier  years  are 
studied  the  biological  sciences,  corresponding  roughly  tc 
"nature  study."  During  the  latter  grades  mineralogy, 
physics,  and  chemistry  are  studied. 

In  French  secondary  schools  for  boys  are  taught  zoology, 
botany,  geology,  physics,  chemistry,  cosmography,  anatomy 
and  physiology,  paleontology,  hygiene.  Not  all  pupils, 
however,  study  all  those  subjects.  The  general  order  of 
natural-science  studies  in  the  French  secondary  schools  for 
boys  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table. 

TABLE  CXXXJII.    PERIODS  PER  WEEK  DEVOTED  TO  NATURAL 
SCIENCE  IN  THE  FRENCH  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  FOR  BOYS  * 


First  cycle 

Second  cycle 

Grades  

VI 

V 

IV 

III 

II 

I 

P-M 

rA      0 

0    , 

f  A  7.  5-9 

(A    1 

i 

1 

0    ) 

B      0 

0 

Divisions  .  .  . 

J 

> 

< 

C    4.5 

5 

IB  2 

i 

2.5 

2.5) 

D   4.5 

5 

[B7.5-9 

*  Cf.  Table  CIV. 

From  this  table  it  may  be  seen  that  it  is  possible  for  many 
boys  to  pass  through  the  secondary  school  in  France  without 
any  serious  study  of  natural  science,  since  the  science  offered 
in  the  first  cycle  is  largely  an  informational  subject  without 
laboratory  work.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  for  boys 
to  receive  intensive  instruction  in  natural  science  in  the 
second  cycle. 

221.  Values  claimed  for  the  natural  sciences.  Before 
considering  the  values  claimed  for  the  various  natural  sci- 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATUEAL  SCIENCES     513 

ences  as  subjects  of  study  in  the  secondary-school  program 
it  is  well  to  consider  some  of  the  claims  made  for  the  study  of, 
natural  science  in  general.  Probably  the  most  thorough- 
going claims  that  have  ever  been  made  for  the  values  of  the 
study  of  the  natural  sciences  are  those  of  Spencer :  — 

Thus  to  the  question  with  which  we  set  out  —  What  knowledge 
is  of  most  worth?  —  the  uniform  reply  is  —  Science.  This  is  the 
verdict  on  all  the  counts.  For  direct  self-preservation,  or  the 
maintenance  of  life  and  health,  the  all-important  knowledge  is 
—  Science.  For  that  indirect  self-preservation  which  we  call  gain- 
ing a  livelihood,  the  knowledge  of  greatest  value  is  —  Science. 
For  the  due  discharge  of  parental  functions,  the  proper  guidance 
is  to  be  found  only  in  —  Science.  For  that  interpretation  of  na- 
tional life,  past  and  present,  without  which  the  citizen  cannot 
rightly  regulate  his  conduct,  the  indispensable  key  is  —  Science. 
Alike  for  the  most  perfect  production  and  highest  enjoyment  of 
art  in  all  its  forms,  the  needful  preparation  is  still  —  Science.  And 
for  purposes  of  discipline  —  intellectual,  moral,  religious  —  the 
most  efficient  study  is,  once  more  —  Science.  The  question  which 
at  first  seemed  so  perplexed,  has  become,  in  the  course  of  our  in- 
quiry, comparatively  simple.  We  have  not  to  estimate  the  degrees 
of  importance  of  different  orders  of  human  activity,  and  different 
studies  as  severally  fitting  us  for  them ;  since  we  find  that  the  study 
of  science,  in  its  most  comprehensive  meaning,  is  the  best  prepa- 
ration for  all  these  orders  of  activity.1 

According  to  Spencer  not  only  is  science  best  fitted  for 
an  education  which  is  to  give  a  knowledge  of  facts,  but  it  is 
also  best  fitted  to  develop  the  mental  "  faculties  "  • —  a  con- 
clusion which  he  reaches  by  a  most  naive  course  of  reasoning. 

Having  found  what  is  best  for  the  one  end,  we  have  by  implica- 
tion found  what  is  best  for  the  other.  We  may  be  quite  sure  that 
the  acquirement  of  those  acts  which  are  most  useful  for  regulating 
conduct,  involves  a  mental  exercise  best  fitted  for  strengthening  the 
faculties.  It  would  be  utterly  contrary  to  the  economy  of  Nature, 
if  one  kind  of  culture  were  needed  for  the  gaining  of  information 
and  another  kind  were  needed  as  a  mental  gymnastic.2 

1  Spencer,  H.,  Education,  chap,  i,  pp.  89-90.  2  Ibid.,  p.  79. 


514      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Yet  one  thing  more  must  be  added  to  Spencer's  worship 
of  "Science": 

Not  only  for  intellectual  discipline  is  Science  the  best;  but  also 
for  moral  discipline. 

The  discipline  of  Science  is  superior  to  that  of  our  ordinary  edu- 
cation because  of  the  religious  culture  that  it  gives.  It  is  religious, 
too,  inasmuch  as  it  generates  a  profound  respect  for,  and  an  im- 
plicit faith  in,  those  uniform  laws  which  underlie  all  things.  By 
accumulating  experiences  the  man  of  science  acquires  a  thorough 
belief  in  the  unchanging  relations  of  phenomena  —  in  the  inevit- 
able connection  between  cause  and  consequence  —  in  the  necessity 
of  good  or  evil  results.1 

These  claims  set  up  by  Spencer  for  the  values  of  the  study 
of  the  natural  sciences  are  of  particular  interest  because  they 
embody  almost  all  the  fallacies  commonly  employed  by 
over-enthusiastic  proponents  of  the  natural  sciences.  Those 
fallacies  deserve  some  special  consideration.2 

(1)  Spencer  employs  the  term  "science"   in   at   least 
three  different  senses  which  he  does  not  always  take  the 
trouble  to  distinguish.   At  times  he  uses  the  term  in  a  gen- 
eric sense  equivalent  to  all  organized  knowledge  or  "  scien- 
tific method";  at  times  he  uses  the  term  with  reference  to 
the  natural  sciences  in  general;  at  times  he  employs  the 
term  referring  to  a  special  science,  natural,  social,  or  psy- 
chological.   This  confusion  (at  least  for  the  reader)  arises 
from  the  fact  that  for  Spencer  the  social  sciences  are  bio- 
logical and  psychological,  and  that  psychology  is  but  one 
phase  of  biology.  Hence,  without  warning  he  skips  lightly 
from  the  use  of  the  term  in  one  sense  to  its  use  in  another. 
The  "word-jingle"  fallacy  is  thus  involved. 

(2)  At  many  points  Spencer's  arguments  involve  a  rather 
thorough-going  theory  of  faculty  psychology. 

1  Spencer,  H.,  Education,  pp.  84,  85,  87. 

2  Cf .  the  general  discussion  of  fallacies  frequently  involved  in  the  analysis 
of  direct  values,  section  165. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     515 

(3)  Attention  has  frequently  been  called  to  the  fact  that 
Spencer  failed  to  distinguish  between  subject  matter  of 
great  importance  to  the  race  and  to  civilization  through  a 
limited  number  of  individual  specialists  and  subject-matter 
valuable  directly  for  all  individuals  —  a  failure  to  distin- 
guish between  values  of  use,  consumption,  or  appreciation, 
and  values  of  technical  knowledge,  production,  or  accom- 
plishment. 

222.  Spencer's  fallacies  perpetuated.  The  weaknesses 
of  Spencer's  claims  have  been  pointed  out  repeatedly  and 
the  past  decade  or  two  has  seen  more  careful  analysis  of  the 
values  of  the  natural  sciences  as  subjects  of  study  in  the 
secondary  school.  Nevertheless  writers  of  recent  date  have 
perpetuated  certain  of  his  fallacies.  For  example,  the  failure 
to  distinguish  between  the  need  of  scientific  knowledges  and 
skills  on  the  part  of  some  and  the  need  of  those  knowledges 
and  skills  on  the  part  of  all  is  a  constant  error.  Thus  Mills : * 

What  is  Chemistry?  In  what  way  does  chemistry  touch  the  life 
of  the  average  man?  Will  a  knowledge  of  chemistry  prove  of  bene- 
fit to  the  ordinary  laborer,  or  farmer,  or  mechanic,  or  business  man? 
Such  questions  have  often  been  asked,  and  my  almost  invariable 
reply  to  the  questioner  is,  "Name  anything  about  you  with  which 
chemistry  has  nothing  to  do."  It  makes  little  difference  as  to  the 
reply  —  cloth,  paper,  glass,  wood,  brick,  the  body  itself,  the  food 
that  we  eat,  and  the  earth  upon  which  we  walk  —  chemistry  teaches 
of  the  constitution  of  these  bodies,  of  the  way  in  which  they  are 
made. 

Here  values  of  use,  consumption,  and  appreciation  must  be 
contrasted  sharply  with  values  of  accomplishment,  produc- 
tion, and  technical  knowledge.  The  former  are  practically 
universal:  the  latter  are  limited  and  contingent. 

A  second  fallacy  is  even  more  subtle  and  cannot  be  illus- 

1  Mills,  J.  E.,  p.  183  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High-School  Education, 
Quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


516      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

trated  by  any  single  quotation.  It  is  found  in  the  tendency 
by  some  writers  to  establish  certain  relatively  universal 
values  in  connection  with  a  specific  natural  science,  e.g., 
physiology,  transfer  those  values  to  science  in  the  generic 
sense,  and  finally  to  extend  those  values  to  other  sciences 
with  which  they  are  but  indirectly  if  at  all  connected.  Thus 
general  values  established  in  connection  with  biological 
sciences  are  frequently  transferred  to  material  sciences. 
A  somewhat  similar  fallacy  is  involved  when  certain  uni- 
versal values  which  may  be  established  for  specific  parts  of 
a  science  are  extended  to  cover  the  entire  field  of  that  science 
as  organized  into  a  logical  whole. 

The  third  important  fallacy  commonly  involved  in  claims 
for  the  values  of  the  study  of  natural  science  is  found  in 
dependence  to  an  unjustifiable  extent  on  a  theory  of  trans- 
fer, frequently  involving  an  obsolete  theory  of  faculty 
psychology.  In  this  respect  the  scientist  has  sinned  even 
more  than  the  others  against  whom  he  has  so  frequently 
charged  error.  So  many  direct  and  specifically  practical 
values  can  be  shown  for  the  natural  sciences  that  one  would 
expect  to  find  the  advocates  of  the  study  of  natural  science 
sedulously  avoiding  the  pitfalls  which  have  enticed  the  advo- 
cates of  subjects  of  less  practical  application.  However, 
such  is  not  the  case.  Thus  of  biology,  which  of  all  the  sci- 
ence subjects  least  requires  support  from  a  theory  of  trans- 
fer values,  Pearse  says: 

For  those  who  still  question  the  value  of  biology,  it  is  easy  to  find 
answers.  From  the  point  of  view  of  mental  training,  the  proper 
study  of  living  things  offers  an  excellent  field  for  (1)  gathering  first- 
hand knowledge,  (2)  gaining  clear  ideas,  (3)  making  concrete 
analyses,  (4)  using  the  mind  for  abstraction  and  discrimination, 
(5)  seeing  resemblances,  (6)  forming  general  concepts,  and  (7)  giv- 
ing logical  definitions. 

.  .  .  Biology  has  a  special  function  in  training,  in  that  it  has  for 
its  subject-matter  living  organisms  whose  varying  and  uncertain 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     517 

behavior  train  the  judgment  of  youth  better  to  understand  the 
behavior  of  men.  It  certainly  exercises  the  judgment  in  a  different 
way  than  do  the  exact  sciences  of  physics  and  chemistry.1 

And  Eliot: 

The  student  of  natural  science  scrutinizes,  touches,  weighs, 
measures,  analyzes,  dissects,  and  watches  things.  By  these  exer- 
cises his  powers  of  observation  and  judgment  are  trained,  and  he 
acquires  the  precious  habit  of  observing  the  appearances,  trans- 
formations, and  processes  of  nature.2 

Or  Bigelow: 

The  disciplinary  value  of  the  study  of  zoology,  as  indeed  of  any 
other  science,  is  found  in  that  it  may  contribute  to  the  development 
of  a  scientific  attitude  of  mind,  by  directing  various  mental  proc- 
esses, such  as  those  involved  in  scientific  observing,  classifying 
facts,  exercising  judgment  and  discrimination,  and  learning  to 
appreciate  demonstrated  knowledge.3 

These  fallacies  must  be  carefully  guarded  against  in 
attempting  to  analyze  the  values  of  the  study  of  natural 
sciences  in  the  secondary  school. 

223,  Preliminary  analysis  of  the  values  claimed.  In  an 
analysis  of  the  values  claimed  for  the  study  of  the  natural 
sciences  in  the  secondary  school  we  may  consider  them  under 
two  general  heads:  (1)  those  values  which  are  claimed  to 
arise  from  the  direct  and  specific  use  of  the  facts  and  proc- 
esses of  the  natural  sciences  in  everyday  life,  in  various 
vocations,  and  in  the  pursuit  of  other  studies;  (2)  those 
values  which  are  claimed  to  arise  indirectly  from  the  study 
of  the  natural  sciences  through  the  development  of  scientific 
concepts  or  generalized  mental  functions.  Either  of  these 
groups  of  values  claimed  may  again  be  subdivided.  Thus 
under  the  head  of  direct  and  specific  values  may  be  con- 

1  Pearse,  A.  S.,  p.  199  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High-School  Education. 

2  Eliot,  C.  W.,  Educational  Reform,  p.  110. 

3  Lloyd,  F.  E.,  and  Bigelow,  M.  A.,  Tlie  Teaching  of  Biology,  p.  244. 


518      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

sidered :  (a)  the  values  of  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences 
as  measured  by  the  directly  practical  application  of  their 
facts,  principles,  and  processes  to  those  affairs  of  life  which 
are  common  to  all  people  whatever  be  their  special  activ- 
ities; (6)  the  values  of  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  as 
measured  by  the  directly  practical  applications  of  their  facts, 
principles,  and  processes  to  special  vocations  or  special 
phases  of  certain  vocations;  (c)  the  values  of  the  study  of 
the  natural  sciences  as  measured  by  the  direct  applications 
of  their  facts,  principles,  and  processes  to  other  studies. 
Under  the  head  of  indirect  and  general  values  may  be  con- 
sidered: (a)  those  claimed  to  rise  from  the  development  of 
scientific  concepts  such  as  natural  law  and  the  like;  (6)  those 
values  claimed  to  arise  from  the  transfer  or  spread  to  other 
fields  of  improved  efficiency  gained  in  and  through  the  study 
of  natural  sciences.  In  the  following  sections  will  be  con- 
sidered seriatim: 

(1)  Direct  and  specific  values:  (a)  universal  "practical"  values; 
(6)  specific  vocational  values;  (c)  direct  propaedeutic  values. 

(2)  Indirect  and  general  values:  (a)  conceptual  values;  (6)  general 
transfer  values. 

224.  Natural  science  in  the  affairs  of  everyday  life.  The 
values  of  scientific  information  and  skill  are  so  readily 
recognized  in  terms  of  their  applications  to  the  affairs  of 
everyday  life  that  one  is  easily  led  into  one  or  all  of  three 
common  fallacies  which  were  outlined  at  some  length  in 
Chapter  XI;  1  (1)  the  fallacy  of  estimating  values  of  the. 
study  of  natural  science  (especially  of  inorganic  science) 
in  terms  of  the  important  part  played  by  natural  science  in 
modern  life  and  the  failure  to  recognize  that  the  great  con- 
tributions of  science  must  come  to  the  race  through  a  rela- 
tively small  number  of  specialists;  (2)  the  fallacy  of  failing 

1  Section  165. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     519 

to  recognize  the  difference  between  values  of  utilization, 
consumption,  or  appreciation  and  values  of  technical  knowl- 
edge, accomplishment,  and  production;  (3)  the  fallacy  of 
failing  to  recognize  that  the  same  direct  values  do  not  attach 
to  any  science  as  a  logically  organized  whole  or  to  all  parts 
of  a  single  science,  which  properly  attach  to  some  parts  of 
that  science.  The  result  of  employing  such  fallacies  is  a 
failure  to  distinguish  between  universal  and  limited  or  con- 
tingent direct  values,  with  a  consequent  tendency  to  over- 
emphasize universal  values  of  a  direct  character.  The  dis- 
cussion of  these  fallacies  in  Chapter  XI  renders  unnecessary 
further  consideration  here. 

When  we  interpret  the  direct  values  of  the  study  of  nat- 
ural sciences  in  terms  of  the  need  of  their  facts,  principles, 
and  processes  in  the  activities  of  the  average  individual  we 
find  some  measure  of  the  relative  values  of  the  several 
natural  sciences  and  of  the  relative  importance  of  various 
parts  of  the  special  sciences.  Thus,  doubtless,  interpreted 
in  such  terms,  certain  biological  sciences  (e.g.,  physiology 
and  hygiene)  should  be  assigned  relatively  greater  direct 
value  than  certain  inorganic  sciences  (e.g.,  physics),  since  all 
individuals,  being  biological  organisms,  should  have  some 
knowledge  of  biological  facts,  principles,  and  processes  if 
health  is  to  be  conserved.  Likewise,  interpreting  values  in 
such  terms  we  should  not  hesitate  to  recognize  that  certain 
facts,  principles,  and  processes  of  physics  or  chemistry  have 
far  greater  direct  value  than  others.  From  the  standpoint 
of  direct  values  for  most  people  in  the  affairs  of  ordinary 
life  the  study  of  natural  sciences  must  be  considered  in 
terms  of  their  utilization,  consumption,  and  appreciation. 
Such  values  are  practically  universal  but  emphasize  special 
elements  only  in  the  study  of  the  sciences.  For  the  natural 
sciences  organized  into  logically  constituted  wholes  no  uni- 
versal direct  values  can  be  claimed  for  most  people  in  the 


520      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ordinary  affairs  of  life.  It  is,  of  course,  recognized  that  for 
numerous  affairs  in  which  different  groups  of  individuals 
actively  participate  the  contingent  values  of  the  study  of 
certain  natural  sciences  are  high.  This,  however,  involves 
the  training  of  special  groups  rather  than  all  pupils  hi  the 
secondary  school. 

225.  Direct  values  for  vocations.  The  direct  and  specific 
applications  of  the  facts,  principles,  and  processes  of  various 
natural  sciences  to  special  vocations  are  so  obvious  that 
they  require  little  more  than  mention  in  the  present  discus- 
sion. The  extended  applications  of  science  to  manufacture 
and  agriculture  within  recent  years  have  placed  greater  and 
greater  emphasis  on  the  vocational  values  of  the  study  of 
natural  science  in  the  secondary  school.  Little  need  be  said 
here  otherwise  than  to  note  that  we  are  dealing  in  this  con- 
nection with  limited  values  in  the  sense  that  they  are  to  be 
determined  with  reference  to  special  groups  and  with  con- 
tingent values  in  the  sense  that  they  are  to  be  estimated 
according  to  the  likelihood  that  various  scientific  facts, 
principles,  and  processes  will  "function"  in  the  several  voca- 
tions which  secondary-school  pupils  will  enter.  In  this  con- 
nection we  must  remember  that  the  increased  application  of 
natural  science  to  manufacture  and  agriculture  has  been 
paralleled  by  a  tendency  toward  greater  specialization  of 
labor,  so  that,  while  the  applications  of  natural  science  in 
those  fields  have  grown  more  important  and  more  numer- 
ous, a  grasp  of  the  facts,  principles,  and  particularly  the 
processes  of  natural  science  is  demanded  by  laboratory 
specialists  only.  In  any  industry  the  specialists  furnish  the 
scientific  knowledges  and  skills  while  the  workers  in  general 
merely  follow  standardized  directions.  This  is  true  to  a  far 
greater  extent  in  manufacture  than  in  agriculture  where 
independent  workers  are  more  numerous.  Even  in  agricul- 
ture, however,  —  where,  it  is  to  be  noted,  the  organic  sci- 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     521 

ences  are  the  more  important,  —  what  is  needed  is  largely  a 
scientific  intelligence  to  utilize  information  supplied  by  the 
specialist. 

226.  Propaedeutic  values.   Direct  propaedeutic  values  of 
the  study  of  natural  science  are  obvious  for  those  who  are 
destined  to  pursue  their  scientific  studies  along  advanced 
lines.   This  is,  of  course,  particularly  true  for  those  who  are 
destined  to  enter  higher  forms  of  technological,  agricul- 
tural, medical,  or  other  scientific  pursuits.    Such  groups  of 
pupils  are  relatively  small  though  important.   Here,  again, 
the  values  found  must  be  considered  limited  and  contin- 
gent. 

227.  Conceptual  values  claimed.  For  lack  of  a  more  con- 
venient term  the  term  "conceptual"  is  here  applied  to  those 
values  of  the  study  of  natural  science  which  are  claimed  to 
arise  from  the  development  of  such  broad  concepts  as  the 
unity  of  phenomenaLnature,  the  interrelation  of  natural  and 
social  phenomena,  natural  law,  standards  of  naturalism  and 
super-naturalism  of  reality  and  superstition,  ideals  of  order 
and  system  in  nature,  cause  and  effect  relations  in  the  world 
of  nature,  biological  evolution,  etc.  Any  real  understanding 
of  modern  life  and  thought  is  impossible  without  some  under- 
standing of  those  comprehensive  concepts  which  have  devel- 
oped for  the  most  part  through  the  study  of  natural  science. 
It  is  not  to  be  conceived  that  the  development  and  use  of 
such  concepts  are  solely  the  prerogath  es  of  the  philosopher 
or  highly  trained  scientist.    In  science  the  instrument  was 
created  by  which  man  can  be  freed  from  the  bondage  of 
superstition.    The  world  has  been  freed  from  the  shackles 
of  necromancy,  alchemy,  witchcraft,  astrology,  animism, 
and  numerous  other  errors  of  understanding  through   a 
knowledge  and  use  of  natural  science.  It  requires,  however, 
but  little  observation  and  imagination  to  recognize  that  just 
as  serious  errors  enslave  the  thought  and  action  of  man  at 


522      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

the  present  day  and  that  large  numbers  of  men  and  women 
are  seriously  misled  through  superstition  and  appearances. 
The  point  has  been  stated  well  by  De  Garmo :  * 

Let  us  call  to  witness  the  baseless  terrors  arising  from  erroneous 
belief  regarding  natural  causes,  the  needless  famines,  diseases,  and 
devastating  pestilences  that  have  afflicted  mankind,  and  then  the 
more  lamentable  perversion  of  noble  human  qualities  themselves 
through  blind  adherence  to  authority,  or  by  the  injection  into  hu- 
man affairs  of  the  devils  generated  by  ignorance  of  natural  law, 
as  in  witchcraft  or  in  the  Spanish  inquisition,  thus  poisoning  the 
mind  with  the  ptomaines  of  its  own  diseased  thinking. 

One  must  indeed  be  an  optimist  not  to  believe  that  super- 
stition and  ignorance  of  natural  causes  play  havoc  in  the 
thought  and  action  of  millions  of  men  and  women  in  civi- 
lized society  in  the  present  as  in  the  past. 

228.  Transfer  values  claimed.  Advocates  of  the  study  of 
natural  science,  as  proponents  of  other  studies  in  the  sec- 
ondary school,  have  constantly  emphasized  its  transfer 
values.  In  many  cases  it  is  held  that  by  the  study  of  natural 
science  such  assumed  general  powers,  capacities,  or  faculties 
of  the  mind  as  observation,  discrimination,  accuracy,  mem- 
ory, imagination,  reasoning,  may  be  so  trained  as  to  func- 
tion with  improved  efficiency  in  non-scientific  fields.  In  so 
far  as  such  claims  involve  (as  they  sometimes  do)  a  theory 
of  faculty  psychology  they  must  be  ruled  out  of  court  at 
once  on  the  ground  that  modern  psychology  recognizes  no 
such  general  and  independent  faculties  as  memory,  observa- 
tion, etc.  However,  the  abandonment  of  such  a  theory  does 
not  mean  that  certain  forms  of  efficiency  developed  in  and 
through  the  study  of  natural  science  cannot  have  effect  on 
fields  of  study  and  situations  of  a  non-scientific  character. 
Recent  attempts  to  analyze  the  transfer  values  claimed  for 

1  De  Garmo,  C.,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education:  The  Studies,  p.  55. 
Cf.  White,  A.  D.,  The  Warfare  of  Science  and  Theology. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     523 

the  study  of  natural  science  have  to  some  extent  avoided 
the  fallacies  prominent  in  earlier  analyses.1 

The  fundamental  problems  involved  in  the  transfer  values 
of  the  study  of  natural  science  are  the  same  as  those  in- 
volved in  the  transfer  values  of  other  studies,  particularly  in 
mathematics.  They  have  already  been  considered  at  some 
length  in  Chapter  XI.  The  conclusions  there  reached  were: 
(a)  that  the  transfer  or  spread  of  improved  efficiency  is 
possible;  (6)  that  the  method  of  transfer  depends  on  the 
ordinary  laws  of  dissociation;  (c)  that  the  extent  of  such 
transfer  depends  on  the  degree  in  which  materials  are  organ- 
ized and  presented  so  as  to  make  conditions  favorable  for 
dissociation.  Keeping  these  conclusions  in  mind  we  may 
consider  their  application  to  the  question  of  transfer  values 
in  the  case  of  natural-science  study. 

No  one  can  question  that  valuable  mental  traits  (employ- 
ing that  term  in  the  generic  sense)  are  exercised  and  devel- 
oped by  the  study  of  natural  science.  No  one  can  doubt  that 
mental  traits  of  the  same  generic  quality  are  employed 
extensively  in  non-scientific  situations  in  life.  Ideals  and 
habits  of  accuracy,  achievement,  proof,  persistency,  open- 
mindedness,  honesty,  and  the  like,  are  very  real  common 
factors  in  the  field  of  natural  science  and  in  other  fields: 
methods  of  problem  solving,  "  scientific  method,"  etc.,  are 
common  elements  exemplified  in  connection  with  data  of  all 
sorts :  the  same  human  mind  with  its  capacity  for  generaliza- 
tion is  a  common  element  in  all  intellectual  enterprises. 
The  materials  and  means  for  transfer  are  provided  in  the 
study  of  natural  science. 

Subjects  of  study  differ  widely  in  the  degree  in  which  they 
lend  themselves  to  organization  and  manipulation  for  pur- 

1  For  example,  Twiss,  G.  R.,  pp.  453-59  of  Monroe,  P.  (Editor),  The 
Principles  of  Secondary  Education;  Mann,  C.  R.,  The  Teaching  of  Physics, 
pp.  171-96. 


524      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

poses  of  fostering  conditions  favorable  to  the  processes  of 
dissociation.  Among  those  subjects  whose  materials  may 
readily  be  manipulated  for  this  purpose  the  natural  sciences 
occupy  a  prominent  position  along  with  mathematics.  The 
degree  of  transfer  values  to  be  achieved  through  the  study 
of  natural  science  must  depend  on  the  organization  of  ma- 
terials and  the  methods  employed.  When  a  science  is  organ- 
ized and  taught  with  emphasis  on  direct  values  alone  or 
primarily  the  minimum  of  transfer  values  is  to  be  expected. 
Transfer  values  are  always  potential  and  their  achievement 
is  not  always  automatic.  The  maximum  of  transfer  values 
will  be  achieved  when  the  materials  are  organized  for  that 
purpose  and  the  methods  of  presentation  purposely  adapted 
to  the  development  of  those  values.  Direct  values  and  indi- 
rect values  cannot  both  be  at  their  maximum  at  the  same 
time  and  with  the  same  organization  of  teaching  materials 
and  methods. 

The  most  important  element  of  transfer  values  commonly 
claimed  for  the  study  of  natural  science  comprises  that 
methodology  in  intellectual  enterprises  which  goes  under  the 
name  of  "  scientific  method."  This,  according  to  Pearson, 
is  marked  by  (1)  careful  and  accurate  classification  of  facts 
and  observation  of  their  correlation  and  sequence;  (2)  the 
discovery  of  scientific  laws  by  aid  of  the  creative  imagina- 
tion; (3)  self-criticism  and  the  final  touchstone  of  equal 
validity  for  all  normally  constituted  minds.1 

The  scientific  method  of  examining  facts  is  not  peculiar  to  one 
class  of  phenomena  and  to  one  class  of  workers;  it  is  applicable  to 
social  as  well  as  to  physical  problems,  and  we  must  carefully  guard 
ourselves  against  supposing  that  the  scientific  frame  of  mind  is  a 
peculiarity  of  the  professional  scientist.  Now  this  frame  of  mind 
seems  to  me  an  essential  of  good  citizenship,  and  of  the  several 
ways  in  which  it  can  be  acquired  few  surpass  the  careful  study  of 

1  Pearson,  K.,  The  Grammar  of  Science,  p.  37. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     525 

some  one  branch  of  natural  science.  The  insight  into  method  and 
the  habit  of  dispassionate  investigation  which  follow  from  acquaint- 
ance with  the  scientific  classification  of  even  some  small  range  of 
natural  facts,  give  the  mind  an  invaluable  power  of  dealing  with 
other  facts  as  the  occasion  arises.1 

229.  The  values  and  aims  of  "  general  science."  Until 
recent  years  the  only  provision  for  science  instruction  in 
the  secondary  school  was  provision  for  a  number  of  isolated 
unit  courses  in  physics,  chemistry,  physiology,  botany,  and 
the  like.  Each  of  those  courses  was  organized  on  the  basis 
of  the  logical  relations  demanded  by  the  subject-matter  of 
the  special  science  involved  without  reference  to  the  psy- 
chological needs  of  the  learner  or  the  situations  in  which  he 
would  apply  the  knowledges  and  skills  acquired  in  its  study. 
Recently,  however,  there  has  developed  the  practice  of 
providing  a  course  in  "general"  or  "elementary"  science. 
Several  considerations  have  led  to  the  development  of  such 
a  course.  Among  these  the  most  important  are  the  following: 

(1)  There  is  need  for  a  course  in  natural  science  which  is 
elementary  and  introductory.   The  study  of  natural  science 
in  the  school  differs  from  some  of  the  studies  with  which  it  is 
grouped  in  the  secondary  school  in  that  its  development  in 
various  fields  has  led  to  more  or  less  isolated  studies  which 
have  no  elementary  or  introductory  study  as  compared  with 
mathematics,  the  language  studies,  or  even  the  social  stud- 
ies.   There  are  elementary  or  introductory  courses  in  bot- 
any, physical  geography,  physics,  biology,  and  chemistry, 
but  no  real  introductory  course  in  natural  science  which 
may  serve  either  to  give  a  general  view  of  natural  phenomena 
or  as  a  diagnostic  factor  for  later  scientific  study. 

(2)  The  present  organization  of  natural-science  studies 
makes  it  practically  impossible  for  the  pupil  to  come  into 
any  contact  with  certain  fields  of  science  unless  he  remains 

1  Pearson,  K.,  The  Grammar  of  Science,  pp.  6-7. 


526      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

in  school  throughout  the  course.  The  pupil  who  leaves  school 
at  the  close  of  the  elementary  school  as  at  present  organized 
has  opportunity  to  come  into  contact  with  such  elements  of 
nature  study  and  physiology  only  as  are  provided  in  the 
elementary  school.  The  pupil  who  leaves  school  before  the 
last  two  years  of  high-school  work  cannot  under  ordinary 
circumstances  come  into  any  contact  with  physics  and  chem- 
istry. Further,  the  pupil  who  remains  in  school  throughout 
the  secondary  course  has  no  opportunity  to  study  physics 
or  chemistry  except  as  an  intensive  subject.  It  is  a  case  of 
all  or  nothing  in  any  field  of  natural  science. 

(3)  In  earlier  days  the  natural  sciences  were  taught  in  the 
secondary  school  largely  as  informational  subjects  so  that 
the  pupil  was  provided  an  opportunity  to  learn  something 
concerning  natural  phenomena  without  elaborate  technical 
work  in  the  laboratory.  Beyond  doubt  certain  values  of  the 
study  of  natural  sciences  were  greatly  increased  by  the 
introduction  of  laboratory  work.  The  change  was  not,  how- 
ever, an  unconditioned  gam,  as  may  be  observed  from  the 
diminished  interest  in  the  study  of  physics  and  chemistry 
since  instruction  in  those  sciences  was  made  to  involve  labo- 
ratory work  by  pupils  in  the  secondary  school.  The  informa- 
tional courses  previously  provided  were  very  attractive  to 
secondary-school  pupils.  The  laboratory  courses  now  pro- 
vided have  proved  unattractive.1  Two  remedies  suggest 
themselves,  (a)  A  course  in  general  science  not  overbur- 
dened by  insistence  on  technical  laboratory  work  may  pro- 
vide science  study  for  those  who  will  not  become  special- 
ists and  for  some  may  awaken  such  an  interest  in  science 
study  as  to  lead  to  more  intensive  study  in  later  science 
courses,  (b)  It  is  a  tenable  thesis  that  better  results  for  the 
total  pupil  body  would  be  secured  if  the  courses  in  physics 

1  Cf.  Table  CXIX  and  Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education. 
p.  231. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     527 

and  chemistry  were  so  organized  that  laboratory  work  be 
provided  for  those  needing  that  work  for  extended  study  or 
college  admission  and  for  those  sufficiently  interested  in  that 
side  of  science  work,  but  also  that  pupils  be  allowed  to  study 
physics  and  chemistry  without  necessarily  engaging  ir 
laboratory  work,  at  least  to  the  extent  at  present  required. 

(4)  There  is  need  for  a  course  in  natural  science  not 
restricted  in  its  scope  to  a  single  field  organized  as  a  logical 
and  exclusive  unit,  but  touching  many  fields  at  those  points 
where  an  acquaintance  with  the  phenomena  of  nature  is 
valuable  directly  to  the  individual.  In  a  preceding  section 
it  was  pointed  out  that  the  direct  values  of  the  study  of  the 
natural  sciences,  particularly  of  the  inorganic  sciences,  as 
logically  organized  wholes  are  limited  and  contingent. 
While  this  is  true  of  those  sciences  as  units  it  does  not  hold 
true  of  certain  facts,  principles,  and  processes  which  form 
parts  of  the  several  sciences.  Some  of  the  facts,  principles, 
and  processes  of  the  various  natural  sciences  are  valuable 
for  practically  all  pupils  directly.  It  is  an  essential  principle 
underlying  the  organization  of  a  course  in  general  science 
that  the  inclusion  and  organization  of  the  subject-matter 
shall  be  determined  (a)  by  the  demands  of  the  learning  proc- 
ess peculiar  to  pupils  of  the  appropriate  stage  of  develop- 
ment, (6)  by  the  importance  of  the  various  facts,  principles, 
and  processes  of  the  several  sciences  to  the  average  individ- 
ual in  the  ordinary  activities  of  life  as  engaged  in  by  all. 

If  the  needs  implied  in  the  above  are  to  be  realized  it  is 
clear  that  the  course  or  courses  in  general  science  should 
be  begun  rather  early  in  the  secondary  school,  preceded  by 
some  contact  with  the  phenomena  of  nature  in  the  element- 
ary school.  In  all  probability  the  proper  place  for  courses 
in  general  science  is  in  the  junior  high  school.  In  the  senior 
high  school  may  then  follow  such  intensive  courses  in  such 
special  fields  as  biology,  physics,  and  chemistry,  organized 


528      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDAEY  EDUCATION 

as  logical  wholes.  A  course  in  general  science  properly  organ- 
ized in  the  junior  high  school  should  lead  some  pupils  to 
greater  interest  in  the  natural  sciences  in  the  senior  high 
school. 

230.  The  aims  of  natural  science  instruction.  The  aims 
of  instruction  in  natural  science  in  the  secondary  school 
should  be  the  development  of  values  previously  outlined. 
In  specific  terms^hey  may  be  considered  in  the  following: 

(1)  General  science:  The  aims  of  instruction  in  general 
science  are  to  provide  opportunity  for  acquaintance  by  the 
pupils  with  the  facts,  principles,  and  processes  of  natural 
phenomena  in  such  a  way  as  to  furnish  them  with  some 
means  of  understanding  the  elementary  laws  of  nature  which 
are  necessary  for  healthy,  intelligent,  and  efficient  living. 
At  some  length  the  guiding  principles  have  been  well  stated 
by  Snedden: l 

1.  The   primary   purpose    of   general    science   instruction    for 
youths  from  twelve  to  sixteen  years  of  age  should  be  to  eluci- 
date, to  explain,  and  to  interpret,  in  degree  appropriate  to 
the  youth  and  modest  demands  of  these  learners,  and  by 
means  of  genuine  and  vivid  experience,  the  important  facts 
and  simple  principles  of  accessible  natural  phenomena  and  of 
significant  and  easily  comprehended  applications  of   science 
to  human  well-being. 

2.  Secondary  purposes,  which  are  to  be  definitely  subordinated 
in  teaching  processes,  and  to  be  realized,  if  at  all,  only  as  by- 
products, are:  (a)  The  intellectual  grasp  of  underlying  prin- 
ciples and  laws;  (6)  the  mastery,  as  working  ideal  and  specific 
habit  (as  opposed  to  appreciation  and  intellectual  compre- 
hension) of  any  department  of  scientific  method;  and  (c)  the 
mastery  for  use  in  a  practical  or  vocational  sense  (as  distin- 
guished  from    development   of    appreciation)   of    scientific 
knowledge  or  technique. 

3.  The  scope  or  range  of  natural  phenomena  and  cases  of  applied 
science  to  be  included  in  a  program  of  general  science  instruc- 

1  Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  pp.  255-62. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     529 

tion  should  be  great  —  theoretically  as  great  as  all  the  avail- 
able resources  of  human  knowledge,  and  limited  only  by  the 
capacity  of  the  learner  and  the  accessibility  of  the  materials. 

4.  The  whole  program  of  general  science  instruction  must  be 
very  extensive,  to  the  end  that  from  the  standpoint  of  any  one 
school  or  teacher  or  grade  or  pupil  it  may  be  almost  indefi- 
nitely flexible. 

5.  ...  in  the  present  state  of  educational  knowledge  it  is  un- 
wise, harmful,  and  even  impertinent  for  educational  theorists 
to  delimit  particular  divisions  of  general  science,  or  principles 
or  topics  therein,  as  being  of  relatively  superior  importance. 

6.  It  is  indispensable,  once  the  aims  of  general  science  teaching 
are  acceptably  formulated,  that  the  wealth  of  materials  avail- 
able should  be  organized  into  suitable  teaching  units,  each  unit 
presupposing  a  fair  assignment  of  time,  method  of  attack,  and 
result  to  be  mastered. 

7.  Qualitatively,  instruction  in  general  science  must  not  aim  at 
exhaustiveness  of  knowledge,  mastery  of  abstract  principle  or 
formula,  capacity  for  detailed  expression,  or  power  to  make 
definite  application. 

(2}  Other  sciences :  The  special  natural  sciences  provided 
in  the  senior  high  school  should  aim  at  intensive  study  of 
those  subjects  as  logically  organized  studies  by  those  pupils 
only  who  manifest  special  interest,  special  ability,  or  voca- 
tional need.  The  specific  aims  must  be  determined  by  the 
values  previously  considered. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  Analyze  the  activities  of  the  home  which  call  for  natural-science 
knowledge  and  analyze  the  knowledges  called  for. 

2.  Analyze  the  knowledge  of  natural  science  valuable  for  the  skilled 
worker  in  metal  industries. 

3.  What  knowledge  of  natural  science  is  of  value  to  the  carpenter? 

4.  What  knowledge  of  electricity  is  necessary  for  the  average  man  or 
woman?  —  for  the  average  factory  worker?  —  for  a  man  engaged  in 
electric  wiring,  etc.? 

5.  What  knowledge  of  chemistry  is  suitable  for  the  ordinary  farmer?  — 
for  the  housekeeper?  —  for  the  pharmacist? 


530      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

6.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  providing  a  course  in  chemistry 
or  physics  without  laboratory  work,  assuming  that  laboratory  work  is 
still  provided  for  special  groups  of  pupils? 

7.  Outline  arguments  for  and  against  an  introductory  course  in  "general" 
science  to  be  taken  by  all  pupils. 

8.  Examine  and  criticize  claims  made  by  various  writers  for  the  study  of 
any  given  natural  science  in  the  secondary  school. 

9.  In'  any  secondary-school  textbook  in  chemistry  analyze  the  relative 
importance  attached  to  various  phases  of  the  subject.   How  would  you 
rearrange  and  reapportion  the  material  for  a  class  of  pupils  who  will 
not  study  chemistry  further?   Do  the  same  for  physics  or  biology. 

10.  Make  a  list  of  scientific  concepts  which  you  believe  every  secondary- 
school  graduate  should  have  acquired. 

11.  Outline  definitely  transfer  values  which  you  believe  may  be  found  in 
the  study  of  any  given  natural  science. 

12.  Criticize  Spencer's  arguments  for  the  values  of  the  study  of  science. 
(Cf.  Spencer,  H.,  Education,  chapter  i.) 

13.  Criticize  Huxley's  discussion  of  the  values  of  science  study.     (Cf. 
Huxley,  T.,  Science  and  Education,  chaps,  iv-vi.) 

14.  In  any  high  school  make  a  study  of  the  amount  of  natural  science 
study  engaged  in  by  members  of  several  "classes"  in  their  high-school 
courses. 

15.  For  any  college  make  a  study  of  the  units  of  natural  science  study  pre- 
sented by  candidates  for  admission  to  college. 

16.  Compare  the  relative  values  of  "pure"  and  "applied"  science. 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 
I.  General: 

>  Barber,  F.  D.,  "Fundamental  Considerations  in  the  Reorganization 
of  High-School  Science,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxiv,  pp.  124-34. 

Coulter,  J.  G.,  "Proposed  Status  of  Science  Instruction  in  the 
Junior-Senior  High  School  organization,"  Educational  Administra- 
tion and  Supervision,  vol.  i,  pp.  639-45. 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  Changes  Needed  in  American  Secondary  Education, 
Occasional  Papers  no.  2,  Publications  of  the  General  Education 
Board. 

Huxley,  T.,  Science  and  Education,  especially  chaps,  rv-vi. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  The  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects,  chap.  xiv. 

Pearson,  K.,  Grammar  of  Science. 

Spencer,  H.,  Education,  chap.  i. 

Twiss,  G.  R.,  chap,  xn  of  Monroe,  P.  (Editor),  Principles  of  Second- 
ary Education. 

Twiss,  G.  R.,  A  Textbook  of  the  Principles  of  Science  Teaching. 


II.  Biological  sciences: 

Caldwell,  O.  W.  (Chairman),  "A  Consideration  of  the  Principles 

that  should  determine    the  Courses  in  Biology  in  Secondary 

Schools,"  Report  of  a  Committee,  School  Science  and  Mathematics, 

vol.  EX,  pp.  241^17. 

Caldwell,  O.  W.,  Galloway,  T.  W.,  and  Norris,  H.  W.,  "An  Inves- 
tigation of  the  Teaching  of  Biological  Subjects  in  Secondary 

Schools,"  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  rx,  pp.  581-97. 
Coulter,  J.  M.,  "Botany  as  a  Factor  in  Education,"  School  Review, 

vol.  xii,  pp.  609-17. 
Forbes,  S.  A.,  "Economic  and  Industrial  Aspects  of  Secondary 

School  Biology,"  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  v,  pp.  173- 

83. 
Forbes,  S.  A.,  "The  Pedagogical  Value  of  Zoology,"  Educational 

Review,  vol.  I,  pp.  328-36. 
Hunter,  G.  W.,  "The  Methods,  Content,  and  Purpose  of  Biologic 

Science  in  the  Secondary  Schools  of  the  United  States,"  School 

Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  x,  pp.  1-10,  103-11. 
Linville,  H.  R.,  "Old  and  New  Ideals  in  Biology. Teaching,"  School 

Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  x,  pp.  210-16. 
Linville,  H.  R.,  et  al.,  "The  Practical  Use  of  Biology,"  School  Science 

and  Mathematics,  vol.  rx,  pp.  121-30. 
Lloyd,  F.  E.,  and  Bigelow,  M.  A.,  The  Teaching  of  Biology  in  the 

Secondary  School,  pp.  7-24,  62-80,  241-60. 
National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganization 

of  Secondary  Education,  Report  of  Committee  on  Biology,  School 

Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  xvi,  pp.  501-17. 
Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xx. 

III.  Chemistry: 

Allen,  J.  H.,  "The  Value  of  Chemistry  as  a  High-School  Subject," 
School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  x,  pp.  721-31,  788-800 
(Nov.-Dec.,  1910). 

Blanchard,  A.  A.,  "Elementary  Chemistry  as  a  Means  of  Develop- 
ing the  Power  of  Independent  Scientific  Reasoning,"  School  Sci- 
ence and  Mathematics,  vol.  x,  pp.  382-87  (May,  1910). 

Dennis,  L.  M.,  et  al.,  "What  Kind  of  Chemistry  Shall  be  Taught 
in  the  High  School  and  How  Shall  it  be  Most  Effectively 
Taught?"  Proceedings  of  the  New  York  State  Associated  Principals 
(1902),  pp.  439-54. 

Geer,  W.  C.,  "The  Teaching  of  Chemistry  in  the  Secondary  Schools: 
A  Study  of  Recent  Practice  and  Results,"  School  Review,  vol.  xiv, 
pp.  275-95. 

Morgan,  W.  C.,  "What  Should  Science  Contribute  to  General 
Education?"  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  vm,  pp.  1-9. 


532     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Smith,  A.,  and  Hall,  E.  H.,  The  Teaching  of  Chemistry  and  Physics 
in  the  Secondary  Schools,  pp.  5-48. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xix. 

Symposium  on  High  School  Chemistry,  "The  Purpose  and  Organi- 
zation of  Chemistry  Teaching  in  Secondary  Schools,"  a  series  of 
papers  in  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vols.  ix  and  x,  espe- 
cially vol.  EX,  pp.  658-65,  vol.  x,  pp.  18-21. 

Wade,  F.  B.,  "The  Purpose  and  Method  of  the  Chemistry  Course 
in  the  Public  High  School"  School  Science  and  Mathematics 
(April,  1910),  pp.  299-303. 

IV.  Geography: 

Chamberlain,  J.  F.  (Chairman),  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Second- 
ary School  Geography,  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation (1909),  pp.  820-28. 

Dodge,  R.  E.,  "Geography  for  Secondary  Schools,"  Journal  of 
Geography,  vol.  vi,  pp.  241-54,  273-75. 

Hubbard,  G.  D.,  "Geography  in  the  Secondary  School,"  Proceedings 

of  the  National  Education  Association  (1908),  pp.  978-84. 
V.  Physics: 

Avery,  L.  B.,  et  al.,  Symposium  on  the  "Purpose  and  Organization 
of  Physics  Teaching  in  Secondary  Schools,"  a  series  of  papers 
in  vols.  vin  and  ix  of  School  Science  and  Mathematics. 

Guthe,  K.  E.,  "Some  Reforms  Needed  in  the  Teaching  of  Physics," 
Science,  vol.  xxxi,  pp.  1  ff. 

Hall,  E.  H.,  Part  n  of  Smith,  A.,  and  Hall,  E.  H.,  The  Teaching  of 
Chemistry  and  Physics  in  the  Secondary  School. 

Mann,  C.  R.,  The  Teaching  of  Physics,  pp.  170-96. 

Mann,  C.  R.,  "The  Aims  and  Tendencies  in  Physics  Teaching," 
School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  vi,  pp.  723-30. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xix. 

Spaulding,  F.  B.,  "The  Culture  Aim  in  Physics  Teaching,"  School 
Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  x,  pp.  14-17. 

Spaulding,  F.  B., "  What  Knowledge  (of  Physics)  is  of  Most  Worth? " 
School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  viu,  pp.  674-79. 

VI.  General  Science: 

Barber,  F.  D.,  "The  Present  Status  and  Real  Meaning  of  General 
Science,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxm,  pp.  9-24. 

Briggs,  T.  H.,  "General  Science  in  Secondary  Schools,"  Teachers 
College  Record,  vol.  xvn,  pp.  19  ff. 

Coulter,  J.  G.,  "Present  Tendencies  in  Teaching  Elementary 
Science,"  Educational  Review,  vol.  LIT,  pp.  357-71. 

Eikenberry,  W.  L.,  "Some  Facts  about  the  General  Science  Situ- 
ation," School  Review,  vol.  xxm,  pp.  181-91. 

General  Science  Quarterly. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES     533 

Massachusetts  State  Committee  on  General  Science,  General  Science 
Bulletin,  Preliminary  Draft,  General  Science  Quarterly,  vol.  i, 
pp.  37-46,  88-101,  180-88,  228-32. 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganiza- 
tion of  Secondary  Education,  Report  of  Committee  on  Science, 
Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 

Quickstad,  N.  J.,  "  Some  Phases  of  the  General  Science  Problem," 
General  Science  Quarterly,  vol.  i,  pp.  153-61. 

Roecker,  W.  F.,  "An  Elementary  Course  hi  General  Science:  Con- 
tent and  Method,"  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  xiv,  pp. 
755-69. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xxi. 

School  Review,  vol.  xxv,  pp.  453-60,  "Review  of  Current  Literature 
on  General  Science."  (Summarizes  aims,  arguments  for  and 
against,  etc.) 

Webb,  H.  A.,  "A  Quantitative  Analysis  of  General  Science," 
School  Science  and  Mathematics,  vol.  xvn,  pp.  534-45. 

Extended  bibliography:  Bibliography  of  Science  Teaching,  Bureau 
of  Education,  Bulletin  (1911),  no.  1.  "Bibliography  of  General 
Science,"  General  Science  Quarterly,  vol.  i,  pp.  146-52. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE   PLACE   OF  SOCIAL   SCIENCES  IN  THE   PROGRAM 
OF   STUDIES 

231.  Historical  position  in  the  program.  While  much 
ancient  history,  chronology,  geography,  and  mythology  was 
doubtless  taught  in  connection  with  the  classical  study  of 
the  Latin  grammar  school,  no  social  science  as  such  was 
studied  in  America  until  the  beginning  of  the  academy  move- 
ment. In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  Franklin 
recommended  the  extensive  study  of  history  and  geography 
in  the  academy  which  he  proposed  and  which  was  founded 
at  that  time.  By  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
those  studies  had  attained  some  prominence  in  the  acade- 
mies and  by  the  beginning  of  the  high-school  movement 
in  the  third  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  history  and 
geography  had  attained  a  permanent  position  in  the  pro- 
gram of  the  American  secondary  school. 

By  the  Massachusetts  law  of  1827,  which  marked  the 
real  beginning  of  the  public  high  school,  geography  was 
prescribed  for  elementary  schools,  United  States  history 
for  all  high  schools,  and  "history"  (other  than  that  of  the 
United  States)  for  all  high  schools  in  larger  cities.  Stimu- 
lated by  the  academy  movement  and  by  such  influences  as 
the  Massachusetts  law  above  mentioned  the  study  of  geogra- 
phy and  history  developed  even  more  rapidly  than  the  pub- 
lic high  schools  themselves.  Thus,  in  Massachusetts,  where 
there  were  not  more  than  a  dozen  high  schools  at  the  time, 
out  of  294  towns  reporting  in  1837  to  the  State  Department, 
209  towns  claimed  to  offer  United  States  history  in  their 
schools  and  94  towns  claimed  to  offer  other  forms  of  history. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  535 

Likewise  in  1838-39  "political  science"  was  a  subject 
claimed  to  be  offered  in  29  towns.  In  1842  Horace  Mann 
reported  that  10,177  pupils  in  Massachusetts  were  engaged 
in  the  study  of  United  States  history  and  2571  were  engaged 
in  the  study  of  "general  history."  Equally  noticeable  was 
the  development  of  courses  in  history  in  the  academies  of 
New  York  State.1 

By  the  beginning  of  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  study  of  geography  had  been  relegated  for  the 
most  part  to  the  elementary  school,  the  study  of  history  in 
many  forms  had  found  a  permanent  place  in  the  program  of 
the  public  high  school,  colleges  had  begun  to  prescribe  his- 
tory as  a  requirement  for  admission  (Harvard  and  Michi- 
gan in  1847),  and  in  some  high  schools  "political  science" 
or  "political  economy  "  had  appeared  in  the  program,  "polit- 
ical philosophy"  having  appeared  in  the  program  of  the 
Boston  English  Classical  (High)  School  in  1821.  During 
the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  study  of  history, 
and  to  a  much  less  extent  of  other  social  sciences,  continued 
to  develop.  The  development  of  the  social  sciences  in  the 
secondary  school  from  1890  to  the  present  has  already  been 
indicated  in  Table  CXIX. 

In  1893  the  Committee  of  Ten  on  Secondary  School 
Studies  recommended  the  study  of  history  for  all  pupils 
during  the  first  year  of  high-school  work  and  at  other 
points  in  the  course,  the  tune  being  distributed  as  shown 
in  Table  CXXXIV. 

Such  an  assignment  of  time  and  arrangement  of  courses 
did  not,  however,  meet  the  recommendations  of  the  sub- 
committee on  *' history,  civil  government,  and  political 
economy,"  which  provided  for  an  eight-year  or  a  six-year 
course  in  social  studies  as  in  Table  CXXXV. 

1  Russell,  W.  F.,  "The  Entrance  of  History  into  the  Curriculum  of  the 
Secondary  School,"  The  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  vol.  v,  pp.  313  jf. 


536      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 
TABLE  CXXXIV  * 


High- 
school 
grade 

Classical 
course 

Latin- 
scientific 
course 

Modern 

language 
course 

English 
course 

Number 

(      I 

4 

4 

4 

4 

of 

II 

3 

0 

0 

3 

Periods 

i  m 

0 

2 

2 

3 

per  week 

IV 

3  (elective) 

3  (elective) 

3  (elective) 

3 

Total        

7  or  10 

6  or  9 

6  or  9 

13 

Per  cent  total 

8  4  or  12  5 

7  SOT  11  3 

7  5  or  11  3 

16  25 

*  Committee  of  Ten,  Report  on  Secondary  School  Studies  (Bureau  of  Education  edition), 
pp.  46-47. 


TABLE  CXXXV  * 


Grade 


Eighth/ear  course 


Six-year  course 


II 


III 


IV 


Biography  and  mythology. 

Biography  and  mythology. 

American  history  and  elements 
of  civil  government. 

Greek  and  Roman  history  with 
their  Oriental  connections. 

French  history.  (To  be  so  taught 
as  to  elucidate  the  general 
movement  of  mediaeval  and 
modern  history.) 

English    history.     (To   be    so 
taught  as  to  elucidate  the 
general  movement  of  medi- 
seval  and  modern  history.) 

American  history. 


A  special  period,  studied  in  an 
intensive  manner;  and  civil 
government. 


Biography  and  mythology. 
Biography  and  mythology. 

American  history,  and  civil  gov- 
ernment. 


Greek  and  Roman  history,  with 
their  Oriental  connections. 


English  history.  (To  be  so 
taught  as  to  elucidate  the 
general  movement  of  medi- 
aeval and  modern  history.) 

American  history  and  civil  gov- 
ernment. 


*  Committee  of  Ten,  Report  on  Secondary  School  Studies  (Bureau  of  Education  edition), 
pp.  163-64. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  537 

The  same  sub-committee  recommended:* 

That  formal  instruction  in  political  economy  be  omitted  from 
the  school  program;  but  that  economic  subjects  be  treated  in 
connection  with  other  pertinent  subjects.  .  .  .  That  to  Ameri- 
can history  in  the  first  group  of  studies  be  added  the  elements 
of  civil  government. 

Neither  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  nor  the  report 
of  its  sub-committee  on  the  social  sciences  succeeded  hi 
creating  a  desirable  amount  of  order  out  of  the  chaos  which 
had  previously  existed  in  the  study  of  the  social  sciences: 
hence  in  1896  a  committee  was  appointed  by  the  American 
Historical  Association  "to  consider  the  subject  of  history  hi 
the  secondary  schools  and  to  draw  up  a  scheme  of  college 
entrance  requirements  hi  history."  That  committee  made 
a  survey  of  the  current  practices  in  the  teaching  of  history 
hi  about  260  representative  secondary  schools  hi  the 
country.  It  reported  in  1898: 

The  subjects  in  the  order  of  their  frequency  are:  (1)  English  and 
American  history,  taught  in  more  than  half  the  schools;  (2)  "Gen- 
eral history,"  taught  in  almost  exactly  half  the  schools;  (3)  Greek 
and  Roman  history,  taught  in  about  hah*  the  schools;  (4)  Euro- 
pean history  taught  in  about  one  third  of  the  schools,  the  three 
forms  —  mediaeval,  modern,  and  French  history  —  being  about 
equally  common.  In  a  very  few  schools  the  history  of  the  state  in 
which  they  are  situated  is  a  subject.  The  favorite  topics  are,  there- 
fore, English  and  American  history,  usually  both  taught  in  the 
same  school ;  Greek  and  Roman  history,  usually  both  taught  in  the 
same  school;  and  some  form  of  what  is  commonly  called  "general 
history."  2 

...  In  general  four  different  systems  (of  the  order  of  subjects) 
have  been  followed:  (1)  About  one  third  of  the  schools  follow  the 

1  Committee  of  Ten,  Report  on  Secondary  School  Studies  (Bureau  of 
Education),  pp.  162-63. 

2  Committee  of  Seven,  The  Study  of  History  in  Schools  (The  Macmillan 
Company  print),  p.  139. 


538      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

chronological  method,  taking  up  in  succession  ancient  history, 
general  history,  and  modern  history  in  some  form,  usually  English 
or  American  or  both;  ...  (2)  A  much  smaller  number  of  schools, 
perhaps  a  seventh  of  the  whole,  prefer  the  order  —  general,  ancient, 
and  modern;  ...  (3)  The  third  method  begins  with  American,  or 
sometimes  with  English  history,  and  then  takes  general  history, 
bringing  in  ancient  history  last.  About  one  fifth  of  the  schools 
reporting  use  this  system;  ...  (4)  A  fourth  method,  which  pre- 
vails in  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  schools,  is  that  of  beginning  with 
American  history,  following  with  ancient  history  and  ending  with  a 
general  course;  .  .  .  To  make  the  generalization  in  broader  form: 
the  returns  from  a  body  of  schools  most  interested  in  the  subject  of 
history  show  that  one  half  prefer  to  begin  high-school  work  with 
the  history  nearest  to  the  pupils  in  experience,  and  then  to  take  up 
wider  choices,  while  one  third  have  the  chronological  system,  and 
the  remainder  begin  with  the  general  survey  of  the  field. 1 

The  same  committee  recommended  a  four-years'  high- 
school  course  as  follows: 2 

As  a  thorough  and  systematic  course  of  study,  we  recommend 
four  years  of  work,  beginning  with  ancient  history  and  ending  with 
American  history.  For  these  four  years  we  propose  the  division  of 
the  general  field  into  four  blocks  or  periods,  and  recommend  that 
they  be  studied  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  here  set  down,  which 
in  large  measure  accords  with  the  natural  order  of  events,  and 
shows  the  sequence  of  historical  facts. 

(1)  Ancient  history,  with  special  reference  to  Greek  and  Roman 
history,  but  including  also  a  short  introductory  study  of  the  more 
ancient  nations.   This  period  should  also  embrace  the  early  Middle 
Ages,  and  should  close  with  the  establishment  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  (800)  or  with  the  death  of  Charlemagne  (814),  or  with  the 
treaty  of  Verdun  (843). 

(2)  Mediaeval  and  modern  European  history,  from  the  close  of 
the  first  period  to  the  present  tune. 

(3)  English  history. 

(4)  American  history  and  civil  government. 

1  Committee  of  Seven,  The  Study  of  History  in  Schools  (The  Macmillan 
Company  print),  pp.  140-41. 

2  Ibid.,  pp.  34-35. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  539 

The  report  of  this  committee  had  a  marked  effect  on  the 
teaching  of  history  in  the  high  school,  an  effect  which  is 
still  strongly  felt.  However,  the  Committee  of  Five  on  the 
Study  of  History  in  Secondary  Schools  suggested  certain 
changes  among  which  the  most  important  were:  l  (1)  the 
requirement  of  three  years  of  study  in  history  by  every 
pupil;  (2)  changes  In  the  content  of  the  various  "blocks"; 
(3)  greater  emphasis  on  modern  history;  (4)  more  atten- 
tion for  civil  government;  (5)  a  revision  of  the  four  blocks 
as  to  the  order  of  their  study,  suggesting  the  order  —  (A) 
Ancient  history,  (B)  English  history,  (C)  modern  European 
history,  (D)  American  history  and  government.  The  effect 
of  the  reports  of  the  two  committees  (Committee  of  Seven 
and  Committee  of  Five)  on  present-day  conditions  may  be 
observed  in  Table  CXXXVII. 

It  may  be  noted  in  the  reports  of  the  Committee  of  Ten, 
the  Committee  of  Seven,  and  the  Committee  of  Five  that 
social  studies  other  than  history  were  almost  neglected. 
Throughout  the  history  of  the  high  school  the  study  of  civics 
has  had  a  rather  precarious  existence,  commonly  being  found 
in  the  form  of  civil  government  confined  to  somewhat  formal 
study  of  governmental  agencies  and  taught  as  an  appendage 
to  the  study  of  American  history.  It  is  only  within  the  past 
decade  or  so  that  the  study  of  civics  has  begun  to  come  to 
its  own  in  the  program  of  studies  in  the  high  school.  Even 
more  precarious  has  been  the  position  of  the  study  of  econo- 
mics in  the  high  school  as  may  be  seen  from  Table 
CXXXVII. 

232.  Present  status.  In  1914  the  Bureau  of  Education 
attempted  to  ascertain  the  status  of  the  social  sciences  in 
secondary  schools.  Returns  were  received  from  62.5  per 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Five,  The  Study  of  History  in  Secondary 
Schools,  especially  pp.  65,  24  /.,  53  ff.,  9-11,  64.  Committee  appointed 
in  1907:  its  report  published  in  1911. 


540      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

cent  of  all  the  secondary  schools  in  the  United  States. 
While  the  data  received  were  not  altogether  satisfactory 
they  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  situation  as  it  was  at  that  time. 
From  the  returns  it  was  estimated  that  thirty  per  cent  of 
the  schools  reporting  required  for  graduation  all  of  the  his- 
tory they  offered  and  thirteen  per  cent  made  history  entirely 
an  elective.  Also  the  returns  indicated*  that  between  1910 
and  1914  forty-three  per  cent  of  the  schools  reporting 
increased  then*  offerings,  11.5  per  cent  decreased  their 
offerings,  and  the  other  schools  reporting  made  no  change 
in  the  amount  offered.  The  figures  presented  in  the  following 
table  will  give  a  fair  idea  of  conditions  in  1914. 

TABLE  CXXXVL    NUMBER  ANT>  PEB  CENT  OF  THE  SCHOOLS 

WHICH    REPORTED    OFFERING    SEVERAL    AMOUNTS    OF    HlSTORY 
REQUIRED  AND  ELECTIVE  * 


Number  of  hour* 

Required 

Eledite 

Number 

Percent 

Number 

Per  cent 

None        

312 
234 
396 
1,042 
1,679 
674 
136 
16 

7.0 
5.2 
8.8 
23.2 
37.4 
15.0 
3.0 
.4 

2,189 
185 
316 
639 
805 
724 
391 
118 

40.8 
3.4 
5.9 
11.9 
15.0 
13.6 
7.3 
2.2 

36-88  hours                     

108-176  hours  

180—264  hours  

288-528  hours  

540-704  hours     

720-880  hours        

More  than  880  hours               

Totals             

4,489 

100.0 

5,367 

100.1 

Median  amount  of  time  for  required  history  .  .  .  28S-528  hours  or  between  1.6  and 
2.9  "uniU." 


*  Table  compiled  from  data  given  by  Briggs,  T.  H.,  in  Report  of  the  United  Siatet 
Commitnoner  of  Education  (1915),  vol.  u,  p.  120.  Certain  of  Briggs's  percentages  required 
correction. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES 


541 


Even  more  illustrative  of  the  place  at  present  held  by  the 
social  sciences  are  the  figures  presented  in  Table  CXXXVII. 

TABLE  CXXXVII.  NUMBER  OF  SCHOOLS  OFFERING  REQUIRED 
AND  ELECTIVE  HISTORY  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS  IN  EACH  HIGH 
SCHOOL  GRADE* 


/ 

// 

III 

IV 

1-1V 

Grand 
total 

Req. 

Elec. 

Req. 

Elec. 

Req. 

Elec. 

Req. 

Elec. 

Req. 

Elec. 

Ancient  history.  .  . 
Medieval   and 
modern  Euro- 
pean history  .  .  . 
English  history  .  .. 
American  history  . 
Industrial  history. 

2049 

195 
337 
121 
22 
589 
11 
48 

1324 

97 
191 

58 
77 
242 
11 
9 

1588 

1818 
332 

in 

23 
230 
37 
179 

874 

1401 
358 
51 
103 
139 
60 
17 

158 

1000 
1157 
730 
30 
641 
140 
45 

123 

1059 
1749 
360 
138 
465 
469 
12 

29 

70 

133 

5376 
36 
2397 
310 
7 

26 

105 

268 
1391 
202 
157S 
1026 
9 

3494 

3083 
1959 
4341 
113 
3857 
498 
279 

2347 

2662 
2666 
1860 
520 
2419 
1566 
47 

6141 

5745 
4625 
6201 
633 
6276 
2064 
326 

32011 

General  history.  .  . 
Totals  

3372 

2009 

4291 

3003 

3901 

4375 

6360 

4600 

17924 

14087 

Number  of  schools  reporting 7197 

Average  number  of  courses  required 2.5 

Average  number  of  courses  elective 2+ 

Number  of  schools  requiring  all  history  offered 2172 

Number  of  schools  offering  only  elective  history 963 

Numbei 


T  of  schools  ottering  only  elective  history 963 

:r  of  schools  offering  no  history 10 


*  Table  compiled  from  data  given  by  Briggs,  T.  H.,  in  Report  of  the  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Education  (1915),  vol.  H,  p.  121. 

From  this  table  a  number  of  facts  concerning  the  status 
of  the  social  sciences  in  the  secondary  school  may  be  noted : 
(1)  The  influence  of  the  recommendations  of  the  Committee 
of  Seven  is  noticeable  in  the  order  in  which  the  four  "  blocks  " 
of  history  are  studied,  i.e.,  ancient  history  in  the  first  year 
(required  in  seventy-four  per  cent  of  schools  where  any 
history  is  required  in  the  first  year),  mediaeval  and  modern 
European  history  in  the  second  year  (required  in  forty- 
five  per  cent  of  schools  requiring  any  history  in  the  second 
year),  English  history  in  the  third  year  (required  in  thirty- 
seven  per  cent  of  the  schools  where  any  history  is  required 


542      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

in  the  third  year),  and  American  history  in  the  fourth  year 
(required  in  ninety -five  per  cent  of  schools  where  any  history 
is  required  in  the  fourth  year);  (2)  "general  history"  has 
apparently  all  but  disappeared  from  the  program;  (3)  his- 
tory in  some  form  is  required  in  the  first  year  of  38.5  per 
cent  of  the  schools  reporting,  in  the  second  year  of  55.9  per 
cent  of  the  schools,  in  the  third  year  of  43.4  per  cent,  and  in 
the  fourth  year  of  49.4  per  cent;  (4)  it  is  probable  that  civics 
is  prescribed  either  in  connection  with  American  history  or 
as  a  separate  subject  in  more  than  one  half  the  schools 
reporting  and  is  offered  as  an  elective  subject  in  another 
third;  (5)  civics  is  taught  as  a  prescribed  subject  in  the 
fourth  year  of  one  third  of  the  schools  reporting  and  as  an 
elective  subject  in  the  fourth  year  by  about  one  quarter 
or  one  fifth  of  those  schools;  (6)  economics  has  begun  to  find 
a  place  in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school,  commonly 
in  the  fourth  year. 

Current  theory  and  practice  in  the  study  of  civics  deserves 
special  attention  at  the  present  time.  The  Committee  of 
Seven  recommended  that  the  study  of  "  civil  government " 
be  made  a  separate  subject  of  study  in  the  fourth  year  of 
the  high  school  wherever  time  permitted,  and  that  where 
time  did  not  permit  "civil  government"  be  taught  in  con- 
nection with  American  history.  The  latter  method  was 
generally  adopted  and  the  study  of  civics  commonly  was 
restricted  to  constitutional  law  and  the  machinery  of  Na- 
tional and  State  government.  Within  recent  years  consid- 
erable dissatisfaction  has  been  manifest  with  the  tendency 
to  teach  civics  as  an  appendage  to  American  history,  to 
delay  its  study  to  the  last  part  of  the  school  course,  and  to 
restrict  its  content  to  the  larger  affairs  of  National  and 
State  government.  Consequently  a  strong  movement  has 
begun  to  introduce  a  new  kind  of  civics  which  should  be 
studied  earlier  in  the  course  as  a  separate  subject,  which 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  543 

should  find  the  main  points  of  emphasis  in  the  affairs  of 
community  life,  and  have  a  firmer  basis  of  immediate  inter- 
est for  the  pupil.  "Community  civics"  has,  therefore,  re- 
ceived more  and  more  emphasis  in  the  secondary-school 
program  within  the  past  few  years  and  bids  fair  to  establish 
itself.  Its  function  and  character  will  be  considered  in  a 
later  section. 

If  we  compare  the  position  of  the  social  sciences  in  the 
programs  of  the  American  and  European  secondary  schools, 
noteworthy  differences  are  at  once  evident.  Thus  in  the 
French  secondary  school  for  boys  the  study  of  geography 
and  history  (for  the  most  part  combined)  is  found  in  every 
grade,  from  the  infant  class  to  the  philosophical-mathemat- 
ical form,  and  is  required  of  every  pupil  throughout  the 
course,  approximately  one  seventh  of  the  total  time  of  the 
entire  course  being  devoted  to  such  studies  and  approxi- 
mately the  same  proportion  of  time  being  devoted  to  such 
studies  in  the  last  four  grades.  Morals  and  civics  are  taught 
in  connection  with  history  in  the  earlier  grades  and  as  a 
special  subject  one  hour  per  week  in  the  last  two  grades  of 
the  first  cycle. 

In  the  Prussian  higher  schools  for  boys  social  studies  begin 
with  geography  in  the  lower  grades,  that  subject  being  com- 
bined with  history  later.  History  is  begun  with  stories  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  the  mother  tongue,  appearing 
as  a  separate  subject  in  Quarta  (age  about  11),  and  contin- 
uing throughout  the  course  as  a  required  subject  for  all 
pupils.  In  the  entire  course  from  one  eighth  to  one  tenth  of 
the  total  time  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  history  and  geogra- 
phy, that  proportion  holding  also  for  the  last  four  grades 
of  the  course.  Religion  is  required  of  all  pupils  two  or  three 
periods  per  week  throughout  the  course.  This,  of  course, 
functions  in  many  ways  as  a  social  study. 

In  French  and  in  German  education  it  may  be  noted: 


544      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

(1)  that  the  study  of  history  forms  an  important  part  of  the 
secondary -school  program  throughout  the  course;  (2)  that 
the  study  of  history  is  prescribed  for  every  pupil;  (3)  that 
in  Germany  "  religion  "  and  in  France  "  la  morale  "  is  studied 
as  a  separate  subject;  (4)  that  the  social  sciences  given  are 
closely  correlated;  (5)  that  a  large  part  of  the  social  studies 
is  uniform  for  all  secondary-school  pupils. 

233.  Character  and  ultimate  aims.  While  the  several 
social  sciences  differ  in  their  character  and  in  their  specific 
aims  as  studies  in  the  secondary  school,  it  is  worth  while  to 
consider  the  general  character  and  ultimate  aims  of  the 
social  sciences  as  a  unit  before  attempting  the  separate  analy- 
sis of  the  various  subjects  belonging  to  the  general  field. 
In  the  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Social  Studies  of  the 
Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education 
social  studies  are  defined  and  their  aims  set  as  follows:  l 

1 .  Definition  of  the  social  studies.  —  The  social  studies  are  under- 
stood to  be  those  whose  subject  matter  relates  directly  to  the  organ- 
ization and  development  of  human  society,  and  to  man  as  a  mem- 
ber of  social  groups. 

2.  Aims  of  the  social  studies. — The  social  studies  differ  from  other 
studies  by  reason  of  their  social  content  rather  than  in  social  aim; 
for  the  keynote  of  modern  education  is  "social  efficiency,"  and  in- 
struction in  all  subjects  should  contribute  to  this  end.   Yet,  from 
the  nature  of  their  content,  the  social  studies  afford  peculiar  oppor- 
tunities for  the  training  of  the  individual  as  a  member  of  society. 
Whatever  their  value  from  the  point  of  view  of  personal  culture, 
unless  they  contribute  directly  to  the  cultivation  of  social  efficiency 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil  they  fail  in  their  most  important  function. 
They  should  accomplish  this  end  through  the  development  of  an 
appreciation  of  the  nature  and  laws  of  social  life,  a  sense  of  the 
responsibility  of  the  individual  as  a  member  of  social  groups,  and 
the  intelligence  and  the  will  to  participate  effectively  in  the  pro- 
motion of  the  social  well-being. 

1  The  Social  Studies  in  Secondary  Education,  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation, Report  of  the  Committee  on  Social  Studies  of  the  Commission 
on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education,  Bureau  of  Education 
Bulletin  (1916),  no.  28,  p.  9. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  545 

In  this  statement  of  the  committee  a  number  of  important 
facts  are  to  be  noted:  (1)  the  conception  that  all  the  social 
studies  may  be  considered  from  many  points  of  view  as  con- 
stituting a  group  of  studies,  each  differing  more  or  less  from 
every  other,  yet  all  with  important  common  elements  in- 
volving a  common  end  —  the  development  of  social  effici- 
ency; (2)  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  direct  values  of  the 
studies  involved;  (3)  the  specific  ends  to  be  aimed  at  in 
attaining  social  efficiency  are  (a)  knowledge  and  apprecia- 
tion of  the  nature  and  laws  of  social  life,  (6)  the  develop- 
ment of  a  sense  of  responsibility  in  the  individual  as  a 
member  of  social  groups,  (c)  the  development  of  the  in- 
telligence and  habits  which  may  lead  to  effective  participa- 
tion in  social  activities. 

The  recommendations  of  this  committee  noticeably  in- 
volve the  conception  that  the  social  studies  of  the  secondary 
school  should  be  organized  and  taught  with  reference  to  the 
activities  of  modern  life  in  which  the  individual  will  engage. 
This  is  seen  from  the  importance  attached  to  modern  history 
and  from  the  important  position  assigned  to  civics  and 
related  studies.  (Table  CXXXVIII.) 

234.  Values  of  the  study  of  history.  History  as  a  subject 
of  study  in  the  secondary  school  has  passed  through  three 
fairly  definite  stages  and  entered  on  its  fourth  stage.  During 
the  earliest  period  history  was  studied  primarily  as  ancillary 
to  the  study  of  the  classics.  That  stage  was  followed  by  a 
second  period  when  history  was  studied  largely  as  an  in- 
formational subject.  Later  still  history  was  studied  with 
emphasis  on  its  supposed  disciplinary  values.  Finally  his- 
tory is  now  studied  with  particular  emphasis  on  its  sociologi- 
cal values  with  special  reference  to  the  activities  of  present- 
day  life  as  participated  in  by  the  ordinary  man  or  woman. 
The  relative  emphasis  given  in  any  one  period  to  certain 
values  does  not  negate  the  existence  of  other  values.  Hence, 


546      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

TABLE  CXXXVIII* 

Seventh  year: 

(1)  Geography  —  \  year.  J      These  two  courses  may  be  taught 

European  history  —  %  year.  5  in   sequence,    or   parallel   through 

the  year. 
Civics  —  taught  as  a  phase  of  the  above  and  other  subjects,  or 

segregated  in  one  or  two  periods  a  week,  or  both, 
or  (2)  European  history  — •  1  year. 

Geography  —  taught  incidentally  to,  and  as  a  factor  in,   the 

history. 
Civics  —  taught  as  a  phase  of  the  above  and  other  subjects,  or 

segregated  in  one  or  two  periods  a  week,  or  both. 
Eighth  year: 

American  history  — •  §  year.  )        These  two  courses  may  be  taught 
Civics  —  ^  year.  j  in    sequence,    or    parallel   through 

the  year. 
Ninth  year: 

(1)  Civics:  Continuing  the  civics  of  the  preceding  year,  but  with 
more  emphasis  upon  State,  national,  and  world  aspects  — 
5  year. 

Civics:  Economic  and  vocational  aspects — •  |  year. 
History:  Much  use  made  of  history  hi  relation  to  the  topics  of 

the  above  courses, 
or  (2)  Civics  —  economic  and  vocational,  i      1    year,    in    sequence    or 

Economic  History.  )  parallel. 

Tenth  to  twelfth  years: 

I.  European  history  to  approximately  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
—  1  year.  This  would  include  ancient  and  oriental  civilization, 
English  history  to  the  end  of  the  period  mentioned,  and  the 
period  of  American  colonization. 

II.  European  history  (including  English  history)  since  approximately 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  —  1  (or  ^)  year. 

III.  American  history  since  the  seventeenth  century  — •  1  (or  5)  year. 

IV.  Problems  of  American  Democracy  — •  1  (or  £)  year. 

*  Committee  on  Social  Studies,  op.  cit.,  pp,  15,  35. 

before  attempting  any  detailed  analysis  of  the  values  of  the 
study  of  history,  it  is  well  to  make  a  preliminary  classifi- 
cation of  the  various  values  claimed. 

Here,  as  in  the  case  of  many  other  subjects  of  study  we 
may  classify  the  values  claimed  in  two  comprehensive 
groups :  (I)  direct  and  specific  values ;  (II)  indirect  and  gen- 
eral values.  These  comprehensive  groups  of  values  may 
again  be  sub-divided.  Thus  under  the  head  of  direct  and 
specific  values  may  be  considered:  (1)  direct  social-civic 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  547 

values;  (2)  direct  vocational  values;  (3)  direct  avocational 
values;  (4)  direct  propaedeutic  values.  Under  the  head  of 
indirect  and  general  values  may  be  considered:  (1)  values 
of  the  study  of  history  for  the  development  of  certain  general 
social  concepts;  (2)  values  of  the  study  claimed  to  arise  from 
the  training  of  certain  valuable  mental  traits  and  their 
transference  to  non-historical  material.  In  the  following 
sections  will  be  considered  seriatim  : 

I.  Direct  and  specific  values: 

(1)  Direct  social-civic  values; 

(2)  Direct  vocational  values; 

(3)  Direct  avocational  values; 

(4)  Direct  propaedeutic  values. 
II.  Indirect  and  general  values: 

(1)  Conceptual  values; 

(2)  Transfer  values. 

235.  Direct  social-civic  values.  History  must  always  be 
conceived  as  one  of  the  principal  subjects  of  study  operating 
toward  the  attainment  of  the  social-civic  aim  of  secondary 
education.  In  common  with  the  other  social  sciences  it 
deals  directly  with  social  phenomena  as  its  content.  It 
differs  from  the  other  social  studies  (except  as  they  may  as- 
sume an  historical  aspect)  in  that:  (1)  it  deals  with  the 
phenomena  of  human  activity  in  their  actual  processes, 
dynamic  and  genetic;  (2)  its  field  is  more  extensive  and 
permits  the  contact  with  widely  variant  conditions;  (3)  it 
makes  possible  the  understanding  of  existing  conditions 
which  cannot  be  appreciated  except  in  terms  of  the  past; 
(4)  it  allows  opportunity  to  interpret  cause  and  effect  in 
human  action  where  that  relation  cannot  be  seen  except 
with  the  passage  of  time;  (5)  its  study  offers  one  of  the  few 
opportunities  afforded  in  the  secondary  school  to  gain  an 
understanding  of  other  countries  and  other  peoples. 

To  conceive  that  the  direct  social-civic  values  of  history 


548      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

are  to  be  measured  solely  by  the  extent  to  which  one  may 
consciously  employ  certain  facts  or  pieces  of  information 
concerning  an  historical  event  in  solving  a  problem  of  the 
present  is  to  have  a  very  superficial  view  of  the  function  of 
historical  study.  The  direct  application  of  a  knowledge  of 
historical  events  to  present-day  problems  is,  of  course,  a 
very  real  result  of  the  study  of  history.  Much  more  impor- 
tant, however,  than  acquired  knowledges  in  the  field  of  history 
are  the  less  tangible  but  none  the  less  real  attitudes  developed 
through  the  study  of  that  subject.  One  may  have  but  the 
haziest  remembrance  of  facts  concerning  the  development 
of  the  American  democracy  after  a  study  of  American  his- 
tory, but  one  cannot  help  having  a  changed  attitude  as  the 
result  of  such  study.  The  secondary-school  pupil  may  for- 
get every  date  and  name  in  English  history  after  a  year's 
study,  but  he  can  never  again  have  the  same  attitude  toward 
the  English  nation  or  any  other  nation  that  he  had  before 
he  studied  that  subject.  No  greater  mistake  could  be  made 
in  estimating  the  direct  values  of  the  study  of  history  than 
to  assume  that  such  values  are  to  be  measured  solely  by  the 
specific  application  to  modern  life  of  the  knowledges  acquired 
in  such  study. 

For  convenience  we  may  consider  the  direct  social-civic 
values  of  the  study  of  history  (1)  with  reference  to  the  more 
personal  activities  of  the  individual,  (2)  with  reference  to 
those  activities  of  the  individual  which  more  directly  affect 
united  social  action,  and  (3)  with  reference  to  social  inte- 
gration. 

(1 )  The  personal  conduct  of  the  individual :  The  individual 's 
character  and  conduct  is  determined  in  part  by  the  forces 
of  heredity  and  in  part  by  his  experiences  in  his  environ- 
ment. By  far  the  most  important  part  of  his  environment 
(from  the  viewpoint  of  formal  education)  is  his  social  envi- 
ronment. The  individual  is  affected,  however,  by  those 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  549 

parts  only  of  his  environment  with  which  his  experiences 
bring  him  into  contact.  His  direct  experiences  must  per- 
force be  greatly  limited:  his  indirect  and  vicarious  expe- 
riences are  limited  only  by  the  experiences  of  man  and  the 
possibility  of  representing  them  to  the  individual's  mind. 
Such  vicarious  experiences  may  be  afforded  through  the 
action  of  literature  or  the  faithful  re-presentation  of  history 
and  biography.  The  study  of  history,  therefore,  by  enlarg- 
ing the  field  of  individual  experience  may  contribute  to  the 
character  and  conduct  of  the  individual.  That  contribution 
may  take  the  direction  of  stimulating  ambition  and  ten- 
dencies to  act  along  certain  general  lines  or  it  may  take  the 
direction  of  moral  education.  True  it  is  that  the  events  of 
history  illustrate  human  action  indiscriminately  moral  or 
immoral.  True  it  is  also  that  the  teaching  of  history  cannot 
be  organized  solely  or  even  primarily  for  purposes  of  moral 
education.  It  is  even  true  that  in  some  cases  where  the 
ethical  values  of  the  study  of  history  have  been  emphasized 
the  results  have  been  unsatisfactory:  e.g.,  the  development 
of  a  patriotism  which  is  vainglorious  and  unfair  to  other 
nations.  Nevertheless,  it  must  be  recognized  that  there  is  a 
fundamental  truth  expressed  by  the  aphorism  of  Terence: 
"Homo  sum;  humani  nihil  a  me  alienum  puto";  and  that 
the  moral  training  which  may  be  secured  from  the  study  of 
history  has  all  the  advantages  and  all  the  disadvantages 
which  are  to  be  found  in  moral  training  secured  from  the 
study  of  human  experiences  in  any  field.  Whether  or  not 
the  study  of  history  leads  to  the  improvement  of  character 
is  dependent  on  the  method  of  such  study  and  the  teaching 
afforded.  The  essential  fact  is  that  history  affords  plentiful 
material  for  such  teaching,  far  transcending  the  amount  of 
material  which  can  be  found  in  the  immediate  experience 
of  the  individual. 

It  was  suggested  above  that  the  attitudes  (ideals,  ambi- 


550      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

tions,  tendencies  to  act)  developed  through  the  study  of  his- 
tory are  probably  more  important  than  the  specific  knowl- 
edges acquired  through  such  study.  For  the  personal  char- 
acter and  conduct  of  the  individual  the  study  of  history  is 
valuable  for  the  stimulation  of  laudable  ambitions,  of  ideals 
of  character,  standards  of  conduct,  even  certain  forms  of 
"hero-worship,"  which  may  be  guiding  forces  in  the  life  of 
the  individual.  Hence  the  special  value  of  biography  as  a 
part  of  history  and  the  desirability  of  some  emphasis  on  the 
personal  conduct  and  character  of  truly  noble  men  and 
women. 

(2)  The  individual's  participation  in  social-group  activi- 
ties :  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  major  activities  of  soci- 
ety are  carried  on  through  social  institutions  (the  State,  the 
home,  the  Church,  the  vocation,  the  school).  An  under- 
standing of  such  institutions,  the  interpretation  of  their 
ideals,  their  interrelations,  their  functions  in  modern  society, 
cannot  be  gained  without  some  acquaintance  with  the  na- 
ture of  their  development.  Here  again  the  values  of  the 
study  of  such  institutions  and  their  interrelations  are  not 
to  be  measured  solely,  or  even  mainly,  by  the  extent  to  which 
the  individual  may  consciously  apply  some  bits  of  historical 
knowledge.  Far  more  important  are  the  attitudes  toward 
social-group  activities  developed  through  the  study  of  his- 
tory and  the  unconscious  tendencies  to  act  in  such  activ- 
ities. 

It  is  only  when  one  thinks  of  the  direct  social-civic  values 
of  the  study  of  history  in  terms  of  the  applicability  of  pieces 
of  historical  information  only  and  loses  sight  of  the  influence 
of  historical  study  in  developing  social  ideals,  social  stand- 
ards, attitudes,  and  tendencies  to  act  that  one  is  tempted  to 
minimize  the  social-civic  values  of  the  study.  Likewise,  it 
is  only  when  the  teaching  of  history  develops  merely  histori- 
cal information  and  fails  to  develop  ideals,  attitudes,  and 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  551 

tendencies  to  act,  that  history  in  the  secondary  school  fails 
to  achieve  its  most  important  direct  values. 

(3}  Integrating  values  of  the  study  of  history:  The  study  of 
history  must  always  be  one  of  the  important  means  em- 
ployed by  the  secondary  school  to  develop  the  common 
knowledges,  ideals,  standards,  traditions,  modes  of  thought 
and  action,  essential  for  social  solidarity.  The  importance 
of  the  integrating  function  of  secondary  education  has  been 
emphasized  in  prior  chapters.  To  the  end  of  social  integra- 
tion all  the  social  sciences  may  contribute  much.  History 
here  possesses  peculiar  advantages,  dealing  as  it  does  with 
conditions  which  have  determined  the  society  in  which  we 
live  and  bringing  to  consciousness  the  common  activities, 
traditions,  ideals  of  humanity  and  of  one's  own  society. 
Frequently  the  conception  of  the  integrating  value  of  the 
study  of  history  has  manifested  itself  in  connection  with 
the  development  of  patriotism  only.  Such  a  conception  is 
very  narrow  —  narrow  not  only  in  the  sense  that  it  has  fre- 
quently emphasized  a  false  type  of  patriotism,  but  also  in 
the  sense  that  it  loses  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  existence 
of  a  certain  degree  of  social-mindedness  is  more  essential 
than  loyalty.  This  is,  of  course,  particularly  important  in 
the  American  democracy.  If  the  study  of  history  fails 
to  aid  the  development  of  that  unity  of  sentiment,  ideals, 
thought,  and  action,  which  is  essential  for  the  endurance 
and  development  of  democracy,  it  fails  to  achieve  one  of 
its  most  important  ends. 

236.  Direct  vocational  values  claimed.  Direct  vocational 
values  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  history  for  those 
destined  to  become  teachers  of  history  and  certain  other 
subjects,  for  those  destined  to  enter  the  field  of  diplomacy, 
and  for  a  few  others  are  readily  perceived.  Such  values, 
however,  must  be  considered  limited  and  highly  contingent. 
Far  less  contingent  and  far  more  general  must  be  considered 


552      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

those  direct  vocational  values  which  may  be  derived  from 
acquaintance  with  the  development  of  commerce  and  in- 
dustry, the  part  played  by  economics  in  social  development, 
the  historical  relation  of  the  various  forms  of  industry,  the 
changing  relations  of  labor  and  capital,  etc.  Here  again  the 
development  of  attitudes  and  tendencies  to  act  must  be  con- 
ceived as  far  more  important  than  the  accumulation  of  in- 
formation. As  one  of  the  major  social  institutions  the  voca- 
tion has  important  historical  associations  acquaintance  with 
which  may  contribute  much  to  vocational  efficiency  in  its 
broader  aspects.  Hence  the  importance  sometimes  attached 
to  the  study  of  industrial  history  or  commercial  history  in 
certain  courses  of  the  secondary  school.  The  more  history 
includes  a  study  of  economic  and  industrial  factors  in  the 
development  of  civilization  —  a  marked  tendency  at  the 
present  time  —  the  more  the  study  of  history  may  contrib- 
ute to  direct  vocational  values  in  the  secondary  school. 

237.  Direct  avocational  values.    History,  as  every  other 
study  in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school,  may  establish 
the  basis  of  a  perpetual  enjoyment  in  moments  of  leisure. 
Here,  however,  history  can  claim  little  that  any  other  sub- 
ject which  may  arouse  a  special  interest  cannot  claim,  except, 
possibly,  where  history  encroaches  on  the  field  of  literature 
in  the  borderland  of  mythology,  biography,  and  pseudo- 
historical  material. 

238.  Direct  propaedeutic  values.    In  many  ways    the 
study  of  history  may  be  considered  as  a  basic  study  for  the 
study  of  several  other  subjects,  so  much  so  that  whole 
schemes  of  education  have  been  built  up  on  the  culture- 
epoch  theory  with  history  as  its  base.1    Certainly  we  must 
recognize  the  fact  that  the  humanitarian  studies,  such  as 
the  social    studies,  literature,  ethics,  philosophy,  and  the 
rest,  cannot  be  properly  pursued  without  some  basic  his- 

1  Cf.  DeGarmo,  C.,  Herbart  and  lite  Ilerbartians,  pp.  107-29. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  553 

torical  knowledge  and  understanding.  Direct  and  indirect 
propaedeutic  values  are,  therefore,  to  be  found  in  the  study 
of  history.  To  conceive  that  such  values  are  valid  for  those 
only  who  pursue  higher  studies  in  college  or  the  university 
is  to  assume  that  contact  with  the  problems  and  materials 
of  those  studies  must  be  limited  to  college  and  university 
experience.  Propaedeutic  values  of  the  study  of  history  are, 
of  course,  as  important  for  those  not  going  to  college  or  the 
university  as  for  those  who  do  —  possibly  even  more  so, 
since  formal  education  in  those  fields  is  lacking  for  the 
former. 

239.  Conceptual  values  claimed.  The  point  was  made 
above  that  the  chief  values  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of 
history  involved  the  development  of  attitudes  and  tenden- 
cies to  act  on  the  part  of  the  individual.  This  point  was 
made  in  special  connection  with  direct  values.  Much  the 
same  point  may  be  emphasized  in  connection  with  certain 
more  comprehensive  and  more  fundamental  factors  which 
involve  the  conscious  or  unconscious  functioning  of  general 
social  concepts  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  history. 
Among  such  fundamental  concepts  may  be  emphasized 
those  involving  the  continuity  and  unity  of  human  experi- 
ence and  of  civilization,  human  activity  and  social  organi- 
zation as  dynamic  and  evolutionary,  the  dependence  of  the 
present  on  the  past  and  the  responsibility  of  the  present  for 
the  future,  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  society  and  its 
development.1  It  is  idle  to  say  that  such  concepts  are  not 
always  developed  from  the  study  of  history.  The  important 
point  is  that  they  cannot  be  developed  without  some  ac- 
quaintance with  history.  It  is  idle  also  to  say  that  such  con- 
cepts do  not  function  directly  in  the  activities  of  the  indi- 
vidual. By  their  very  nature  such  general  concepts  cannot 

1  Cf.  Allen,  J.  W.,  The  Place  of  History  in  Education,  chap,  x;  Johnson. 
H.,  The  Teaching  of  History,  pp.  74  ff. 


6'54      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

be  analyzed  as  to  their  influence  on  specific  actions,  but, 
since  they  must  represent  an  important  part  of  one's  social 
philosophy,  they  must  function  in  every  social  act  of  the 
individual.  Though  they  may  function  in  a  fashion  which 
may  be  considered  indirect,  their  functioning  is  none  the 
less  real  —  perhaps  more  real  even  than  the  functioning  of 
supposedly  specific  and  direct  values. 

240.  Transfer  values  claimed.  As  for  most  subjects  of 
study  in  the  secondary-school  program  extensive  transfer 
values  are  commonly  claimed  for  the  study  of  history.  Thus 
Salmon: l 

Moreover,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  history,  like  many  other 
subjects,  is  in  the  curriculum  for  a  double  object  —  for  the  direct 
information  that  it  gives  and  for  its  help  in  mental  training. 

And  Chase:  2 

Memory  is  the  most  wonderful  and  important  of  our  intellectual 
faculties,  and  all  that  tends  to  strengthen  and  develop  it  is  of  the 
highest  importance.  History  is  foremost  among  the  studies  that 
do  this,  for  in  its  very  nature  it  is  a  memory  study,  and  memory 
gains  facility  by  practice. 

Or  Hinsdale : 3 

While  slight  attention  suffices  to  show  that  history  has  disci- 
plinary values,  some  well-directed  thought  is  required  to  discover 
how  great  and  varied  this  value  is. 

Taught  even  in  the  poorest  way  —  that  is,  by  dint  of  iterating 
and  reiterating  unorganized  facts  —  it  trains  the  memory;  taught 
philosophically  —  that  is,  care  being  taken  wisely  to  choose  and 
properly  to  organize  the  facts  —  it  yields  to  no  other  subject  in 
mnemonic  value. 

All  that  has  been  urged  concerning  the  memory  will  be  admitted. 

1  Salmon,  L.,  "Some  Principles  in  the  Teaching  of   History,"  First 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific  Study  of  Education,  p.  32. 

2  Chase,  W.  J.,  on  p.  289  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High-School 
Education. 

3  Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  How  to  Study  and  Teach  History,  pp.  7-8. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  555 

But  that  history  is  an  equally  important  valuable  discipline  of  the 
imagination  has  not  been  as  generally  perceived. 

But  history  does  far  more  for  the  mind  than  merely  to  exercise 
the  powers  of  representation;  it  is  also  a  valuable  discipline  of  the 
thinking  faculties. 

Modern  psychology  denies  the  existence  of  such  general 
faculties  or  powers  as  Hinsdale  assumes  may  be  so  readily 
trained  through  the  study  of  history.  As  was  pointed  out, 
however,  in  discussing  the  problems  of  transfer  values,  the 
denial  of  the  obsolete  "  faculty  psychology  "  does  not  of 
itself  negate  the  possibility  of  the  transfer  of  improved  ef- 
ficiency, but  demands  a  reconstruction  and  reinterpretation 
of  "  discipline  "  in  terms  of  accepted  psychological  theory. 
Such  a  reinterpretation  was  attempted  in  Chapter  XI  and 
in  its  general  form  need  not  be  reconsidered  here.  Accord- 
ingly as  one  accepts  or  rejects  the  possibility  of  appreciable 
amounts  of  transfer  he  may  estimate  the  transfer  values  of 
the  study  of  history.  One  very  important  fact,  however,  is 
apparently  neglected  by  proponents  and  opponents  of  the 
study  of  history.  The  problems  of  transfer  in  the  case  of 
history  are  in  important  respects  different  from  the  prob- 
lems of  transfer  in  the  case  of  most  school  studies,  if,  indeed, 
the  problems  supposed  to  involve  transfer  do  really  involve 
it.  In  the  case  of  most  studies  for  which  transfer  values  are 
claimed  or  denied  the  problem  involves  the  application  of 
improved  efficiency  acquired  in  connection  with  content  of 
one  kind  to  content  of  a  widely  different  character;  e.g., 
the  transfer  of  improved  efficiency  acquired  in  connection 
with  mathematical  material  to  non-mathematical  material. 
In  the  case  of  history,  however,  there  is  a  vast  field  for 
the  application  of  improved  efficiency  gained  in  connection 
with  specific  social  data  studied  to  other  social  data  not 
studied.  In  other  words  the  improved  efficiency  is  to  be 
employed  in  connection  with  content  and  situations  of  the 


556      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

same  or  relatively  similar  character.  This  is  doubtless  a 
case  of  transfer,  but  surely  transfer  of  a  far  different  kind 
from  transfer  as  commonly  considered  in  relation  to  most 
subjects  of  study  in  the  school. 

241.  Factors  conditioning  the  values  of  history.  Great 
as  are  the  values  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  history  it 
must  be  recognized  that  the  subject  suffers  important  limi- 
tations. Among  those  limitations  the  ones  considered  below 
are  worthy  of  special  attention. 

(1)  Subjects  of  study  differ  widely  in  the  extent  to  which 
their  materials  lend  themselves  to  ready  manipulation  for 
purposes  of  instruction  and  learning.  This  factor  has  been 
emphasized  by  Keatinge: x 

Those  who  write  at  large  on  Education  seldom  realize  that  the 
branches  of  knowledge  commonly  taught  in  schools  vary  greatly 
in  the  ease  with  which  they  lend  themselves  to  manipulation.  .  .  . 

What  are  the  elements  necessary  in  a  subject  which  is  to  lend 
itself  to  manipulation?  It  is  easy  to  sketch  in  the  qualifications. 
In  the  main  they  are  four  in  number.  The  apparatus  must  be 
inexpensive  and  readily  procured;  it  must  be  easy  to  see  what  is 
the  teacher's  work  on  the  one  hand  and  the  boy's  work  on  the  other; 
there  must  be  a  facility  for  setting  home  work  that  shall  be  different 
in  kind  from  the  work  done  in  class,  and  these  exercises  must  be 
fairly  mechanical  (for  too  much  refined  judgment  must  not  be 
expected  from  the  average  boy);  it  must  be  possible  to  attain  to 
some  generalizations,  abstractions,  or  rules  which  can  be  applied 
to  fresh  matter.  Indeed  it  is  upon  the  presence  of  this  latter  ele- 
ment that  most  of  the  others  depend. 

The  older  subjects  fulfill  these  conditions  well.  .  .  . 

When  we  turn  to  history  we  find  the  conditions  very  badly  ful- 
filled. It  is  difficult  to  devise  preparation  for  the  boy  other  than 
the  learning  from  a  text-book  of  the  facts  of  the  lesson  that  is  to  be 
given  or  the  revising  of  the  facts  of  a  lesson  that  has  been  given. 
In  school  work  it  is  not  always  possible  to  arrive  at  historical 
generalizations  and  apply  them  to  fresh  matter. 

1  Keating,  M.  W.,  Studies  in  the  Teaching  of  History,  pp.  1-3,  38  ff. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  557 

The  nub  of  the  problem  is  to  be  found,  of  course,  in  the 
difficulty  of  so  manipulating  the  materials  of  history  as  to 
throw  them  into  problem  form  without  which  reflective 
thinking  cannot  be  encouraged  or  fostered,  and  to  arrange 
the  teaching  materials  of  history  in  such  form  as  may  foster 
the  process  of  dissociation.1  It  is  obvious  that,  if  the  prin- 
ciples of  social  action  which  it  is  desired  that  the  study  of 
history  should  develop  are  actually  to  be  developed,  some 
means  must  be  provided  for  the  abstraction  of  those  general 
principles  from  the  historical  situations  presented.  Now  it 
is  necessary  for  favorable  conditions  of  such  generalization 
that  a  number  of  situations  be  presented  which  are  analo- 
gous but  which  differ  in  all  other  respects  other  than  the 
general  principle  which  it  is  desired  to  dissociate.  The 
chronological  character  of  history  precludes  any  very  effec- 
tive use  of  this  method.  For  this  reason  some  have  suggested 
the  abandonment  of  the  chronological  order  in  dealing 
with  historical  material  and  the  adoption  of  some  method 
which  may  make  possible  comparison  and  abstraction.  Thus 
Seeley: 2 

We  still  arrange  historic  phenomena  under  periods,  centuries, 
reigns,  dynasties,  but  what  is  wanted  is  a  real  rather  than  a  tem- 
poral classification.  The  phenomena  should  be  classified  under 
such  headings  as  Constitutional,  International,  Economical, 
Industrial,  etc.  Nor  should  each  state  be  studied  by  itself,  but 
all  states  together,  the  comparative  method  being  constantly 
employed,  and  much  attention  being  given  to  the  classification  of 
states.  ...  In  short  science  brings  together  phenomena  of  the 
same  kind,  but  history  brings  together  phenomena  of  different 
kinds,  which  have  chanced  to  appear  at  the  same  time. 

Such  a  conception  of  the  teaching  of  history  may  be 
opposed  by  the  statement  that  it  is  no  longer  history  which 

1  Cf.  sections  169jf. 

1  Seeley,  J.  B.,  Methods  of  Teaching  History,  Pedagogical  Library,  vol.  I, 
p.  198. 


558      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

is  being  studied.  Be  it  so!  The  answer  to  such  an  objec- 
tion is  that  the  character  of  the  study  of  "  history  "  in  the 
secondary  school  is  to  be  determined  by  the  aim  which 
emphasizes  the  phenomena  of  human  action  regardless  of 
chronology.  In  so  far  as  chronology  may  assist  in  the  attain- 
ment of  that  aim  it  is  justified.  In  so  far  as  it  fails  it  must 
be  abandoned  for  the  sake  of  greater  values.  In  any  event 
the  limitations  of  history  must  be  recognized.1 

(2)  History  is  not  an  exact  science  and  can  never  become 
an  exact  science  —  if,  in  fact,  it  may  properly  be  denomi- 
nated a  science  at  all.  The  importance  of  this  factor  arises 
not  so  much  from  the  fact  that  specific  reactions  on  the  part 
of  the  individual  cannot  be  exactly  determined  (a  fact 
which  has  its  advantages  as  well  as  its  disadvantages),  but 
that  the  study  of  history  may  always  be  colored  by  the 
teacher  or  textbook  and  have  widely  different  results  for 
different  pupils  who  have  studied  the  subject.    The  facts 
of  history  are  of  course  certain:  our  knowledge  of  them  is, 
however,  not  always  correct,  and  interpretations  of  them  are 
sometimes  widely  divergent.    Two  dangers,  therefore,  are 
always  present,  one  that  the  pupil  may  have  only  an  ex 
parte  opinion  on  some  social  problems,  the  other  that,  on 
finding  disagreement  among  authorities,  he  may  be  discour- 
aged in  his  attempt  to  arrive  at  the  truth.    These  dangers 
are  always  to  be  guarded  against. 

(3)  It  takes  generations  to  establish  a  body  of  theory  and 
practice  around  the  teaching  of  any  subject  of  study  which 
may  be  considered  relatively  stable  and  efficient.    In  the 
development  of  the  study  of  history  in  the  American  second- 
ary school  there  has  been  manifest  a  failure  as  yet  to  estab- 
lish any  body  of  theory  and  practice  which  approaches  even 

1  On  the  problem-solving  methods  of  teaching  history  see  Parker,  S.  C., 
Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,  pp.  174  jf.;  Keatinge,  M.  W.,  op.  cit., 
pp.  SB/. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  559 

desirable  amounts  of  uniformity  and  stability.  Textbooks 
vary  widely,  the  contents  of  courses  are  greatly  dissimilar 
and  the  treatment  different  in  many  schools  where  any 
attempt  is  made  to  do  more  than  teach  a  certain  number 
of  facts.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  actual  values  accru- 
ing from  the  study  of  history  in  the  secondary  school  where 
such  varying  conditions  are  found. 

(4)  Since  the  values  aimed  at  in  the  study  of  history  are 
in  part  general  and  in  all  cases  somewhat  intangible  it  must 
always  be  difficult  to  measure  the  results  achieved.  This  is, 
to  be  sure,  true  of  most  subjects  of  study,  but  particularly 
true  of  those  studies  whose  principal  values  are  to  be  found 
in  the  development  of  character  —  moral  and  social  —  of 
the  individual.  Certain  results  of  teaching  in  mathematics, 
in  the  natural  sciences,  and  in  language  study  may  readily 
be  estimated  and  checked  from  time  to  time.  In  the  case 
of  history  little  can  be  done  in  that  direction  except  as  far  as 
the  accumulation  of  historical  information  is  concerned. 

242.  Meaning  and  scope  of  civics.  The  study  of  civics 
in  the  secondary  school  had  its  beginning  in  the  study  of  the 
federal  constitution,  various  State  constitutions,  and  in  a 
few  cases  of  such  material  as  city  charters,  in  the  early  high 
school.  Thus  at  least  as  early  as  1828  Stanbury's  Catechism 
on  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  was  studied  in  the 
English  High  School  of  Boston,  and  in  Salem  the  English 
High  School  course  of  1842  included  the  study  of  "  the  City 
Charter,  Constitution  of  Massachusetts,  and  .  .  .  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States."  From  the  beginning,  there- 
fore, the  study  of  "  civics  "  meant  the  rather  formal  (fre- 
quently catechetical)  study  of  the  machinery  of  State  and 
National  government,  thus  justifying  the  term  "civil 
government."  l  Throughout  the  nineteenth  century  the 
study  of  civics  included  little  else  than  this. 

1  For  example,  see  Sullivan's  Political  Classbook,  or  Bayard  On  the  Con- 
stitution, two  books  in  common  use  in  the  earlier  high  school. 


560      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Within  the  past  decade  or  so  the  feeling  has  been  growing 
stronger  and  stronger  that  the  study  of  the  machinery  of 
the  National  Government,  valuable  though  it  may  be  made, 
is  far  from  adequate  for  the  purpose  of  training  citizens. 
Present-day  theory  tends  to  enlarge  the  meaning  and  scope 
of  the  study  of  civics  in  such  a  way  as  to  involve:  (1)  empha- 
sis on  the  commoner  elements  of  social  and  civic  activity 
in  community  life;  (2)  emphasis  on  the  importance  of 
developing  tendencies  to  act  and  attitudes  toward  social 
welfare  rather  than  on  mere  knowledge  of  the  machinery  of 
government;  (3)  the  extension  of  the  field  of  civics  so  as  to 
include  the  informal  activities  of  social-civic  life  as  well  as 
the  more  formal  political  activities;  (4)  the  "vitalizatiori" 
of  civics  by  emphasizing  in  the  beginning  those  forms  of 
social-civic  activity  with  which  the  secondary-school  pupil 
is  brought  into  intimate  and  immediate  contact. 

243.  The  aims  and  values  of  civics.  The  values  of  the 
study  of  civics  are  to  be  interpreted  in  terms  of  its  contribu- 
tions to  the  social-civic  aim  of  secondary  education  prima- 
rily. Here  are  involved:  (1)  the  attainment  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil  of  a  knowledge  of  social-civic  relations  and  insti- 
tutions, their  character,  and  place  in  social  organization; 
(2)  the  development  in  the  pupil  of  a  sense  of  social-civic 
responsibility;  (3)  the  development  in  the  pupil  of  attitudes 
and  tendencies  to  act  in  conformance  with  desirable  ideals 
of  social-civic  activity.  The  mere  attainment  of  a  knowledge 
of  our  social-civic  organization  or  even  the  development  in 
the  pupil  of  a  sense  of  civic  responsibility  and  ideals  of  civic 
conduct  is  not  sufficient.  Unless  such  knowledge,  such  a 
sense  of  social  responsibility,  such  civic  ideals,  are  trans- 
lated into  forms  of  behavior  and  result  in  proper  civic  action, 
the  values  of  the  study  of  civics  cannot  be  attained.  Here, 
more  than  in  the  case  of  most  studies  in  the  secondary 
school,  direct  values  are  dominant  and  no  accumulation  of 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  561 

information  concerning  the  functions  of  government  or  the 
relation  of  the  individual  to  government  can  take  the  place 
of  the  development  of  social  attitudes  and  tendencies  to  act. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  the  aims  of  the  study  of  civics  are 
frequently  stated  in  terms  of  knowledge  and  that  the  teach- 
ing of  civics  so  frequently  results  only  in  the  inculcation 
of  civic  information.  Thus  the  Committee  on  the  Teaching 
of  Government  of  the  American  Political  Science  Associa- 
tion unfortunately  puts  the  cart  before  the  horse  in  its 
statement  of  the  aims  of  civic  instruction : l 

The  prime  purposes  of  a  study  of  civic  relations  are  so  obvious 
as  to  require  little  in  the  way  of  discussion.  They  may  be  summa- 
rized thus: 

1.  To  awaken  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  the  citizen  is  in  a 
social  .environment  whose  laws  bind  him  for  his  own  good. 

2.  To  acquaint  the  citizen  with  the  forms  of  organization  and 
methods  of  administration  of  government  in  its  several  depart- 
ments. 

These  objects  it  is  believed  can  be  better  attained  if  the  school 
begins  to  aid  the  young  citizen  not  only  to  think  in  terms  of  society 
but  also  to  translate  civic  thought  into  action. 

That  the  study  of  civics  in  the  past  has  tended  to  result 
in  information  rather  than  in  behavior  is  due  in  large  part 
to  the  fact  that  civics  has  commonly  been  taught  as  a  study 
of  the  broader  functions  of  National  and  State  government 
and  has  seldom  touched  the  commoner  activities  of  indi- 
viduals in  community  life  wherein  the  actual  behavior 
of  pupil-citizens  in  civic  affairs  can  be  directly  affected. 
Modern  civics  by  dealing  first  with  the  civic  activities 
which  intimately  touch  the  young  citizen  even  as  a  pupil 
in  the  school  affords  greater  opportunity  to  develop  actual 
habits  of  behavior  in  civic  affairs.  This  is  one  of  the  prime 
advantages  of  "community  civics." 

1  American  Political  Science  Association,  Committee  on  the  Teaching 
of  Government,  Report,  p.  27. 


562      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

244.  The  scope  and  function  of  "  community  civics." 
Civics  as  heretofore  presented  in  the  American  secondary 
school  has  proved  comparatively  fruitless  for  a  number  of 
reasons:  (1)  because  it  has  been  taught  as  an  abstract  science 
of  government;  (2)  because  it  has  been  limited  to  the  larger 
aspects  of  National  and  State  government;  (3)  because  it 
has  been  taught  commonly  in  the  last  grade  of  the  secondary 
school  after  the  majority  of  pupils  have  left  school;  (4)  be- 
cause it  has  neglected  to  train  pupil-citizens  in  their  imme- 
diate community  responsibilities,  both  formal  and  informal. 
Community  civics  is  designed  to  remedy  those  defects. 

Community  civics  takes  its  name,  not  from  any  restric- 
tion of  its  scope  to  the  smaller  community,  —  village,  town, 
or  city,  —  but  from  the  fact  that  the  social  environment  of 
the  pupil  is  conceived  as  opened  up  to  him  through  a  series 
of  successively  enlarged  communities  or  spheres  of  civic 
life  —  family,  neighborhood,  town,  county,  State,  Nation, 
Humanity  —  and  that  the  series  of  his  social-civic  contacts 
or  experiences  begins  with  the  smaller  unit. 

The  aims  of  community  civics  are  the  same  as  those  men- 
tioned above.  They  may  be  stated  specifically  in  the  terms 
of  the  Committee  on  Social  Studies  of  the  Commission  on 
the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education :  x 

(a)  Significance  of  the  term  "  community."  Community  civics  lays 
emphasis  upon  the  local  community  because  (1)  it  is  the  com- 
munity with  which  every  citizen,  especially  the  child,  comes  into 
most  intimate  relations,  and  which  is  always  in  the  foreground  of 
experience;  (2)  it  is  easier  for  the  child,  as  for  any  citizen,  to  realize 
his  membership  in  the  local  community,  to  feel  a  sense  of  personal 
responsibility  for  it,  and  to  enter,  into  actual  cooperation  with  it, 
than  is  the  case  with  the  National  community. 

1  The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1915), 
no.  23,  pp.  11-12.  The  quotation  given  was  taken  from  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  on  Social  Studies  of  the  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Sec- 
ondary Education,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1916),  no.  28,  pp.  22-23. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  563 

But  our  Nation  and  our  State  are  communities,  as  well  as  our 
city  or  village,  and  a  child  is  a  citizen  of  the  larger  as  of  the  smaller 
community.  The  significance  of  the  term  "community  civics" 
does  not  lie  in  its  geographical  implications,  but  in  its  implications 
of  community  relations,  of  a  community  of  interests.  ...  It  is  a 
question  of  point  of  view,  and  community  civics  applies  this  point 
of  view  to  the  study  of  the  National  community  as  well  as  to  the 
study  of  the  local  community. 

(b)  Aims  of  community  civics.  The  aim  of  community  civics  is 
to  help  the  child  to  know  his  community  — •  not  merely  a  lot  of 
facts  about  it,  but  the  meaning  of  his  community  life,  what  it  does 
for  him,  and  how  it  does  it,  what  the  community  has  a  right  to 
expect  from  him,  and  how  he  may  fulfill  his  obligation,  meanwhile 
cultivating  in  him  the  essential  qualities  and  habits  of  good  citi- 
zenship. 

More  specifically  this  aim  is  analyzed  as  follows: 

To  accomplish  its  part  in  training  for  citizenship,  community 
civics  should  aim  primarily  to  lead  the  pupil  (1)  to  see  the  impor- 
tance and  significance  of  the  elements  of  community  welfare  in 
their  relations  to  himself  and  to  the  communities  of  which  he  is  a 
member;  (2)  to  know  the  social  agencies,  governmental  and  volun- 
tary, that  exist  to  secure  these  elements  of  community  welfare; 
(3)  to  recognize  his  civic  obligations,  present  and  future,  and  to 
respond  to  them  by  appropriate  action. 

Civics,  conceived  from  this  viewpoint,  should  prove  a 
much  more  efficacious  instrument  of  education  in  the  sec- 
ondary school  than  the  civics  which  has  hitherto  been  taught 
as  an  appendage  to  history.  It  should  be  clear  that  the  val- 
ues of  such  a  study  are  universal  and  direct.  It  is  imperative 
therefore,  that  community  civics  should  be  studied  by  everj 
pupil  in  the  secondary  school.  It  should  be  clear  also  that 
if  the  study  is  to  produce  its  greatest  values  it  should  not 
be  relegated  to  the  later  grades  of  the  school  but  should  be 
a  prominent  study  in  the  junior  high  school  before  pupils 
begin  to  leave  school  in  large  numbers. 

245.  Economics  as  a  study  in  the  program.  The  study 
of  economics  early  found  some  place  in  the  program  of  the 


564      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

public  secondary  school.  Thus  "  political  philosophy  "  was 
prescribed  for  study  in  the  English  Classical  (High)  School 
of  Boston  in  1821  and  in  Massachusetts  "  political  economy  " 
was  required  by  law  to  be  taught  in  all  larger  high  schools 
from  1857  to  1898.  Despite  its  early  beginning,  however, 
economics  has  always  occupied  a  precarious  position  in  the 
program  of  the  secondary  school.  When  taught  it  was 
almost  invariably  presented  in  the  form  of  a  logically  organ- 
ized science  little  suited  to  the  needs  and  capacities  of  most 
high-school  pupils.  Only  within  the  past  few  years  has  any 
attempt  been  made  to  organize  and  teach  economic  princi- 
ples in  the  secondary  school  in  a  manner  at  all  adapted  to 
the  maturity  and  capacity  of  the  pupils. 

It  is  clear  that  the  activities  of  modern  industrial  and 
social  life  in  America  call  for  some  acquaintance  with  the 
common  and  fundamental  principles  of  economics  on  the 
part  of  every  individual.  It  is  clear  also  that  the  average 
man  or  woman  at  present  is  lamentably  ignorant  of  the 
simplest  laws  of  economics  which  play  such  an  important 
part  in  our  social  organization.  Some  provision  must  be 
made  to  meet  the  apparent  need.  Some  of  the  necessary 
economic  knowledges  can  be  secured  incidentally  through 
the  study  of  geography,  history,  civics,  and  other  subjects 
in  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools.  Incidental  study 
of  that  sort  is,  however,  insufficient.  The  fact  must  be 
faced  that  large  numbers  of  boys  and  girls  are  constantly 
going  forth  from  the  school  into  the  world  of  industry  where 
they  must  deal  with  problems  social  and  industrial  which 
call  for  a  working  knowledge  of  common  economic  princi- 
ples. The  growing  social  and  political  importance  of  eco- 
nomic problems,  the  increasing  complexity  of  governmental- 
industrial  relations,  the  changing  relations  of  capital  and 
labor,  of  employee  and  employer,  the  development  of  labor 
organizations,  emphasize  the  need  for  such  instruction  at 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  565 

the  present  time.  Unless  we  are  to  trust  to  the  influence  of 
demagogues  and  exploiters  of  industry  some  provision  must 
be  made  in  the  school  for  this  imminent  need. 

Common  practice  relegates  all  direct  instruction  in  eco- 
nomics to  the  college  or  other  higher  institution.  Doubtless 
the  more  mature  the  student  the  more  readily  he  may  un- 
derstand the  principles  of  economics  and  the  more  compre- 
hensive may  be  his  grasp  of  that  science.  Hence  it  is  com- 
monly urged  that  secondary-school  pupils  are  incapable  of 
understanding  the  principles  of  economic  laws.  Such  an 
argument  is  for  the  most  part  based  on  the  conception  of 
economics  as  a  logically  organized  and  complete  science. 
For  the  study  of  economics  in  this  sense  there  is  no  place  in 
the  secondary  school.  However,  many  important  princi- 
ples and  problems  of  economics  are  readily  understood  and 
eagerly  studied  by  pupils  of  secondary-school  age.  An 
important  distinction  should  be  made  between  a  philosophic 
study  of  economics  as  a  logically  organized  science  and  a 
"  practical  "  study  of  certain  of  its  principles  and  problems 
as  involved  in  the  activities  of  "  the  common  man."  The 
philosophic  study  of  economics  belongs  to  higher  education. 
The  "  practical "  study  of  economic  elements  has  a  legitimate 
place  in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school.  Either  as  a 
separate  subject  or  as  an  important  part  of  such  a  composite 
subject  as  that  considered  in  the  following  section,  the 
study  of  the  commoner  principles  of  economics  has  a  legi- 
timate and  important  place  in  the  program  of  secondary 
education. 

246.  The  study  of  "  Problems  of  American  Democracy." 
The  Committee  on  Social  Studies  has  recommended  the 
study  of  "Problems  of  American  Democracy,  Economic, 
Social,  Political "  as  a 

culminating  course  of  social  study  in  the  last  year  of  the  high 
school,  with  the  purpose  of  giving  a  more  definite,  comprehensive, 


566      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

and  deeper  knowledge  of  some  of  the  vital  problems  of  social 
life,  and  thus  of  securing  a  more  intelligent  and  active  citizen- 
ship.1 

Two  considerations  led  the  committee  to  make  this  recom- 
mendation: (1)  the  difficulty  of  providing  for  separate  in- 
struction in  the  many  social  studies  which  are  claimants  for 
a  position  in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school;  e.g., 
economics,  sociology,  law,  politics,  etc. ;  (2)  the  fact  that  in 
actual  life  the  individual  faces  problems  or  conditions  in 
which  the  principles  of  a  number  of  social  sciences  are  inex- 
tricably related.  The  committee  summarizes  its  reasons  for 
proposing  such  a  course  as  follows:  2 

(1)  It  is  impracticable  to  include  in  the  high-school  program  a 
comprehensive  course  in  each  of  the  social  sciences.    And  yet  it 
is  unjust  to  the  pupil  that  his  knowledge  of  social  facts  and  laws 
should  be  limited  to  the  field  of  any  one  of  them,  however  impor- 
tant that  one  may  be. 

(2)  The  purposes  of  secondary  education  and  not  the  intrinsic 
value  of  any  particular  body  of  knowledge  should  be  the  determin- 
ing consideration.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  purposes  of  second- 
ary education,  it  is  far  less  important  that  the  adolescent  youth 
should  acquire  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  any  or  all  of  the 
social  sciences  than  it  is  that  he  should  be  given  experience  and 
practice  in  the  observation  of  social  phenomena  as  he  encounters 
them;  that  he  should  be  brought  to  understand  that  every  social 
problem  is  many-sided  and  complex;  and  that  he  should  acquire 
the  habit  of  forming  social  judgments  only  on  the  basis  of  dispas- 
sionate consideration  of  all  the  facts  available.   This,  the  commit- 
tee believes,  can  best  be  accomplished  by  dealing  with  actual 
situations  as  they  occur  and  by  drafting  into  service  the  materials 
of  all  the  social  sciences  as  occasion  demands  for  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  the  situations  in  question. 

(3)  The  principles  upon  which  such  a  course  is  based  are  the 
same  as  those  which  have  been  successfully  applied  in  community 
civics,  sociology,  and  even  history. 

1  Report  of  the  Committee,  op.  cit.,  pp.  52  ff.         2  Ibid.,  p.  56. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  567 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  recommendations  of  the  commit- 
tee that  the  organization  of  the  course  proposed  follows  out 
the  ideas  dominant  in  the  recommendations  for  courses  in 
civics,  namely  that  the  study  should  be  organized  not  in 
terms  of  the  demands  of  the  subject  or  subjects  as  logically 
arranged  abstract  sciences  but  in  terms  of  the  activities  in 
which  individuals  participate.  The  proposal  of  the  commit- 
tee is  worthy  of  adoption. 

247.  Criticism  of  social  studies  as  now  organized.  In  the 
light  of  the  preceding  discussion  it  would  appear  that  several 
important  criticisms  may  be  made  concerning  the  economy 
of  the  social  sciences  in  the  secondary  school  as  at  present 
organized.  Among  these  may  be  emphasized  the  following: 

(1)  The  values  of  the  study  of  the  social  sciences  in  the 
secondary  school  have  always  suffered  from  the  tendency 
to  organize  their  materials  and  determine  content  and 
method  with  reference  to  the  organization  of  the  subjects 
as  logical  sciences  rather  than  with  reference  to  the  needs 
and  capacities  of  the  pupils  and  with  respect  to  the  situations 
in  life  in  which  they  may  use  them.   The  conception  of  his- 
tory from  the  historian's  standpoint  rather  than  from  the 
standpoint  of  its  use  as  a  subject  of  study  in  the  secondary 
school  has  in  most  cases  led  to  an  organization  of  material 
and  a  determination  of  teaching  methods  ill-suited  to  the 
attainment  of  the  potential  values  of  that  subject.   Similar 
results  have  come  from  the  conception  that  "civil  govern- 
ment" and  "political  economy"  should  be  taught  as  logi- 
cally organized  sciences. 

(2)  In  the  study  of  history  attention  has  been  given 
almost  exclusively  to  military  and  political  events  to  the 
neglect  of  important  events  of  social,   intellectual,   and 
economic  importance.     The  modern  development  of  the 
sociological  conception  of  history  emphasizes  the  impor- 
tance of  historical  material  previously  neglected.    While  it 


568      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

is  "a  still  unsolved  problem  ...  to  determine  what  condi- 
tions and  institutions  shall  be  given  the  preference,  consid- 
ering the  capacity  of  the  students  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
limitations  of  time  on  the  other,"  it  is  nevertheless  note- 
worthy that  attention  is  at  present  being  directed  toward 
other  elements  in  history  than  wars,  kings,  major  matters 
of  national  development,  and  the  like. 

(3)  In  spite  of  the  acceptance  of  a  theory  that  the  study  of 
the  past  should  aid  in  an  understanding  of  the  present,  the 
teaching  of  history  in  the  past  has  signally  failed  to  relate 
historical  events  to  the  present  and  future  needs  of  the 
pupils. 

The  ideal  history  for  each  of  us  would  be  those  facts  of  past 
human  experience  to  which  we  should  have  recourse  oftenest  in 
our  endeavors  to  understand  ourselves  and  our  fellows.  No  one 
account  would  meet  the  needs  of  all,  but  all  would  agree  that  much 
of  what  now  passes  for  the  elements  of  history  meet  the  needs  of 
none.  .  .  .  No  one  questions  the  inalienable  right  of  the  historian 
to  interest  himself  in  any  phase  of  the  past  that  he  chooses.  It  is 
only  to  be  wished  that  a  greater  number  of  historians  has  greater 
skill  in  hitting  upon  those  phases  of  the  past  which  serve  us  best 
in  understanding  the  most  vital  problems  of  the  present.1 

(4)  In  the  past  the  study  of  civics  has  been  subordinated 
to  the  study  of  history.   For  this  there  can  be  no  justifica- 
tion and  modern  tendencies  to  afford  civics  its  proper  place 
in  the  secondary-school  program  deserve  universal  support. 

(5)  In  the  past,  and  in  most  cases  at  present,  the  tendencj 
is  to  limit  the  study  of  civics  to  the  formal  study  of  the  ma- 
chinery of  government.   If  the  study  of  civics  is  to  be  made 
effective  its  field  must  be  broadened  so  as  to  include  the 
study  of  the  commoner  affairs  of  social-civic  activity. 

(6)  The  practice,  though  lessening  still  dominant,  of  post- 

1  Robinson,  J.  H.,  "The  New  History,"  Proceedings  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  vol.  L,  pp.  189-90. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  569 

poning  the  study  of  American  history,  and  particularly  civ- 
ics, to  the  later  part  of  the  secondary-school  course,  is  very 
faulty.  Such  postponement  means  that  two  thirds  of  the 
pupils  entering  the  high-school  course  can  never  receive  the 
necessary  benefits  of  the  study  of  those  subjects.  The  grow- 
ing practice  of  offering  civics  in  the  earlier  years  of  the 
secondary  school  is  to  be  encouraged. 

(7)  In  many  secondary  schools  at  the  present  time  it  is 
possible  for  pupils  to  pass  through  the  entire  course  without 
ever  coming  into  contact  with  the  social  sciences.    If  the 
values  of  the  study  of  the  social  sciences  are  rightly  con- 
ceived to  be  universal  and  certain,  not  limited  or  contingent, 
it  must  be  recognized  that  some  contact  with  the  social 
studies  should  be  provided  for  every  pupil  in  the  school. 

(8)  The  study  of  social  sciences  other  than  history  and 
civics  is  all  but  neglected  in  the  American  secondary  school. 
Such  neglect  cannot  be  justified.    It  must  be  recognized, 
however,  that  the  study  of  social  phenomena  as  abstract 
and  logically  organized  sciences  has  no  place  in  the  second- 
ary-school program.    The  correct  approach  is  indicated  by 
the  modern  tendencies  to  be  found  in  community  civics  and 
is  such  a  course  as  that  proposed  in  Problems  of  American 
Democracy.  • 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  study  of  "history"  by 
institutions  rather  than  by  periods?    (Cf.  Seeley,  J.  R.,  Method*  of 
Teaching  History.)  4 

2.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  introduction  of  a  course 
in  "The  Study  of  Nations"?   (Cf.  Kingsley,  C.  D.,  School  and  Society, 
vol.  in,  pp.  37-41.) 

3.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  a  requirement  of  some  social 
study  by  every  pupil  in  each  grade  of  the  secondary  school? 

4.  What  differences   should  be  made  in  the  social  studies  of  different 
groups  of  pupils  in  the  secondary  school? 

5.  Trace  the  development  of  social  studies  in  the  program  of  the  second- 
ary school.  • 


570      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

6.  Compare  the  place  of  social  studies  in  the  secondary  schools  of  America, 
Germany,  and  France. 

7.  For  any  high  school  or  any  group  of  high  schools  determine  the  actual 
amount  of  social  studies  engaged  in  by  members  of  any  "  class  "  through- 
out the  course.   Consider  those  who  leave  school  as  well  as  those  whc 
remain  throughout  the  course. 

8.  Outline  a  series  of  problems  of  topics  which  would  properly  find  place 
in  a  course  of  "Problems  of  American  Democracy."   (Cf.  Report  of  the 
Committee  on  Social  Studies  of  the  Commission  on  the  Reorganization 
of  Secondary  Education,  .pp.  52-56.) 

9.  To  what  extent  would  it  be  possible  to  organize  history  teaching  on  the 
form  of  "problem-solving"  exercises?   (Cf.  Parker,  S.  C.,  Methods  of 
Teaching  in  High  Schools,  p.  174  Jf. ;  Keatinge,  M.  W.,  Studies  in  the 
Teaching  of  History.) 

10.  Compare  several  different  textbooks  in  American  history  with  respect 
to  emphasis  on  political  matters,  institutional  development,  economic 
changes,  social  changes,  military  matters,  intellectual  matters,  etc. 

11.  Compare  textbooks  in  Civics  with  reference  to  the  amount  of  attention 
devoted  to  various  topics. 

12.  Trace  the  requirements  in  social  studies  for  college  admission. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

•  Allen,  J.  W.,  The  Place  of  History  in  Education,  especially  pp.  156-79. 
American  Historical  Association,  Committee  of  Seven,  Report  on  the  Study 

of  History  in  Schools  (1898).    (Published  by  The  Macmillan  Company.) 
American  Historical  Association,  Committee  of  Eight,  Report  on  the  Study 

of  History  in  Elementary  Schools  (1909).    (Published  by  Charles  Scrib- 

ner's  Sons.) 
American  Historical  Association,  Committee  of  Five,  Report  on  the  Study 

of  History  in  Secondary  Schools  (1911).    (Published  by  The  Macmillan 

Company.) 
American  Political  Science  Association,  Committee  of  Five,  Report  on 

Instruction  in  American  Government  in  Secondary  Schools,  Proceedings 

of  the  Association  (1908),  vol.  v,  pp.  218-57. 

American  Political  Science  Association,  Report  of  the  CommiHce  on  Instruc- 
tion, The  Teaching  of  Government  (1916),  especially  pp.  1-134.    (Published 

by  The  Macmillan  Company.) 
.  Bourne,  H.  E.,  The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics  in  the  Elementary  and 

Secondary  Schools,  especially  pp.  77-105. 
Hall,  G.  S.,  Educational  Problems,  vol.  n,  pp.  667-82. 
Haynes,  J.,  Economics  in  Secondary  Schools. 
Hill,  M.,  The  Teaching  of  Civics. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  How  to  Study  and  Teach  History,  pp.  1-26. 
Johnson,  H.,  Tlic  Teaching  of  History,  pp.  55-83. 


THE  PLACE  OF  SOCIAL  SCIENCES  571 

Judd,  C.  H.,  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects,  chap.  xvi. 

Keatinge,  M.  W.,  Studies  in  the  Teaching  of  History,  especially  pp.  1-95. 

Kingsley,  C.  D.,  and  Others,  The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics,  Bureau  of 
Education  Bulletin  (1915),  no.  23. 

Kingsley,  C.  D.,  "The  Study  of  Nations,"  School  and  Society,  vol.  m, 
pp.  37-41. 

National  Education  Association,  Committee  of  Ten,  Report  on  Secondary 
Studies,  pp.  162-185.  (Bureau  of  Education  edition:  also  published  by 
The  American  Book  Company.) 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of 
Secondary  Education,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Social  Studies  in 
Secondary  Education,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1916),  no.  18. 

New  England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Outline  for  the  Study  of  Ameri- 
can Civil  Government  in  Secondary  Schools  (1910).  (Published  by  The 
Macmillan  Company.) 

Robinson,  J.  H.,  The  New  History. 

Russell,  W.  F.,  "The  Entrance  of  History  into  the  Curriculum  of  the  Sec- 
ondary School,"  The  History  Teacher's  Magazine,  vol.  v,  pp.  313  Jf. 

Salmon,  L.  M.,  "Some  Principles  in  the  Teaching  of  History,"  First 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific  Study  of  Education, 
especially  chaps,  n-vi. 

Seeley,  J.  R.,  Methods  of  Teaching  History,  Pedagogical  Library,  vol.  I. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chaps,  xvi-xvn. 

Extended  bibliography:  American  Political  Science  Association,  Report  of 
the  Committee  on  Instruction,  The  Teaching  of  Government,  pp.  111./. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  PLACE  OF  PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS 
IN  THE  PROGRAM 

I.  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

248.  Historical  position  of  the  practical  arts.  While  the 
most  noteworthy  development  of  the  practical  and  voca- 
tional arts  in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school  has  taken 
place  within  the  pas^  decade,  some  beginnings  of  its  develop- 
ment were  to  be  fouiid  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  acad- 
emy movement  and  were  not  lacking  in  the  early  high- 
school  movement.  In  its  beginning  the  public  high  school 
was  characterized  by  attempts  to  provide  secondary  educa- 
tion for  those  who  were  not  to  receive  a  college  education 
and  there  was  a  real  intent  on  the  part  of  its  founders  and 
advocates  to  provide  suitable  subject-matter  for  such  boys 
and  girls.  Thus  in  the  first  high  school  established,  the 
English  Classical  (High)  School  of  Boston,  it  was  designed 
to  provide  an  education  for  boys  which  should  serve  as 
a  foundation  for  eminence  in  their  professions,  "whether 
mercantile  or  mechanical."  In  the  early  high  schools  sur- 
veying and  navigation  were  taught  as  early  as  1821,  book- 
keeping by  1823,  "commerce"  before  1838,  stenography  as 
early  as  1849,  and  sewing  as  early  as  1840.  It  must  be  recog- 
nized, however,  that  little  support  was  given  to  such  studies 
and  that,  even  in  the  case  of  the  few  practical  subjects 
receiving  a  measure  of  support,  the  instruction  was  extremely 
Formal  and  detached  from  practical  or  vocational  applica- 
tion. During  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century 
increased  attention  was  paid  to  the  clerical  or  commercial 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          573 

arts,  to  manual  arts,  and  to  the  somewhat  higher  technical 
arts  of  industry.  Provision  for  these  arts,  however,  was  by 
no  means  universal,  and  in  the  majority  of  schools  where 
such  studies  were  provided  instruction  failed  lamentably  to 
fulfill  its  purpose.  Thus  in  most  cases  "manual  training" 
took  the  direction  first  of  general  discipline,  then  of  "manual 
expression,"  rather  than  vocational  efficiency,  and  technical 
education  was  soon  restricted  in  most  high  schools  to  the 
preparation  of  boys  for  entrance  to  the  technical  college. 
Of  the  vocational  subjects  the  clerical  or  "commercial" 
alone  had  made  noticeable  headway  by  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  a  number 
of  important  factors  began  to  receive  attention  and  the  recog- 
nition of  their  importance  has  led  to  a  revised  conception 
of  the  place  of  practical  and  vocational  arts  in  the  program 
of  the  secondary  school.  Prominent  among  such  factors  were 
recognized  the  following:  (1)  the  relative  ineffectiveness  of 
the  formalized  education  already  provided  for  the  practical 
arts;  (2)  the  changed  character  of  the  secondary-school 
population;  (3)  the  importance  of  retardation  and  elimina- 
tion and  the  needs  of  boys  and  girls  who  leave  school  at  an 
early  age  or  stage;  (4)  the  changes  which  have  taken  place 
in  other  social  agencies  which  formerly- provided  valuable 
forms  of  practical  and  vocational  training;  (5)  the  demands 
of  modern  occupational  life.  Recognition  of  those  and  other 
factors  has  revolutionized  conceptions  of  the  place  of  the 
practical  and  vocational  arts  in  the  secondary  school  and 
has  tended  to  produce  the  following  results:  (a)  the  closer 
articulation  with  the  actual  conditions  of  workaday  life  of 
such  practical  arts  as  had  already  found  some  place  in  the 
program;  (6)  the  acceptance  of  the  vocational  aim,  or  at 
least  the  applied  aim,  as  the  dominant  element  determin- 
ing the  place  and  purpose  of  practical  arts  in  the  program; 


574     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

(c)  an  extension  of  the  number  and  scope  of  practical  and  vo- 
cational arts  in  the  secondary  school;  (d)  a  revision  of  the 
aims,  values,  and  methods  of  almost  all  subjects  of  study 
in  the  school  and  attempts  to  establish  their  relations  to 
practical  life. 

249.  Present  status  in  the  program.  As  far  as  practical 
and  vocational  arts  in  the  secondary  school  are  concerned 
the  present  cannot  be  described  otherwise  than  as  a  period 
of  experimentation,  characterized  by  endeavors  to  put  into 
practical  operation  the  conceptions  outlined  in  the  preced- 
ing paragraph.  In  the  majority  of  public  secondary  schools 
little  attempt  has  been  made  to  meet  imperative  demands 
for  the  organization  of  practical  and  vocational  arts  training 
either  in  the  secondary  school  proper  or  through  the  second- 
ary school  in  cooperation  with  other  agencies.  In  schools 
where  such  organization  has  been  attempted  the  recency 
of  those  attempts  has  permitted  the  development  of  few 
settled  policies  or  conditions.  The  field  of  these  arts  is  obvi- 
ously the  field  where  differentiated  education  is  dominant 
and,  therefore,  the  field  where  the  greatest  amount  of  varia- 
tion is  to  be  expected. 

At  present  the  majority  of  public  secondary  schools  in  the 
more  progressive  communities  provide  in  some  degree  for 
certain  domestic  arts  instruction  (at  least  courses  in  sewing 
and  cooking)  and  for  commercial  education  (at  least  in  the 
clerical  branches).  Far  less  provision  has  as  yet  been  made 
for  courses  in  industrial  and  agricultural  arts,  least  of  all  in 
the  former.  In  the  entire  field  of  practical  and  vocational 
arts  instruction  in  the  school  the  United  States  has  followed 
far  in  the  rear  of  more  progressive  countries  in  Europe. 
However,  recent  activity  by  cities,  States,  and  by  the  Federal 
Government  bids  fair  to  inaugurate  a  new  era  for  practical 
and  vocational  education  throughout  the  country.  In  par- 
ticular the  federal  Smith-Hughes  Act,  passed  by  Congress  in 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          575 

February,  1917,  must  give  great  impetus  to  that,  form  of 
education  through  the  encouragement  provided  by  the 
appropriation  of  large  sums  of  money  to  the  several  States 
for  the  payment  of  the  salaries  of  teachers,  supervisors,  and 
directors  of  agricultural  subjects,  the  salaries  of  teachers  of 
trade,  home  economics,  and  industrial  subjects,  and  for  the 
training  of  such  teachers,  supervisors,  and  directors. 

250.  Values  of  the  practical  and  vocational  arts.  The 
fundamental  values  of  the  practical  and  vocational  arts 
in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school  are  to  be  determined, 
of  course,  in  terms  of  their  relation  to  the  economic-voca- 
tional aim  of  secondary  education.  Those  values  are  direct 
and  specific.  In  Chapter  IV  it  was  shown  that  little  more 
than  one  third  of  those  pupils  who  enter  the  first  grade  of 
the  elementary  school  reach  the  first  grade  of  the  four-year 
high  school;  that  of  those  entering  the  high  school  about 
one  third  leave  before  the  beginning  of  the  second  year, 
about  one  half  leave  before  the  beginning  of  the  third  year, 
two  thirds  before  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  year;  and  that 
of  those  who  enter  the  seventh  grade  of  the  school  system 
about  one  quarter  leave  before  the  eighth  grade,  one  third 
to  one  half  before  the  ninth  grade,  two  thirds  before  the 
tenth  grade,  three  quarters  before  the  eleventh  grade,  and 
nearly  four  fifths  before  the  twelfth  grade.1  Boys  and  girls 
who  leave  school  before  the  completion  of  the  secondary- 
school  course  for  the  most  part  enter  commercial,  industrial, 
agricultural,  and  household  pursuits.  Throughout  their  lives 
the  economic  activities  in  which  they  engage  will  be  found 
in  those  fields.  In  1913  approximately  a  million  and  a  half 
boys  and  girls  were  enrolled  in  the  seventh  grade  of  the 
public  schools  of  the  United  States.  Of  that  number  prob- 
ably 600,000  left  school  by  1916  and  many  more  will  leave 
school  before  the  end  of  the  secondary  school  course  for  that 
1  C!.  Tables  LV.  LVI,  LVII. 


576      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

"  class  "  in  1919.  It  is  probable  that  about  one  half  of  those 
who  will  complete  the  secondary-school  course  in  1919  will 
enter  commercial,  industrial,  agricultural,  and  household 
pursuits,  so  that  in  all  probability  about  1,300,000  boys 
and  girls  already  have  entered  or  will  enter  those  occupa- 
tions from  that  group  of  children  who  were  in  the  seventh 
grade  of  the  schools  in  1913.  A  moderate  estimate  would 
place  the  number  of  boys  and  girls  leaving  school  from 
grades  above  the  sixth  grade  at  more  than  one  million  an- 
nually. Compared  with  this  the  number  of  those  complet- 
ing the  secondary -school  course  and  entering  other  pursuits 
in  life  immediately  or  later  is  insignificant.  By  far  the 
greatest  proportion  of  those  leaving  school  before  the  com- 
pletion of  the  course  will  engage  in  practical-arts  pursuits. 
For  those  pupils  instruction  in  the  practical-arts  subjects 
of  a  vocational  purpose  and  character  is  necessary  and 
legitimate. 

251.  Conditions  emphasizing  practical  and  vocational 
arts.  Numerous  factors  have  combined  to  emphasize  the 
values  and  the  place  of  the  practical  and  vocational  arts  in 
the  secondary-school  program  at  the  present  time.  All  have 
been  considered  at  some  length  in  preceding  sections  of  this 
book.  They  may  be  summarized  briefly  here. 

(1)  Developments  in  educational  theory  :  Three  important 
developments  in  educational  theory  affect  the  present  situa- 
tion as  far  as  the  practical  arts  are  concerned,  (a)  Much  of 
the  failure  properly  to  provide  for  practical  and  vocational 
education  during  the  nineteenth  century  was  due  to  a  belief 
that  "  general  abilities "  suitable  for  all  activities  of  life 
could  be  gained  through  the  intensive  study  of  a  few  sub- 
jects. Thus  the  founders  of  the  English  Classical  (High) 
School  of  Boston  in  1821  desired  to  provide  an  education 
"  calculated  to  bring  the  powers  of  the  mind  into  operation  " 
and  to  "  serve  as  a  foundation  for  eminence  in  his  (the 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          577 

pupil's)  profession,  whether  mercantile  or  mechanical." 
Thus  the  manual  training  movement  ran  on  the  rocks  of  a 
belief  in  the  possibility  of  developing  "  general  manual  dex- 
terity" and  the  accompanying  mental  powers.  Modern 
psychological  and  educational  theory  has  greatly  restricted 
the  application  of  any  such  theory  and  placed  much  greater 
emphasis  on  specific  training.  (6)  Modern  educational 
theory,  by  determining  the  values  and  aims  of  subject- 
matter  in  the  secondary  school  in  terms  of  the  contributions 
made  to  the  activities  in  which  the  individual  will  partici- 
pate, has  greatly  increased  the  attention  to  be  paid  to  sub- 
jects contributing  to  the  attainment  of  the  economic-voca- 
tional aim.  (c)  Recognition  of  the  existence,  character,  and 
distribution  of  individual  differences  in  the  capacities,  inter- 
ests, and  probable  future  activities  of  pupils,  and  recogni- 
tion of  the  differentiated  needs  of  society  have  given  in- 
creased impetus  to  the  movement  to  provide  a  wide  range 
of  differentiated  studies  in  the  program  to  meet  the  needs 
both  of  pupils  and  of  society. 

(2}  Developments  in  the  secondary-school  population : 
Within  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  noteworthy  changes 
have  taken  place  in  the  secondary-school  population.  In 
numbers  the  secondary-school  population  has  increased 
from  297,894  pupils  (one  for  every  210  of  total  population 
in  1889-1890)  to  1,373,661  pupils  (one  for  every  73  of  the 
estimated  total  population  in  1914-1915).  In  character  the 
secondary-school  population  has  changed  from  a  roughly 
homogeneous  group  of  those  designed  for  the  higher  walks 
of  life  to  a  highly  heterogeneous  group  of  pupils  destined  to 
enter  all  sorts  of  occupations. 

(3)  Developments  in  other  social  institutions :  In  Chapter 
IX  a  somewhat  detailed  though  brief  consideration  was 
given  to  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  other  social 
institutions  tending  to  decrease  the  stimuli  and  opportuni- 


578      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


ties  previously  afforded  for  vocational  training,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  demand  a  higher  degree  of  vocational  efficiency. 
Little  further  need  here  be  said  otherwise  than  to  repeat 
that  the  occupations  themselves,  home  and  community  life, 
and  other  agencies  have  lost  many  stimuli  and  opportuni- 
ties for  vocational  training  which  they  will  probably  never 
recover.  Thus  the  responsibility  has  been  forced  on  the 
school  for  training  previously  provided  more  or  less  ade- 
quately by  other  social  agencies. 

252.  The  field  of  vocational  education.  Practical-arts 
and  vocational  education  in  the  secondary  school  must  be 
determined  by  the  conditions  in  the  economic  world  which 
the  pupils  will  later  enter.  Some  conception  of  the  range, 
variety,  and  importance  of  various  occupations  may  be 
gained  from  the  occupation  statistics  presented  in  the  fourth 
volume  of  the  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910).  The  occu- 
pations there  listed  are  classified  under  their  main  divisions 
in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  CXXXIX.  NUMBER  AND  PROPORTION  OF  PERSONS  IN 
THE  GENERAL  DIVISIONS  OF  OCCUPATIONS  (1910)  * 


Occupations 

Numbers 

Per  cents 

All 

Male 

Female 

All 

Male 

Female 

Agriculture,  etc  

12,659,203 
964,824 

10,658,881 
2,637,671 
3,614,670 
459,291 
1,663,569 
3,772,174 
1,737,053 

10,851,702 
963,730 

8,837,901 
2,531,075 
3,146,582 
445,733 
929,684 
1,241,328 
1,143,829 

1,807,501 
1,094 

1,820,980 
106.596 
468,088 
13,558 
733,885 
2,530,846 
593,224 

33.2 
2.5 

27.9 
6.9 
9.5 
1.2 
4.4 
9.9 
4.6 

36.1 
3.2 

29.4 
8.4 
10.5 
1.5 
3.1 
4.1 
3.8 

22.4 
0.1 

22.5 
1.3 
5.8 
0.2 
9.1 
31.3 
7.3 

Manufacturing,  mechanical  in- 
dustry   

Trade  

Professional  service  

Domestic  and  personal  service.  . 
Clerical  occupations  

Total  persons  engaged  

38,167,336 

30,091,564 

8,075,772 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

*  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910),  vol.  iv,  p.  40. 


t  "  Not  elsewhere  classified." 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          579 

According  to  this  table  the  general  divisions  of  occupa- 
tions engaging  as  large  a  proportion  as  five  per  cent  of  men 
or  women  are  as  follows:  men  —  agriculture  (36.1  per  cent), 
manufacturing  and  mechanical  industry  (29.4  per  cent), 
transportation  (8.4  per  cent),  trade  (10.5  per  cent);  women 
• —  agriculture  (22.4  per  cent),  manufacturing  and  mechani- 
cal industry  (22.5  per  cent),  trade  (5.8  per  cent),  profes- 
sional service  (9.1  per  cent,  of  which  more  than  two  thirds 
are  teachers),  domestic  and  personal  service  (31.3  per  cent), 
clerical  occupations  (7.3  per  cent).  From  this  list  some  occu- 
pations may  be  eliminated  as  far  as  general  provision  for 
vocational  education  in  the  secondary  school  is  concerned. 
Thus  transportation  engages  the  activity  of  more  than  two 
and  one  half  million  men,  but  far  more  than  one  half  of  that 
number  are  unskilled  laborers.  Thus  also  professional  service 
engages  733,885  women,  but  of  that  number  478,027  are 
school-teachers  for  whom  higher  professional  education  is 
necessary.  Hence  the  occupations  engaging  the  largest 
number  of  men  or  women  and  suitable  for  consideration 
in  connection  with  vocational  education  in  the  secondary 
school  are  agriculture,  manufacturing  and  mechanical  in- 
dustry, trade,  domestic  service,  and  clerical  occupations. 

253.  Relative  importance  of  various  occupations.1  Varia- 
tion in  the  values  of  various  vocational  subjects  is  obviously 
a  very  important  factor  affected  extensively  by  geographi- 
cal considerations.  This  is  noticeable  not  only  for  smaller 
districts  but  also  for  States  and  even  larger  geographic  divi- 
sions. Thus  in  Mississippi  more  than  three  quarters  of  all 
workers  are  engaged  in  agriculture;  in  Massachusetts  less 
than  five  per  cent.  In  Rhode  Island  more  than  one  half  are 
engaged  in  manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries;  in 
Mississippi  less  than  eight  per  cent.  In  Nevada  more  than 

1  All  figures  in  this  section  are  taken  from  p.  45  of  the  fourth  volume  of 
the  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910). 


580      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


one  fifth  are  engaged  in  the  extraction  of  minerals;  in  Missis- 
sippi less  than  one  tenth  of  one  per  cent.  In  California  about 
fourteen  per  cent  are  engaged  in  trade;  in  South  Carolina 
about  three  per  cent.  For  geographic  divisions  of  the  coun- 
try the  figures  are  as  follows: 

TABLE  CXL.    PERCENTAGES  OP  WORKERS  IN  VARIOUS 
OCCUPATIONS  (1910)  * 


.2 

• 

| 

|3 

! 

, 

| 

•§ 

1 

.1? 

8 

8 

1 

lg 

1 

1 

e 

.i-- 

1 

1 

o  § 

2 

Geographic 
Division 

1 

1 

li. 

| 

I 

.0 

'•f-a 

1 

£ 

1 

§  1'JS 

| 

"| 

S 

"I" 

11 

"*! 

eq 

^ 

*•• 

^ 

S< 

Q 

o 

(per 

(per 

(per 

(per 

(per 

(per 

(per 

(per 

(per 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

cent) 

New  England  

10.4 

0.3 

49.1 

6.5 

10.6 

1  7 

4  8 

10  7 

5  9 

Middle  Atlantic  

10.0 

4.2 

40.6 

8.0 

12.0 

1.4 

4.9 

11.8 

7.1 

East  North  Central... 

25.6 

2.6 

33.2 

7.6 

10.6 

1.1 

4.8 

9.2 

5.3 

West  North  Central... 

41.2 

1.8 

20  0 

7.8 

10.4 

1.1 

5.2 

8.5 

3.9 

South  Atlantic    

51.4 

1.8 

18.6 

5.0 

6.1 

1.0 

3.0 

10.5 

2.6 

East  South  Central  .  .  . 

63.2 

1.9 

12.4 

4.0 

5.3 

0.6 

2.6 

8.4 

1.7 

West  South  Central... 

60.1 

0.7 

12.6 

5.2 

7.0 

0.8 

3.3 

8.1 

2.1 

Mountain          

32.4 

9.4 

19.5 

10.3 

8.7 

1.7 

5.2 

9.1 

3.6 

Pacific       

22.6 

2.4 

27.2 

10.3 

12.6 

2.0 

6.0 

11.3 

5.5 

UNITED  STATES  

33.2 

2.5 

27.9 

6.9 

9.5 

1.2 

4.4 

9.9 

4.6 

*  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910),  vol.  iv,  pp.  44-15. 

This  geographic  variation  in  economic  activities  gives 
rise  to  one  of  the  most  important  problems  of  vocational 
education,  namely,  the  problem  of  adapting  it  to  local  con- 
ditions as  determined  by  the  economic  activity  and  the 
character  of  the  population  served.  This  problem  is  best 
considered  in  connection  with  the  principles  governing  the 
selection  of  vocational  subjects  discussed  in  the  following 
section. 

254.  Principles  governing  selection.  The  wide  range  and 
variety  of  vocational  fields  and  differing  local  conditions 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          58 

emphasize  the  factor  of  selection  in  determining  the  char- 
acter of  vocational  education  in  any  locality.  Here  a  num- 
ber of  important  principles  are  involved. 

(1)  Only  those  occupations  which  afford  opportunity  for 
a  relatively  large  number  of  skilled  workers  should  be  repre- 
sented by  vocational  subjects  in  the  secondary  school.   The 
economics  of  secondary-school  administration  and  the  law 
of  demand  and  supply  alike  negate  or  affirm  the  advisability 
of  introducing  various  vocational  subjects  into  the  school. 

(2)  Only  those  occupations  which  have  a  fairly  steady 
and  general  demand  for  skilled  workers  should  be  repre- 
sented by  related  vocational   subjects  in  the  secondary 
school.    No  school  can  afford  to  introduce  vocational  sub- 
jects when  the  occupations  for  which  they  prepare  vary 
widely  in  the  rate  of  demand  for  workers  thus  prepared. 

(3)  Only  those  occupations  which  offer  opportunity  for 
lengthy  employment  should  be  represented  by  related  vo- 
cational subjects  in  the  secondary  school.    Society  cannot 
afford  to  provide  expensive  vocational  education  for  occu- 
pations wherein  the  worker's  usefulness  is  relatively  short 
as  measured  by  his  employment  in  that  occupation. 

(4)  Only  those  occupations  which  offer  somewhat  pro- 
gressively increased  returns  to  the  individual  and  to  society 
as  the  result  of  progressively  increased  skill  or  knowledge 
should  be  represented  by  related  vocational  subjects  in  the 
secondary  school.    Education  in  the  school  cannot  assist  in 
the  exploitation  of  the  worker  by  industry. 

If  our  investigation  of  this  question  [Are  skilled  processes  ahead?] 
shows  that  the  employment  is  of  the  "blind-alley"  type,  in  which 
two  or  three  weeks,  or  even  less,  suffices  to  master  all  the  technical 
training  and  skill  that  can  be  employed  in  the  work,  —  which  is 
true  of  about  eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  paper-box-making  indus- 
try and  of  about  an  equal  percentage  of  the  machine  work  in  shirt 
and  collar  factories,  —  it  is  evident  that  no  trade  training  at  public 


582      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

expense  should  be  provided.  If  the  advanced  processes  of  the 
work  are  so  simple  in  nature  that  all  the  knowledge  and  skill  needed 
can  be  picked  up  in  the  trade  itself  with  what  little  assistance  can 
be  given  by  a  foreman,  which  is  possible  in  plants  working  on 
white  goods,  in  power  sewing,  straw-hat  sewing,  and  underwear 
knitting,  it  is  then  inadvisable  to  use  public  funds  for  training 
workers  to  enter  that  industry.1 

(5)  Local  or  sectional  occupations  which  meet  the  de- 
mands suggested  above  should  primarily  be  represented  by 
related  vocational  subjects  in  the  secondary  school.  It  is 
to  be  noted,  however,  that  dominant  local  occupations  con- 
stitute but  one  of  two  important  factors  to  be  considered. 
The  other  factor  is  the  factor  of  individual  differences  in 
capacities  and  aptitudes  in  the  secondary-school  population 
as  related  to  vocational  activities.  That  a  boy  or  girl  is  born 
on  a  farm  or  in  a  rural  community  is  no  guarantee  whatever 
that  he  or  she  is  well  fitted  to  engage  in  agriculture  or  that 
agricultural  education  is  well  fitted  to  his  aptitudes  and 
interests.  Where  a  sufficiently  large  group  of  pupils  is 
found  interested  and  capable  in  any  single  occupation,  that 
occupation  should  be  represented  by  its  related  vocational 
subjects  in  the  school  whenever  economically  possible. 
Thus,  from  the  viewpoint  of  desirability,  industrial  subjects 
have  their  place  in  a  dominantly  rural  community  and  agri- 
cultural subjects  have  their  place  in  an  industrial  community. 
From  the  viewpoint  of  practicability  (depending  on  numbers 
and  tastes),  such  non-local  vocations  will  be  represented  in 
few  schools.  The  two  factors  of  local  needs  and  individual 
needs  must  always  clash  to  some  extent,  and  for  this  there 
is  no  remedy  other  than  the  establishment  of  special  sec- 
tional (e.g.,  State  or  county)  vocational  schools  or  the  de- 
velopment of  part-time  cooperative  education. 

1  Smith,  H.  B.,  Establishing  Industrial  Schools,  p.  15.    For  this  whole 
matter  see  his  excellent  chapter  I. 


f 

PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          583 

II.  CLERICAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS 

255.  The  scope  of  clerical  and  commercial  education. 
The  overlapping  of  clerical  and  commercial  occupations  has 
led  to  two  errors  in  the  administration  of  clerical  and  com- 
mercial education  in  the  secondary  school:  (1)  the  error  of 
confining  clerical  education  to  preparation  for  business  life, 
and  (2)  the  error  of  restricting  commercial  education  to  the 
clerical  arts  in  the  majority  of  schools.  The  latter  is  by  far 
the  more  serious  error.  So-called  "commercial  courses"  are 
commonly  restricted  to  subjects  to  which  tradition  has  at- 
tached the  name  "commercial  subjects"  —  stenography, 
typewriting,  bookkeeping,  "business arithmetic" — together 
with  some  elements  of  office  and  business  practice.  In  the 
larger  schools,  particularly  in  special  "commercial  schools," 
are  frequently  found  forms  of  instruction  in  foreign  lan- 
guages (German,  French,  and  Spanish)  adapted  to  supposed 
or  real  commercial  needs,  special  types  of  science  instruction 
adapted  to  the  same  ends,  some  instruction  in  design  and 
related  arts  with  application  to  commercial  activities,  ele- 
mentary commercial  law,  economic  or  industrial  history, 
economics,  etc.  It  will  be  noted  that  most  of  those  courses  — 
the  courses  forming  the  backbone  of  "  commercial  education  " 
—  are  almost  limited  to  instruction  in  the  clerical  arts  or 
"office"  activities  and  to  certain  general  knowledges,  little 
or  no  provision  being  made  for  other  important  forms  of 
commercial  activity.  This  appears  to  be  wrong  for  reasons 
implied  in  the  following  considerations:  (1)  office  work  and 
clerical  occupations  in  general  engage  but  a  relatively  small 
proportion  of  strictly  commercial  workers,  probably  not  more 
than  about  fifteen  per  cent  of  all  business  employees.1  On 
the  other  hand,  other  business  activities  engage  a  relatively 

1  Thompson,  F.  V.,  Commercial  Education  in  Public  Secondary  Schools, 
chap.  vi. 


584      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

large  proportion  of  commercial  workers,  e.g.,  retail  selling 
has  been  estimated  to  engage  more  than  one  third  of  all 
business  employees.  Clerical  training  is  very  unsatisfactory 
for  such  workers.  (2)  Those  who  leave  school  before  the 
completion  of  the  secondary-school  course  and  who  enter 
business  in  large  numbers,  for  the  most  part  engage  in  other 
phases  of  business  activity  than  the  clerical.  Their  needs 
are  not  well  met  by  clerical  courses.  (3)  Stenography  and 
typewriting  are  passing  more  and  more  into  the  haqds  of 
women  or  girls  and  at  present  a  relatively  small  proportion 
of  clerical  positions  emphasizing  those  subjects  are  occupied 
by  men  or  boys.  (4)  Many  clerical  positions  have  little  or 
nothing  to  do  with  strictly  commercial  work,  e.g.,  civil-serv- 
ice positions. 

Recent  theory  bids  fair  to  institute  two  important  changes 
in  the  administration  of  clerical  and  commercial  education 
in  the  secondary  school:  (a)  by  recognizing  that  not  all 
clerical  instruction  is  limited  to  commercial  preparation; 
(6)  by  extending  the  scope  of  commercial  education  so  as  to 
include  instruction  dealing  with  merchandizing,  selling,  and 
store  service. 

256.  Aims  of  clerical  and  commercial  subjects.  Mani- 
festly the  primary  aims  and  values  of  the  study  of  clerical 
and  commercial  subjects  in  the  secondary  school  are  to  be 
determined  by  their  direct  and  specific  contributions  toward 
the  attainment  of  the  economic- vocational  aim  of  secondary 
education.  Clerical  and  commercial  activities  are  obviously 
activities  in  which  a  large  proportion  of  secondary-school 
pupils  will  later  participate.  If  the  theses  formulated  in 
Chapters  IX  and  X  of  the  book  are  sound  it  follows  that  the 
secondary  school  should  provide  preparation  for  those  activ- 
ities of  life  in  which  the  pupils  will  later  engage  and  for  which 
other  social  agencies  do  not  provide  adequate  training. 
Clerical  and  commercial  occupations  are  activities  in  which 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          585 

secondary-school  pupils  do  later  engage  in  large  numbers. 
It  remains  to  consider  whether  other  social  agencies,  includ- 
ing those  vocations  themselves,  provide  adequate  training. 
In  Chapter  IX  it  was  shown  that  social  institutions  other 
than  the  school  have  tended  to  decrease  the  vocational 
stimuli  and  opportunities  which  they  formerly  afforded. 
As  affecting  the  field  of  clerical  and  commercial  education 
the  following  facts  may  be  considered.  (1)  The  demand  for 
clerical  efficiency  has  developed  with  great  rapidity  within 
the  past  few  decades,  especially  in  the  non-commercial  fields 
and  those  fields  on  the  borderline  between  secretarial  and 
business  activities.  (2)  Within  recent  years  the  relatively 
simple  organization  of  commercial  activities  has  given  way 
to  a  very  complex  form  of  organization;  e.g.,  note  the  char- 
acter of  business  organization  in  the  large  department  store 
and  the  large  wholesale  house.  (3)  Commercial  competi- 
tion has  developed  tremendously,  even  to  the  extent  of  rami- 
fied international  competition.  (4)  In  recent  years  less  and 
less  opportunity  has  been  offered  for  "  learning  the  business  " 
and  apprenticeship  has  tended  to  disappear.  (5)  Greater 
sub-division  of  labor  and  increased  specialization  has  per- 
meated the  business  field.  (6)  In  constantly  increasing  pro- 
portions girls  and  women  have  engaged  in  commercial 
activities.  (7)  Home  and  community  life  have  tended  to 
afford  less  and  less  opportunity  for  commercial  training. 
(8)  Compulsory  school-attendance  laws  and  child  labor  laws 
have  postponed  the  age  at  which  children  may  enter  com- 
mercial life:  hence,  (9)  the  school  has  taken  the  boy  and  girl 
out  of  business  and  thus  prevented  him*  from  securing  even 
that  amount  of  early  commercial  training  which  participa- 
tion in  business  might  afford.  These  facts  emphasize  the 
value  and  necessity  of  adequate  instruction  in  clerical  and 
commercial  subjects  in  the  secondary  school. 

The  aims  of  clerical  and  commercial  education  in  the 


586      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

secondary  school  must  be  the  development  of  direct  and 
specific  vocational  abilities  in  the  related  activities  of  life 
in  so  far  as  they  may  be  developed  in  the  school.  Any 
attempt  to  emphasize  indirect  values,  e.g.,  "  values  for  men- 
tal training,"  involve  questionable  psychological  theories  and 
are  likely  to  diminish  the  primary  vocational  values  which 
should  be  dominant. 

257.  The  place  of  clerical  arts  in  the  program.  Two  rea- 
sons for  the  relatively  successful  provision  of  instruction  in 
the  clerical  arts  in  the  secondary  school  are  probably  to 
be  found  in  the  facts:  (1)  that  those  arts,  while  perhaps  pre- 
dominantly commercial,  have  nevertheless  spread  to  several 
related  fields  not  primarily  commercial  or  on  the  borderline 
between  commerce  and  other  fields,  e.g.,  public  service,  the 
office  of  the  physician,  the  lawyer,  etc.,  and  the  factory  office; 
(2)  that  certain  of  the  clerical  arts  deal  with  abilities  even 
less  restricted  in  their  applications,  e.g.,  stenography,  type- 
writing, bookkeeping,  etc.  The  clerical  arts,  therefore,  have 
somewhat  less  limited  and  less  contingent  values  than  some 
strictly  commercial  arts  whose  values  are  limited  to  com- 
mercial vocations  and  contingent  on  special  activities. 

Recognition  of  the  somewhat  extended  values  of  certain 
clerical  arts  has  sometimes  led  to  a  much  mistaken  emphasis 
on  the  part  of  some  writers  and  teachers.  Thus  importance 
appears  to  be  attached  to  "  mental  discipline  "  wrongly  by 
Moran:  l 

Stenography,  when  properly  taught  and  thoroughly  mastered, 
has  even  greater  value,  considered  from  a  purely  educational  stand- 
point. To  become  even  a  moderately  successful  stenographer  one 
must  have  training  along  several  lines,  each  of  which  has  large 
educational  value.  These  are  as  follows:  (1)  It  compels  one  to 

1  Moran,  S.  A.,  pp.  403-04  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High-School 
Education.  Cf.  Bartholomew,  W:  E.,  "Fundamental  Aims  in  the  Teaching 
of  Bookkeeping,"  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association  (1916), 
pp.  362-65. 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          587 

think  quickly  and  accurately.  It  is  of  great  value  to  any  one  to  be 
thoroughly  awakened  mentally  and  to  have  acquired  power  to 
think  clearly.  (2)  The  scientific  study  and  practice  of  stenography 
compels  -the  development  of  greater  ability  to  hear  things  accu- 
rately. The  inability  of  the  average  high  school  and  college  student 
to  hear  all  that  he  should  hear  and  hear 'it  accurately  is  really  appall- 
ing. Stenography,  more  than  any  other  study,  will  very  largely 
overcome  this  almost  universal  weakness.  (3)  Mastering  the 
technic  of  memorizing  is  an  especially  important  feature  which  re- 
sults from  the  thorough  training  of  this  subject.  I  do  not  know  of 
any  other  subject  which  affords  an  equally  valuable  and  specific 
training.  (4)  The  most  important  mental  training  resulting  directly 
from  this  study  is  the  development  of  ability  to  concentrate  the 
whole  mind  upon  the  work  in  hand.  .  .  .  Since  the  study  of  stenogra- 
phy is  especially  valuable  in  developing  such  power,  it  seems  that 
there  should  be  no  question  as  to  the  advisability  of  introducing 
this  subject  in  every  high  school,  not  only  as  a  part  of  the  com- 
mercial course,  but  also  as  a  regularly  disciplinary  study. 

However  far  one  may  desire  to  extend  the  study  of 
stenography  or  any  other  clerical  art  on  the  basis  of  its 
direct  values,  he  certainly  cannot  be  justified  by  modern 
psychological  theory  in  making  any  such  sweeping  claims 
for  the  study  of  stenography  or  other  clerical  subject  on 
the  basis  of  such  "  disciplinary  "  values  as  those  claimed  by 
the  writer  above  quoted.  The  problem  of  disciplinary  values 
was  discussed  in  Chapter  XI.  It  cannot  be  considered  here 
further  than  to  point  out  that  the  theory  of  faculty  psychology 
implied  in  the  above  quotation  has  long  since  been  aban- 
doned by  the  psychologist.  Where  such  important  direct 
values  manifestly  exist  it  is  folly  to  shift  the  instruction  in 
clerical  arts  from  the  field  of  direct  to  indirect  values. 

258.  Analysis  of  clerical  occupations.  Some  conception 
of  the  relative  importance  of  various  occupations  involving 
the  clerical  arts  may  be  gained  from  the  census  figures  for 
1910.  They  are  presented  in  the  following  table. 


588      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


TABLE  CXLI.  CLERICAL  OCCUPATIONS  ACCORDING  TO  THE 
1910  CENSUS* 


Occupations 

Total 

Male 

Female 

105  127 

96  325 

8  802 

50,785 

48,495 

2  290 

18  595 

13  980 

4  615 

35,747 

33  850 

1  897 

486  700 

299  545 

187  155 

720  498 

597  833 

122  665 

80,353 

78,192 

2,161 

640  115 

519  641 

120  504 

108  035 

96  748 

11  287 

10,866 

4  274 

6  592 

97,169 

92,474 

4,695 

316,693 

53,378 

263,315 

Total  

1,737,053 

1,143,829 

593,224 

*  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910),  vol.  iv,  p.  94. 
t  "Except  telegraph  and  telephone  messengers." 


This  classification  presented  in  the  census  returns  is  in 
many  ways  very  unsatisfactory,  but  serves  at  least  to  indi- 
cate the  relative  prominence  of  bookkeeping,  stenography, 
and  typewriting  in  occupational  life,  as  well  as  the  relative 
importance  of  "  clerkship."  Of  special  interest  is  the  number 
of  clerks  —  about  42  per  cent  of  all  engaged  in  clerical  occu- 
pations, 52  per  cent  of  all  men  and  21  per  cent  of  all  women 
engaged  in  those  occupations.  If  to  the  numbers  given  be 
added  clerks  separately  classified  by  the  Census  Bureau  as 
"  clerks  in  stores  "  the  group  of  "  clerks  "  assumes  even  greater 
importance.  An  analysis  of  their  activities  is  needed  as  a 
basis  for  proper  clerical  instruction  in  the  secondary  school. 

259.  Non-clerical  commercial  subjects.  As  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  consideration  of  non-clerical  commercial  subjects 
which  are  or  should  be  in  the  program  of  studies  of  the  sec- 
ondary school  we  may  examine  the  analysis  of  business 
occupations  made  by  the  Census  Bureau. 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS 


TABLE  CXLII.   TBADE  OCCUPATIONS  ACCORDING  TO  THE 
1910  CENSUS  * 


Occupations 

All 

Male 

Female 

Bankers,  brokers,  and  money  lenders  

105,804 

103  170 

2  634 

Clerks  in  store.it  

387  183 

275  589 

111  594 

Commercial  travelers  

163,620 

161  027 

2  593 

Decorators,  drapers,  and  window  dressers  

5  341 

4  902 

439 

Deliverymen  

229  619 

229  469 

150 

Floorwalkers,  foremen,  and  overseers  

20  724 

17  649 

3  075 

Inspectors,  gaugers,  and  samplers  

13,446 

11  685 

1  761 

97  964 

95  302 

2  662 

81  193 

80  450 

673 

Laborers,  porters  and  helpers  in  stores  

102,333 

98  169 

4  164 

29  708 

29  435 

273 

22  362 

21  352 

1  010 

Real  estate  agents  and  officials  

125,862 

122  935 

2  927 

Retail  dealers  

1,195,029 

1,127,926 

67,103 

921  130 

663  410 

257  720 

Undertakers  

20,734 

19,921 

813 

Wholesale  dealers,  importers,  and  exporters  

51  048 

50,123 

925 

Other  pursuits  (semi-skilled)  

41,640 

34,068 

7,572 

Total  

3,614,670 

3,146,582 

468,083 

*  Thirteenth  Centus  Report  (1910),  vol.  iv,  p.  93. 

t  "Many  of  the  'clerks'  in  stores  evidently  are  '  salesmen  and  saleswomen.'  " 

j  Not  otherwise  specified. 

Of  the  business  occupations  here  listed  those  engaging  as 
large  a  proportion  of  men  or  women  as  five  per  cent  are  as 

follows: 

TABLE  CXLIII§ 


Occupations 

All 
(per  cent) 

Male 
(per  cent) 

Female 
(per  cent) 

10.7 

8.8 

23.8 

6.3 

7.3 

33.1 

35.8 

14.3 

25.5 

21.1 

55.1 

4.5 

5.1 

0.5 

80.1 

78.1 

93.2 

§  Compiled  from  Table  CXLII. 


Of  particular  interest  here  are  the  occupations  of  "  clerks 
in  stores,"  "salesmen  and  saleswomen"  (the  two  groups  are 
not  clearly  to  be  differentiated),  and  "  retail  dealers."  Second- 


590      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ary  education  has  in  the  past  recognized  preparation  for 
those  occupations  in  the  most  general  way  only,  emphasiz- 
ing the  clerical  arts  and  "  general  business  knowledge  "  sides 
of  their  activities.  The  arts  of  buying,  selling,  and  handling 
merchandise  have  been  all  but  neglected  in  the  commercial 
education  provided  by  the  secondary  school.  Hence  the 
emphasis  placed  at  the  present  time  by  specialists  in  com- 
mercial education  on  "  merchandizing,  selling,  and  store 
service."  Those  specialists  have,  however,  tended  to  over- 
emphasize occupations  in  large  commercial  organizations, 
such  as  department  store  occupations,  at  the  expense  of 
occupations  in  "  small  business."  The  fact  that  over  thirty- 
three  per  cent  of  all  business  men  and  women  (35.8  per  cent 
of  the  male  and  14.3  per  cent  of  the  female),  exclusive  of 
clerical  employees,  are  "retail  dealers  "  should  serve  to  guard 
us  against  such  possible  overemphasis.  The  need  of  com- 
mercial education  for  the  men  and  women  who  become 
"  retail  dealers  "  is  indicated  by  the  tremendous  "  business 
mortality"  of  that  class  —  failures  due  in  large  part  to  the 
lack  of  the  most  elementary  business  knowledge  and  train- 
ing. 

260.  "General  subjects"  modified.  Within  the  past  few 
years  the  tendency  has  gradually  developed  to  provide 
special  forms  of  instruction  in  "  general  subjects  "  adapted 
to  supposed  or  real  commercial  and  clerical  ends.  In  this 
category  fall  such  studies  as  commercial  English,  commer- 
cial arithmetic,  commercial  or  economic  geography,  indus- 
trial history,  commercial  German,  French,  and  Spanish, 
commercial  science,  commercial  design,  commercial  law, 
business  economics,  etc.  The  varying  character  of  courses 
given  the  titles  "  commercial  English,"  "  commercial  arithme- 
tic," etc.,  makes  it  impossible  properly  to  evaluate  them. 
Some  are  doubtless  quite  legitimately  given  a  place  in  the 
program  of  studies.  Others  are  of  rather  doubtful  status  or 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          591 

of  questionable  value  in  spite  of  the  validity  of  some  ele- 
ments involved.  Thus  courses  in  "commercial  English" 
and  "commercial"  or  "industrial"  history  have  been 
much  questioned  for  the  secondary  school.  Of  particular 
interest  is  the  tendency  found  in  some  cases  to  substitute 
for  commercial  pupils  courses  in  "  commercial  English " 
and  "  industrial  history  "  for  the  courses  in  English  and  in 
social  science  provided  for  other  pupils.  Whatever  argu- 
ments may  be  adduced  for  courses  in  "  commercial  English  " 
and  "  commercial "  or  "  industrial  history  "  for  commercial 
pupils,  there  can  be  no  justification  for  allowing  such  voca- 
tional subjects  to  take  the  place  of  courses  in  English  and 
social  science  designed  primarily  to  attain  the  non-voca-- 
tional,  i.e.,  the  social-civic  and  the  individualistic-a voca- 
tional, aims  of  secondary  education.  "  Commercial  English  " 
and  "  industrial  history,"  having  the  same  ends  in  view  as 
other  commercial  and  clerical  subjects,  i.e.,  the  attainment 
of  vocational  efficiency,  must  be  placed  in  competition  with 
them,  not  with  subjects  whose  primary  purposes  have  to  do 
with  the  social-civic  and  individualistic-avocational  aims. 
Of  special  interest  too  is  the  tendency  which  is  becoming 
prominent  to  emphasize  the  commercial  values  of  modern 
foreign  languages.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  too  much 
attention  may  be  paid  to  such  courses  as  "  commercial  Ger- 
man," "commercial  French,"  or  "commercial  Spanish,"  to 
the  detriment  of  more  important  forms  of  commercial  educa- 
tion. It  must  be  recognized  that  in  this  country  peculiar  con- 
ditions exist  greatly  limiting  the  commercial  values  of  the 
study  of  foreign  languages.  (1)  It  must  be  recognized  that, 
while  American  commerce  and  business  have  been  brought 
into  close  contact  with  foreign  peoples,  the  number  of  com- 
mercial positions  affected  is  insignificant,  and  that  the  rela- 
tively small  number  of  business  positions  offering  oppor- 
tunity for,  much  less  requiring,  the  use  of  a  foreign  language 


592      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

makes  an  ability  to  use  it  relatively  unimportant.  (2)  It 
must  also  be  recognized  that  the  heterogeneity  of  our  Amer- 
ican population  provides  a  relatively  large  number  of  bi- 
lingual men  and  women  with  whom  it  is  impossible  for  the 
school-taught  American  boy  or  girl  to  compete  in  securing 
commercial  positions  calling  for  an  ability  to  use  a  foreign 
language.  For  the  majority  of  commercial  pupils  the  direct 
values  of  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  are  relatively 
insignificant. 

261.  Criticism  of  present  commercial  education.  Provi- 
sion for  commercial  education  which  is  or  should  be  made 
in  the  secondary  school  affects  three  groups  of  subjects: 
'(1)  clerical-commercial  arts;  (2)  merchandising  arts;  (3)  an- 
cillary subjects. 

(1)  Clerical-commercial  subjects:  Better  provision  is  made 
for  these  subjects  than  for  any  other  group.   Errors  involve 
(a)  the  tendency  to  limit  clerical  instruction  to  business 
fields,  and  (6)  the  tendency  to  consider  clerical  instruction 
suitable  for  the  majority  of  business  occupations. 

(2)  Merchandising  subjects:   Subjects  falling  under  this 
category  at  present  found  in  the  secondary  school  are  to 
be  catalogued  much  as  the  snakes  of  Ireland  or  the  ships  of 
the  Swiss  navy  —  there  are  none.    The  point  has  been  em- 
phasized sufficiently  in  preceding  sections  that  provision 
for  non-clerical  business  education  is  an  imperative  necessity 
demanded  by  modern  business  conditions  and  sound  educa- 
tional theory.    Until  provision  is  made  for  such  subjects 
commercial  education  in  the  secondary  school  must  be  far 
from  adequate. 

(3}  Ancillary  subjects:  The  present  tendency  to  adapt 
almost  all  the  traditional  subjects  of  the  secondary-school 
program  to  commercial  ends  is  equally  dangerous  for  com- 
mercial-vocational education  and  for  other  forms  of  second- 
ary education.  A  careful  re-analysis  of  the  values  of  many 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          593 

subjects  of  study  which  have  been  given  a  commercial  turn 
in  some  schools  is  necessary.  It  is  probable  that  for  the  most 
part  they  will  be  found  to  be  highly  limited  and  highly 
contingent. 

III.  INDUSTRIAL  SUBJECTS 

262.  Meaning  and  scope  of  industrial  education.  Indus- 
try in  its  broadest  sense  may  include  practically  all  forms  of 
economic  activity.  In  its  narrower  sense  it  is  restricted  to 
those  activities  which  involve  the  manipulation  of  raw 
materials  and  their  conversion  into  finished  products 
through  manufacture  and  mechanical  processes.  Industrial 
education,  therefore,  in  the  corresponding  narrower  sense, 
is  that  division  of  education  whose  primary  purpose  is  the 
development  of  industrial  efficiency  in  manufacture  and 
mechanical  processes.  Elementary  education  is  concerned 
in  an  indirect  way  only  with  industrial  education.  The 
college  or  higher  technical  school  is  the  field  for  higher 
technical  training.  The  field  of  industrial  education  in  the 
secondary  school  is,  therefore,  training  for  the  development 
of  vocational  efficiency  in  those  industrial  activities  between 
those  limited  to  unskilled  labor  and  those  demanding  a 
higher  degree  of  technical  knowledge  and  training  than 
can  be  acquired  in  the  secondary  school. 

Until  within  the  past  few  years  industrial  education  in  its 
proper  form  has  been  all  but  neglected  in  the  American 
secondary  school.  It  has  been  pointed  out  already  that  the 
manual  training  movement  and  the  establishment  of  a  few 
"  technical  high  schools  "  failed  to  accomplish  the  real  ends 
of  industrial  education,  the  former  by  taking  the  direction  of 
"  general  discipline,"  "  general  manual  dexterity,"  or  "  cul- 
ture," and  the  latter  by  becoming  merely  preparatory  schools 
to  higher  technical  colleges.  Meanwhile  European  countries 


594      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

established  relatively  effective  education  in  the  industrial 
arts  and  some  beginning  of  real  industrial  education  was 
made  as  the  result  of  private  initiative  in  this  country. 
Slowly  the  movement  toward  industrial  education  has  found 
its  way  to  a  limited  extent  into  the  public  school  system. 
Legislation  providing  for  the  establishment  of  industrial 
schools  for  boys  and  girls  began  in  Massachusetts  in  1906, 
followed  by  legislation  in  Wisconsin  in  1907,  and  by  legisla- 
tion in  several  other  States  later.  Notwithstanding  rather 
extensive  development  in  educational  theory  and  notwith- 
standing the  somewhat  comprehensive  legislation  provided 
in  many  States  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  development  of 
industrial  education  in  the  secondary  school  has  as  yet  pro- 
ceeded far.  Relatively  few  secondary  schools  at  the  present 
time  offer  any  form  of  industrial  education,  and  in  still  fewer 
secondary  schools  has  anything  like  adequate  provision 
been  made  for  it.  Much  may  be  expected,  however,  in  the 
near  future  from  the  passage  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Federal 
Law  in  1917. 

263.  Conditions  emphasizing  industrial  education.  Many 
factors  have  combined  to  emphasize  the  need  for  industrial 
education  in  the  secondary  school  in  this  country.  They  are 
in  the  main  those  factors  outlined  briefly  above  in  this 
chapter  under  three  heads:  (1)  developments  in  educational 
theory,  (2)  developments  in  the  secondary-school  population, 
and  (3)  developments  in  other  social  institutions.  Certain 
specific  factors,  however,  deserve  special  consideration  here. 
(a)  Modern  psychological  and  educational  theory  postu- 
lates that  "  general  education  "  is  very  inadequate  prepara- 
tion for  efficiency  in  industrial  activity.  (6)  It  likewise  postu- 
lates that  the  values,  character,  and  aims  of  instruction 
should  be  determined  by  the  character  of  the  activities  in 
which  pupils  will  later  participate,  (c)  It  further  postulates 
that  there  are  wide  ranges  of  individual  differences  in  the 


595 

vocational  interests  and  aptitudes  of  secondary-school 
pupils,  (d)  Within  the  past  three  decades  increasing  large 
numbers  of  boys  and  girls  destined  for  vocational  activitj* 
in  the  industries  have  entered  the  secondary  school,  (e) 
Studies  in  retardation  and  elimination  have  shown  that  the 
majority  of  pupils  entering  the  secondary  school  leave  after 
one,  two,  or  three  years  of  secondary  education.  Such  boys 
and  girls  enter  the  industries  in  large  numbers.  (/)  Informal 
education  in  the  home  and  community  life  has  lost  many 
of  the  stimuli  and  opportunities  for  industrial  education. 
(g)  The  relative  proportion  of  individuals  engaged  in  indus- 
trial pursuits  has  gradually  increased  since  1880. l  (h)  The 
constantly  increasing  division  of  labor  has  tended  to  prevent 
those  engaging  in  industrial  activities  from  securing  in 
industry  itself  broad  training  in  the  trades  and  crafts, 
(i)  The  development  of  the  factory  system  of  industry  has 
removed  many  other  stimuli  and  opportunities  for  industrial 
training,  (j)  The  apprentice  system  which  formerly  afforded 
valuable  industrial  education  has  tended  to  disappear,  only 
118,964  apprentices  being  accounted  for  in  the  entire  coun- 
try in  the  reports  of  the  1910  census.  (&)  With  other  changes 
in  industrial  organization  the  relations  between  employer 
and  employee  have  radically  changed  with  the  result  that  the 
capitalist  employer  is  concerned  with  the  immediate  eco- 
nomic productivity  of  the  employee  rather  than  with  the 
broad  training  of  the  beginning  employee.  (1)  International 
competition  in  industry  has  tended  to  demand  a  higher  de- 
gree of  industrial  efficiency  in  this  country.  (TO)  Changes 
in  the  parts  played  by  abundant  natural  resources  and  in 
dustrial  efficiency  have  created  a  demand  for  the  increase 
of  the  latter  to  offset  a  relative  decrease  in  the  former,  (n) 
The  increased  mobility  of  labor  has  tended  to  discourage 
attempts  on  the  part  of  employers  to  train  a  body  of  broadly 
1  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910),  vol.  IV,  p.  41. 


596      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

expert  workmen  and  workwomen  who  may  leave  his  employ 
at  any  moment  after  he  has  gone  to  the  expense  of  their 
industrial  education,  (o)  Compulsory  school-attendance 
laws  and  child-labor  laws  have  removed  children  from  indus- 
try where  they  could  receive  even  such  industrial  training 
as  industry  provides,  (p)  The  school  has  tended  more  and 
more  to  occupy  boys  and  girls  at  ages  when  they  formerly 
engaged  in  industrial  activities. 

264.  Values  and  aims  of  industrial  subjects.  As  in  the 
case  of  all  subjects  of  study  whose  primary  aims  and  con- 
trolling purposes  involve  the  development  of  vocational  effi- 
ciency, the  values  of  industrial  subjects  in  the  program  of 
the  secondary  school  are  to  be  determined  by  their  direct  and 
specific  contributions  to  the  economic- vocational  aim  of  sec- 
ondary education.  It  must  be  recognized  that  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  worker  is  one  of  the  necessary  aims  of  secondary 
education.  It  must  be  recognized  that  a  large  proportion 
of  secondary-school  pupils  will  later  engage  in  industrial  oc- 
cupations. It  must  be  recognized  that  other  social  agencies 
than  the  school,  including  the  industries  themselves,  do  not 
provide  adequate  training  for  those  who  participate  in  indus- 
trial activities.  Recognition  of  those  three  facts  renders 
imperative  provision  for  industrial  education  in  the  second- 
ary school.  It  should  be  noted  in  this  connection,  however, 
that  acceptance  of  the  validity  of  claims  for  industrial  sub- 
jects in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school  does  not  ne- 
cessarily imply  that  those  studies  are  to  be  conducted  in 
the  secondary-school  building.  The  question  whether  the 
studies  should  be  provided  under  school  conditions  in  the 
secondary-school  building  or  in  the  industries  themselves 
by  cooperation  between  the  school  authorities  and  industrial 
firms  is  a  matter  not  of  the  secondary-school  program  but 
of  organization  and  administration.  It  will  be  considered 
in  Chapter  XXI. 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS 


597 


265.  Analysis  of  industrial  occupations.  As  a  basis  for 
evaluation  of  some  phases  of  industrial  education  in  the 
secondary  school  we  may  consider  the  distribution  of  in- 

TABLE  CXLIV.  NUMBER  OF  PERSONS  TEN  YEARS  OF  AGE  AND 

OVER  ENGAGED   IN    PRINCIPAL  MANUFACTURING  AND  MECHANI- 
CAL INDUSTRIES,  CLASSIFIED  BY  SEX  (1910)* 


Occupations 

Total 

Male 

Female 

15,595 
4,779 
31 
15 
849 
38 
14,051 
447,760 
92 
10 

118,964 
89,531 
240,519 
169,402 
174,422 
817,120 
127,589 
449,342 
135,519 
231,041 
111,248 
175,098 

154,826 
82,015 
869,478 
65,431 
317,244 
527,714 
87,146 
385,852 
488,049 
104,210 
256,591 
127,906 
120,900 
337,355 
148.304 

151,519 
88,628 
144,607 
88,834 
167,490 
438,063 
67,469 
181,010 
650,260 
463,655 
291,209 
69,570 
204,608 
59,833 
679,310 

103,369 
84,752 
240,488 
169,387 
173,573 
817,082 
113,538 
1,582 
135,427 
231,031 
111,248 
155,358 

152,438 
75,691 
853,679 
65,352 
313,228 
518,935 
71,107 
350,917 
487,956 
102,748 
251,892 
5,459 
120,783 
334,814 
148,304 

79,947 
79,167 
95,715 
52,312 
154,292 
394,175 
32,808 
121,744 
298,221 
318,221 
60,003 
68,788 
163,795 
59,809 
668,766 

Dressmakers  and  seamstresses  (not  in  factory)  

Firemen  (except  locomotive  and  fire  department)  .  .  . 

19,740 

2,388 
6,324 
15,799 
79 
4,016 
8,779 
16,039 
34,935 
93 
1,462 
4,699 
122,447 
117 
2,541 

71,572 
9,461 
48,892 
36,522 
13,198 
43,888 
34,661 
59,266 
352,039 
145,434 
231,206 
782 
40,813 
24 
10,544 

Laborers  (not  otherwise  specified) 
Clay  glass,  and  stone  industries  

Managers  and  superintendents  (manufacturing)  

Painters,  glaziers,  varnishers,  enamelers,  etc  

Semi-skilled  operatives  (not  otherwise  specified) 

Sewers  and  sewing  machine  operators  (factory)  

Total  in  manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries  . 

10,658,881 

8,837,901 

1,820,980 

*  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910),  vol.  iv,  p.  53.  Cf.  the  more  detailed  analysis  OB 
pp.  91-94  of  that  volume. 


598      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

dustrial  workers  according  to  their  principal  occupations. 
In  Table  CXLIV  are  presented  figures  showing  the  number 
of  persons  engaged  in  each  of  forty-two  principal  industrial 
occupations  in  1910. 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  clothing 
and  textile  trades  engage  the  great  majority  (nearly  two 
thirds)  of  all  females  in  industrial  pursuits  —  dressmaking, 
etc.,  24.6  per  cent;  millinery,  6.7  per  cent;  sewing,  12.7  per 
cent;  tailoring,  2.2  per  cent;  laborers  in  textile  industries, 
0.9  per  cent;  semi-skilled  operatives  in  textile  industries, 
19.3  per  cent;  total,  66.4  per  cent. 

The  industrial  occupations  of  males  are  naturally  far 
more  diverse.  Nevertheless  if  in  considering  the  data  given 
in  Table  CXLIV  we  examine  fairly  specific  occupations  and 
ignore  males  listed  under  the  headings  "general  and  not 
specified  laborers,"  "  laborers  in  all  other  industries,"  "  semi- 
skilled operatives  in  all  other  industries,"  "  all  others  in  this 
division,"  and  "  manufacturers  and  officials  "  (these  together 
composing  27.7  per  cent  of  the  entire  group),  we  find  but 
nine  separately  listed  occupations  representing  only  the  six 
general  fields  of  metal-working,  wood-working,  machinist 
trades,  painting  trades,  stationary  engineering,  and  textile 
trades,  engaging  each  as  large  a  proportion  as  two  per  cent 
of  all  industrial  male  workers  —  carpentry,  9.2  per  cent; 
laborers  in  lumber  and  furniture  industries,  3.5  per  cent; 
blacksmiths,  etc.,  2.7  per  cent;  laborers  in  metal  industries, 
5.9  per  cent;  semi-skilled  operatives  in  metal  industries, 
4.5  per  cent;  machinists,  5.5  per  cent;  painting,  etc.,  3.8  per 
cent;  stationary  engineers,  2.6  per  cent;  semi-skilled  opera- 
tives in  textile  industries,  3.4  per  cent;  total,  41.1  per  cent 
of  all  male  industrial  workers.  Grouped  according  to  the 
six  general  fields  the  figures  are:  wood-working  industries, 
12.7  per  cent;  metal-working  industries,  13.1  per  cent: 
machinist  trades,  5.5  per  cent;  painting  trades,  3.8  per  cent; 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          599 

stationary  engineers,  2.6   per  cent;   textile  industries,  3.4 
per  cent. 

Further  light  may  be  shed  on  this  problem  by  considering 
the  industrial  occupations  of  persons  classified  on  a  somewhat 
different  basis  as  follows: 

TABLE  CXLV* 

7.  Building  trades :  builders  and  building  contractors,  brick  and  stone 
masons,  laborers  not  otherwise  speci6ed  in  building  and  hand  trades,  paint- 
ers, glaziers,  varnishers,  etc.  (building),  paper  hangers,  plasterers,  plumb- 
ers, gas-  and  steam-fitters,  roofers  and  slaters,  structural  iron-workers 
(building)  —  all,  1,799,242;  male,  1,781,316;  female,  17,926. 

77.  Metal-working  trades:  blacksmiths,  forgemen,  and  hammermen, 
boiler-makers,  filers,  grinders,  buffers,  and  polishers  (metal),  furnace- 
men,  smelterers,  heaters,  pourers,  etc.,  jewelers,  watchmakers,  goldsmiths, 
silversmiths,  tinsmiths,  coppersmiths,  laborers  not  otherwise  specified  in 
iron  and  steel  industries,  laborers  in  other  metal  industries,  moulders, 
founders,  and  casters  (metal),  rollers  and  roll  hands  (metal),  semi-skilled 
operatives  not  otherwise  specified  in  iron,  steel,  and  other  metal  industries, 
annealers,  and  temperers  (metal)  —  total,  1,570,448;  male,  1,512,171; 
female,  58,277. 

777.  Clothing  trades :  dressmakers  and  seamstresses  (not  in  factory), 
laborers  in  clothing  industries  not  otherwise  specified,  laborers  in  shoe 
factories  not  otherwise  specified,  milliners  and  millinery  dealers,  semi- 
skilled operatives  not  otherwise  specified  in  clothing  industries,  semi- 
skilled operatives  not  otherwise  specified  in  shoe  factories,  sewers  and 
sewing-machine  operators  (factory),  shoemakers  and  cobblers  (not  in 
factory),  tailors  and  tailoresses,  dyers  —  total,  1,502,819;  male,  543,858; 
female,  958,961. 

IV.  Wood-working  trades :  cabinet-makers,  carpenters,  laborers  and  semi- 
skilled operatives  not  otherwise  specified  in  lumber  and  furniture  industries 
—  total,  1,343,746;  male,  1,326,486;  female,  17,260. 

V.  Textile  trades:  laborers  and  semi-skilled  operatives  in  textile  indus- 
tries  not   otherwise   specified  —  total,   737,406;   male,   369,328;   female, 
368,078. 

VI.  Machinist  trades:  machinists,  millwrights,  and  tool-makers,  loom- 
fixers,  mechanics  not  otherwise  specified,  mechanical  engineers  —  total, 
550,604;  male,  550,469;  female,  135. 

F77.  Food  industries:  bakers,  butchers  and  dressers  (slaughterhouse), 
laborers  and  semi-skilled  operatives  not  otherwise  specified  in  food  indus- 
tries, laborers  and  semi-skilled  operatives  not  otherwise  specified  in 
cigar  and  tobacco  industries,  laborers  and  semi-skilled  operatives  not  other- 

*  Compiled  from  data  given  on  pages  91  f.  of  the  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910),  vol.  rv. 


600     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

wise  specified  in  liquor,  beverage  industries,  millers  of  grain,  flour,  feed, 
etc.  —  total,  518,154;  male,  391,538;  female,  126,616. 

VIII.  Engineers  (stationary,  and  firemen) :  exclusive  of  locomotive  and 
fire  department  —  total,  342,289;  male,  342,279;  female,  10. 

IX.  Printing  trades:  compositors,  linotypers,  and  typesetters,  electro- 
typers,   stereotypers,   and  lithographers,   engravers,  pressmen,   laborers, 
and  semi-skilled  operatives  not  otherwise  specified  in  printing  and  publish- 
ing industries  —  total,  248,656;  male,  196,813;  female,  51,843. 

X.  Ceramic  trades :  laborers  and  semi-skilled  operatives  not  otherwise 
specified  in  clay,  glass,  and  stone  industries  — •  total,  243,454;  male,  231,605; 
female,  11,849. 

XI.  Electric  trades :  electricians  and  electrical  engineers,  laborers  not 
otherwise  specified  in  electric  light  and  power  plants,  laborers  and  semi- 
skilled operatives  not  otherwise  specified  in  electric  supply  factories  — • 
total,  179,806;  male,  167,127;  female,  12,679. 

XII.  Supervisory  and  executive  occupations :  manufacturers  and  officials, 
managers  and  superintendents  (manufacturing),  foremen  and  forewomen 
(manufacturing)  —  total,  535,899;  male,  509,998;  female,  25,901. 

XIII.  AU  other  trades:  total,  967,394;  male,  811,544;  female,  155,850. 

XIV.  Apprentices:  total,  118,964;  male,  103,369;  female,  15,595. 

Table  CXLVI  indicates  the  relative  numbers  of  per- 
sons engaged  in  the  various  industries  on  the  basis  of  the 
preceding  classification. 

In  spite  of  the  wide  variety  of  specialized  occupations 
falling  within  each  of  the  general  groups  considered,  in  spite 
of  the  variation  in  different  localities,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  total  number  of  workers  engaged  in  any  industry 
does  not  show  the  proportion  of  somewhat  skilled  workers, 
and  in  spite  of  the  obviously  inadequate  information  afforded 
by  the  figures  presented,  Tables  CXLIV,  CXLV,  and 
CXLVI  show  that  the  building,  metal-working,  clothing, 
wood-working,  textile,  and  machinist  trades  engage  by  far 
the  greatest  proportion  of  industrial  workers  —  70.4  per 
cent  of  all  industrial  workers,  68.9  per  cent  of  male,  and 
78.1  per  cent  of  female.  The  major  specialized  and  skill- 
demanding  trades  involved  in  those  general  trades  must, 
therefore,  form  the  backbone  of  industrial  education  in  the 
secondary  school  for  the  country  at  large. 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS 


601 


TABLE  CXLVI  * 


Group 

Trade*  at  above  classified 

Per  cent  of  all  en- 
gaged in  manufac- 
turing and  mechan- 
ical industries 

Per  cent  of  all  en- 
gaged   in    gainful 
occupations 

All 
(per 
cent) 

Mole 
(per 
cent) 

Female 
(per 
cent) 

All 
(per 
cent) 

Male 
(per 
cent) 

Female 
(per 
cent) 

I 
II 
III 
IV 
V 
VI 
VII 
VIII 
IX 
X 
XI 
XII 
XIII 
XIV 

16.9 
14.7 
14.1 
12.6 
6.9 
5.2 
4.9 
3.2 
2.3 
2.3 
1.7 
5.0 
9.1 
1.1 

20.2 
17.1 
6.2 
15.0 
4.2 
6.2 
4.4 
3.9 
2.2 
2.6 
1.9 
5.8 
9.2 
1.1 

1.0 
3.2 
52.7 
0.9 
20.3 
(?) 
6.9 
(?) 
2.8 
0.6 
0.7 
1.4 
8.6 
0.9 

1.6 
4.2 
3.9 
3.5 
1.9 
1.4 
1.3 
0.9 
0.7 
0.7 
0.5 
1.4 
2.6 
0.3 

5.9 
5.0 
1.8 
4.4 

1.2 

1.8 
1.3 
1.1 
0.7 
0.8 
0.6 
1.7 
2.7 
0.3 

0.2 
0.7 
11.9 
0.2 
4.6 
(?) 
1.6 
(?) 
0.6 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 
1.9 
0.2 

Clothing  trades  

Textile  trades   

Machinist  trades  

Engineers  and  firemen  

Printing  trades  

Electric  trades  

Supervisory  positions  

Apprentices  

Total  

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

27.9 

29.3 

22.7 

*  Compiled  from  data  given  in  Table  CXLIV  and  from  data  given  by  the  Thirteenth  Census 
Report  (1910),  pp.  91  /. 

266.  Variation  in  industrial  conditions.  While  the  main 
fields  of  industrial  activity  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph will  in  all  probability  suggest  the  principal  lines  of 
industrial  education  for  the  country  at  large,  differing  con- 
ditions in  various  localities  must  affect  the  specific  trades 
within  those  principal  divisions  and  in  many  cases  empha- 
size trades  engaging  a  relatively  small  proportion  of  industrial 
workers  throughout  the  country  but  engaging  a  relatively 
large  proportion  of  industrial  workers  within  a  particular 
district  or  community.  Thus  in  Waterbury,  Connecticut, 
more  than  one  half  of  the  industrial  workers  are  semi- 
skilled or  skilled  workers  in  the  metal  industries;  in  Tampa, 
Florida,  more  than  one  half  are  skilled  (few)  or  semi-skilled 
(many)  workers  in  the  cigar  and  tobacco  industries;  in 
Woonsocket,  Rhode  Island,  more  than  one  half  are  semi- 


602      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

skilled  (many)  or  skilled  (few)  workers  in  the  textile  in- 
dustries; in  Lynn,  Massachusetts,  more  than  one  half  are 
semi-skilled  (many)  or  skilled  (few)  workers  in  the  shoe  in- 
dustries; etc.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  majority  of  com- 
munities of  such  size  as  to  warrant  and  permit  any  consid- 
erable attention  to  industrial  education  in  the  regular  public 
secondary  school,  industries  are  noticeably  varied.  In  any 
case  an  "  industrial  survey  "  to  ascertain  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  various  trades  exemplified  in  local  industries  and 
to  determine  the  numbers  of  semi-skilled  or  skilled  work- 
ers employed  is  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  selection  of 
industrial  occupations  which  should  be  represented  by 
vocational  subjects  in  the  secondary  school  of  any  commu- 
nity.1 

267.  The  selection  of  industrial  subjects.  Some  general 
principles  governing  the  selection  of  vocational  subjects 
were  outlined  in  section  254.  They  apply  with  special  force 
to  industrial  education  in  the  secondary  school.  A  number 
of  factors,  however,  invite  particular  attention. 

(1)  The  problem  of  industrial  education  involves  special 
difficulties  in  the  small  school  where  pupils  who  are  likely 
to  engage  in  industrial  activities  are  too  few  to  permit  the 
economical  introduction  of  industrial  subjects.  Apparently 
the  only  solution  to  that  problem  is  the  establishment  of 
sectional  industrial  or  generally  vocational  schools  or  the 
introduction  of  part-time  cooperative  education.  In  other 
small  but  somewhat  larger  schools  in  somewhat  larger 
communities  where  local  industrial  activities  are  fairly  im- 
portant but  rather  varied  and  where  the  number  of  pupils 
likely  to  engage  in  industrial  occupations  is  large  enough 
to  warrant  the  introduction  of  some  industrial  education, 
the  problem  of  selection  of  industrial  subjects  becomes 
acute.  In  such  communities  any  attempt  to  meet  the  needs 
1  Cf.  Report  of  tlie  Minneapolis  Survey  for  Vocational  Education. 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          603 

of  special  local  industries,  except  in  so  far  as  they  may  repre- 
sent generally  important  trades,  must  be  discouraged,  and 
industrial  subjects  must  be  chosen  which  represent  occupa- 
tions having  a  steady  and  general  demand  throughout  the 
state  or  country. 

(2)  A  newly  established  local  industry  or  an  industry  for 
a  time  rapidly  growing    frequently  creates  a  demand  for 
skilled  workers  which  is  but  temporary.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  industrial  education  be  provided  for  those  occupations 
which  have  a  fairly  steady  and  general  demand;  e.g.,  in  many 
communities  the  manufacture  of  various  war  supplies  has 
received  a  tremendous  impetus  during  the  European  war. 
The  demand  for  skilled  munition  workers  is  at  present 
greatly  exaggerated  and  cannot  long  remain  at  its  present 
high  status. 

(3)  In  many  industries  there  is  a  constant  change  in  the 
workers  employed  and  the  period  of  service  in  certain  trades 
is  so  short  as  to  preclude  opportunity  for  satisfactory  indus- 
trial training  related  to  those  occupations  in  the  secondary 
school. 

This  constant  change,  we  have  already  seen,  is  true  of  the  work- 
ers in  our  canning  factories  and  of  those  in  knitting  mills  and  mills 
producing  low-grade  cotton  textiles.  Similar  instability  is  found 
among  the  workers  on  the  simpler  processes  in  the  making  of  har- 
vesting machinery  and  in  one  instance  a  foundry  employing  three 
thousand  men  reported  twenty-six  hundred  yearly  changes.  Where 
men  and  women  are  continually  shifting  from  one  line  of  employ- 
ment to  another,  the  community  cannot  afford  to  finance  their 
vocational  training  until  a  study  of  the  trade  shall  reveal  that  there 
are  skilled  processes  requiring  special  training  which  this  shifting 
group  has  never  received  and  which  might  be  expected  to  hold 
them  more  uniformly  in  one  industry.1 

(4)  In  different  industries  the  proportions  of  skilled,  semi- 
skilled, and  unskilled  laborers  vary  greatly.  Thus  the  indus- 

1  H.  B.  Smith,  Establishing  Industrial  Schools,  p.  13. 


604      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


trial  workers  of  Minneapolis  in  1915  were  distributed  as 
follows : 

TABLE  CXLVII.  DISTBIBUTION  OF  SKILLED,  SEMI-SKILLED, 
AND  UNSKILLED  WORKERS  IN  THE  MANUFACTURING  AND  ME- 
CHANICAL INDUSTRIES  OF  MINNEAPOLIS,  1915  * 


Industries 

Skilled 

Semi-skilled 

Laborers 

Total 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Building  trades  

9,379 
5,324 
1,236 
5,310 

1,272 
1,031 
2,405 
1,184 
2 
307 
150 

2 
2 
4,792 
175 
15 
57 
6 
62 

'  '2 

1,743 
144 

'S2 
134 

5,494 
839 
3 

61 

7 

14,936 
7,967 
6,309 
5,485 
4,065 
3,046 
2,807 
1,817 
932 
892 
716 
349 
338 
171 
3420 

Clothing          

Supervisors  and  technicians 
Lumber  and  furniture  

1,379 
851 
76 
294 
185 
440 
283 
244 
203 
16 
1,110 

42 
477 
45 
266 
684 
121 
4 
99 
8 
1 
764 

1,347 
613 
272 
9 
48 
18 
278 
4 
126 

821 

10 
17 
3 
2 
13 
4 
1 
2 
1 

"i 

Printing  and  engraving.  .  .  . 
Textile  

Boots,  shoes,  and  leather.  .  . 

Liquor  and  beverage  

150 
701 

4 

20 

Total          

28,451 
53.4 

5,137 
9.7 

6,968 
13.1 

2,697 
5.0 

9,872 
18.6 

125 
0.2 

53,250 
100.00 

Per  cent  ...    

*  Report  of  the  Minneapolis  Survey  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  no.  21  of  the  Na- 
tional Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Vocational  Education,  p.  15. 

Those  trades  or  parts  of  trades  only  which  offer  some  oppor- 
tunity for  the  utilization  of  somewhat  skilled  workers  in 
fairly  large  numbers  should  be  represented  by  related  indus- 
trial courses  in  the  secondary  school. 

(5)  Some  trades  are  of  such  a  character  that  related  in- 
dustrial training  cannot  be  provided  within  the  secondary 
school  building  and  under  ordinary  school  conditions. 
Provision  can  be  made  for  industrial  education  in  such 
fields  only  through  part-time  work,  continuation  schools, 
or  specially  organized  institutions. 

268.  "  General  subjects  "  modified.  The  practice  initi- 
ated in  special  type  vocational  schools  of  adapting  "  general 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          605 

subjects "  to  special  supposed  or  real  industrial  needs  has 
tended  to  spread  to  the  modification  of  such  subjects  for 
the  same  purpose  in  the  regular  secondary  school.  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  something  may  legitimately  and 
economically  be  done  in  this  direction  there  is  danger  that 
artificial  differentiation  may  result  in  damage  both  to  in- 
dustrial education  and  to  other  educational  needs.  In 
general  much  of  the  comment  made  in  section  260  dealing 
with  clerical  and  commercial  education  applies  here  also. 
For  instance  it  must  be  recognized  that  courses  in  English 
and  social  science  exist  in  the  secondary-school  program  for 
purposes  which  are  not  primarily  vocational.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  worker  is  also  to  be  a  citizen  and  an 
individual.  The  threefold  nature  of  his  activities  cannot  be 
neglected :  neither  can  one  group  of  subjects  or  one  kind  of 
education  lead  effectively  to  all  three  ends  at  the  same  time. 
"Industrial  English"  and  "  industrial  history,"  however  le- 
gitimately they  may  find  a  place  in  that  part  of  the  school 
program  dealing  specifically  with  industrial  education,  can 
never  take  the  place  of  the  English  and  social  science  de- 
signed for  other  purposes.  They  must,  if  justified  at  all, 
be  supplements  to  and  not  substitutes  for  related  courses 
designed  to  contribute  toward  the  social-civic  and  indi- 
vidualistic-avocational  aims  of  secondary  education. 

IV.  AGRICULTURAL  SUBJECTS 

269.  The  scope  of  agricultural  education.  Although  some 
attention  has  been  paid  to  agriculture  in  certain  of  the 
academies  before  1850,  the  present  vocational  movement 
began  with  the  establishment  of  special  agricultural  high 
schools  in  connection  with  agricultural  colleges  (first  in 
Minnesota  in  1888).  The  movement  somewhat  later  spread 
to  special  sectional  agricultural  high  schools  but  not  until 


606      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

within  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  was  agricultural  educa- 
tion introduced  into  the  regular  public  secondary  schools 
to  any  noteworthy  extent.  Previous  to  1906  there  were  but 
few  high  schools  (excepting  agricultural  high  schools)  giving 
instructionin  agriculture.1  In  1912-13  there  were  about  2300 
high  schools  (2128  ordinary  high  schools)  in  the  country 
teaching  agriculture.2  In  1914-15  such  instruction  was 
afforded  in  4390  public  secondary  schools  and  83,573  pub- 
lic secondary-school  pupils  were  enrolled  in  agricultural 
courses. 3  Favorable  legislation  granting  State  and  National 
aid  to  agricultural  education  will  in  all  probability  greatly 
extend  its  scope  within  the  next  few  years,  giving  greater 
and  greater  importance  to  the  agricultural  subjects  in  the 
secondary-school  program  of  studies. 

The  recency  of  agricultural  education  in  the  public  sec- 
ondary schools  has  prevented  the  development  of  many 
stable  policies  or  practices,  particularly  since  much  of  the 
work  in  agriculture  varies  somewhat  according  to  geograph- 
ical factors.  Lack  of  even  the  roughest  standardization 
renders  impossible  analysis  of  practice  affecting  specific 
subjects  for  agricultural  education. 

270.  Factors  emphasizing  agricultural  education.  As  is 
the  case  with  other  forms  of  vocational  education  several 
factors  have  combined  to  emphasize  agricultural  education 
in  the  secondary  school  at  the  present  time.  The  more 
important  of  those  factors  may  be  summarized  briefly 
here,  (a.)  Modern  educational  theory  cannot  recognize  the 
claim  that  a  "general  education"  provides  satisfactorily 
for  the  life  which  the  agriculturalist  must  lead.  (6)  Mod- 
ern educational  theory  postulates  that  the  values,  character, 
and  aims  of  instruction  should  be  determined  by  the  activ- 

1  Davis,  B.  M.,  Agricultural  Education  in  the  Public  Schools,  p.  119. 

2  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1913),  vol.  i, 
p.  213. 

3  Ibid.  (191C),  vol.  ii,  p.  497. 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          607 

ities  in  which  the  pupils  will  later  participate,  (c)  Within 
recent  years  boys  and  girls  whose  destinies  in  life  are  found 
on  the  farm  have  entered  the  secondary  school  in  increasing 
numbers,  (d)  Within  a  relatively  short  period  of  time  the 
parts  played  in  production  by  abundant  natural  resources 
and  agricultural  efficiency  have  changed  to  a  marked  degree. 
If  production  is  to  keep  pace  economically  with  demand, 
the  inefficient  agricultural  work  of  the  past  must  give  way 
to  a  higher  degree  of  efficiency  in  order  to  offset  the  relative 
decrease  in  abundant  natural  resources,  (e)  In  the  field  of 
animal  husbandry  in  particular  the  decrease  in  the  amount 
of  land  which  may  economically  be  devoted  to  stock  raising 
and  grazing  demands  far  greater  efficiency  in  order  to  offset 
that  loss.  (/)  Competition  in  agricultural  production  has 
constantly  increased  as  increased  transportation  facilities 
have  extended  the  field  of  competition  even  to  international 
proportions,  (g}  The  increased  application  of  science  to  agri- 
culture and  animal  husbandry  has  tended  to  demand  a  higher 
degree  of  knowledge  and  skill  for  the  successful  pursuit  of 
those  occupations,  (h)  The  increased  scientific  and  technical 
knowledge  and  skill  demanded  for  agricultural  occupations 
has  rendered  the  ordinary  life  of  the  boy  or  girl  on  the  farm 
less  and  less  an  adequate  preparation  for  efficiency  in  those 
occupations,  (i)  Compulsory  school-attendance  laws  and 
child-labor  laws  have  removed  children  from  early  appren- 
ticeship on  the  farm  where  they  formerly  received  early 
agricultural  training,  (j)  The  school  has  tended  more  and 
more  to  occupy  boys  and  girls  at  ages  when  they  formerly 
were  engaged  in  agricultural  activities,  (k)  There  has  been 
a  very  noticeable  tendency  for  large  numbers  of  boys  and 
girls  to  leave  the  farm  and  engage  in  urban  occupations. 
The  education  which  has  heretofore  been  afforded  the 
country  boy  and  girl  has  encouraged  this  migration  by  pro- 
viding the  kind  of  education  in  elementary  and  secondary 


608      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

school  which  gave  little  preparation  for  farm  life  and  much 
for  city  life.  (I)  More  than  nine  tenths  of  the  public  second- 
ary schools  in  the  country  are  found  in  communities  of  less 
than  eight  thousand  inhabitants  and  considerably  more  than 
one  half  of  the  secondary-school  pupils  in  the  country  are 
found  in  the  small-town  or  rural  communities.1 

271.  Aims  and  values  of  agricultural  education.    The 
aims  of  the  study  of  agricultural  subjects  in  the  secondary 
school   are   obviously   those   emphasizing   the   economic- 
vocational  aim  of  education.    Accordingly  the  values  of 
various  agricultural  subjects  in  the  program  are  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  contributions  which  those  subjects  may 
make  to  the  economic-vocational  efficiency  of  individuals 
who  will  be  engaged  primarily  in  agricultural  occupations. 
Those  values  are  direct  and  specific,  though  limited  for  the 
most  part  to  pupils  who  will  participate  primarily  in  agri- 
cultural activities.     In  agricultural  education,   therefore, 
indirect  and  general  aims  must  be  subordinated  to  direct 
and  specific  aims.  Emphasis  on  "disciplinary  values "  (them- 
selves questionable)  is  of  questionable  validity  when  brought 
into  such  sharp  contrast  with  the  direct  and  specific  voca- 
tional values  of  agricultural  study  in  the  secondary  school. 
Hence  may  be  questioned  the  emphasis  by  Robison :  2 

Reasoning  ability  not  due  to  heredity  results  largely  from  re- 
peatedly forming  and  correcting  judgments.  Casual  examination 
of  the  materials  of  high  school  agriculture  show  that  they  offer 
abundant  opportunities  for  doing  this. 

272.  Analysis  of  agricultural  occupations.    For  purposes 
of  securing  a  basis  for  agricultural  education  in  the  second- 
ary school  an  examination  of  census  statistics  is  of  relatively 

1  Cf.  Section  32. 

2  Robison,  C.  H.,  p.  384  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High  School  Edu- 
cation. Quoted  with  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons. 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS 


609 


little  value.  Nevertheless  the  figures  presented  below  will 
at  least  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  agricul- 
tural workers  is  composed  of  "farmers"  and  "farm  labor- 
ers" whose  occupations  demand  a  rather  general  agricul- 
tural training  rather  than  training  in  one  limited  phase  of 
agricultural  activity.  • 

TABLE  CXLVUE.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  WORKERS 
IN  1910* 


Occupations 

Numbers 

Per  cents 

All 

Male 

Female 

All 

Male 

Female 

61,816 
35,014 
5,865,003 
5,975,057 

47,591 
139,255 
133,927 

62,975 
52,521 

44,238 

59,240 
32,237 
5,607,297 
4,460,634 

39,826 
131,421 
126,453 

62,090 
50,847 

40,408 

2,576 
2,777 
257,706 
1,514,423 

7,765 
7,834 

7,474 

885 
1,674 

3,830 

0.5 
0.3 
47.2 
48.1 

0.4 
1.1 
1.1 

0.5 
0.4 

0.4 

0.6 
0.3 
52.9 
42.0 

0.4 
1.2 
1.1 

0.6 
0.5 

0.4 

0.1 
0.2 
83.8 
14.3 

0.4 
0.4 
0.4 

0.1 
0.1 

0.2 

Farmers  

Foremen,     farm,     dairy,     gar- 

Gardeners,  florists,  fruit  grow- 

Garden,  greenhouse,  etc.,  labor- 
ers   

Stock  herders,  drovers,  feeders, 

Other  agricultural  and  animal 
workers  

Total  

12,417,397 

10,610,453 

1,806,944 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

*  From  p.  91  of  the  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910),  vol.  iv.  In  the  table  given  above  are 
omitted  figures  for  fishermen,  oystermen,  lumbermen,  etc.  Figures  for  female  farm  laborers 
are  probably  somewhat  unreliable. 

The  most  noteworthy  fact  emerging  from  these  figures 
is  that  "farmers"  and  "farm  laborers"  comprise  more  than 
95  per  cent  of  all  agricultural  and  animal-husbandry  work- 
ers. The  "average  farmer"  engages  in  a  wide  variety  of 
agricultural  activities,  including  dairy  work,  poultry  hus- 
bandry, and  other  forms  of  animal  husbandry,  crop  raising, 
orcharding,  etc.  While  specialization  in  agricultural  occu- 
pations is  constantly  increasing  the  great  majority  of 
agricultural  workers  must  engage  in  general  farm  work. 


610      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

The  preparation  of  such  persons  must,  therefore,  cover  a 
relatively  wide  range  of  agricultural  activities.  In  many 
cases  the  failure  of  the  small  farmer  is  a  direct  result  of  his 
inability  or  unwillingness  to  combine  several  different  but 
more  or  less  supplementary  phases  of  agricultural  and 
animal-husbandry  activities. 

273.  Variation  in  agricultural  activities.    While  some  of 
the  elements  entering  into  agricultural  education  in  the 
secondary  school  remain  relatively  constant  as  far  as  geo- 
graphical factors  are  concerned,  other  important  elements 
must  vary  widely  according  to  local  conditions  of  soil, 
climate,   topography,   population   distribution,   and   other 
factors.     (1)   Certain  phases  of  agricultural  and  animal- 
husbandry  occupations  may   legitimately  receive   special 
attention  in  States  like  Arizona  where  stock  raising,  etc., 
engages   the  activity  of  more  than  one  quarter  of  those 
engaged  in  agricultural  or  animal-husbandry  pursuits,  in 
parts  of  California  where  more  than  eighteen  per  cent  of  all 
agricultural   workers   are   engaged   in   horticulture,    fruit- 
growing, nurseries,  etc.,  on  Long  Island  where  the  majority 
of  farmers  are  engaged  in  truck-farming.    (2)  Special  phases 
of  agricultural  pursuits  may  be  emphasized  according  to 
soil  and  climatic  or  general  topographical  conditions;  e.g., 
note  the  importance  of  dairy  husbandry  in  southwestern 
Washington,  of  cattle  and  horse  raising  in  central  Washing- 
ton, and  of  grain  production  in  eastern  Washington.    The 
selection  of  certain  kinds  of  agricultural  education  in  the 
secondary  school  must  be  determined  to  some  extent  by 
predominant  local  agricultural  occupations.    The  general 
principles  governing  such  selection  have  been  outlined  in 
previous  sections. 

274.  The  adaptation  of  "  general "  subjects.    As  with 
other  forms  of  vocational  education  there  has  developed 
a  tendency  to  modify  instruction  in  several  "  general  "  sub- 


611 

jects  in  the  secondary-school  program  to  the  needs  of  special 
groups  of  pupils  whose  manifest  destinies  involve  primarily 
agricultural  occupations.  For  the  most  part  such  modifica- 
tion and  adaptation  has  taken  place  in  connection  with  the 
natural  sciences,  especially  in  connection  with  the  biological 
sciences.  The  important  basic  bearing  of  the  biological 
sciences  on  agriculture  and  the  fact  that  the  secondary- 
school  population  in  rural  communities  tends  to  be  roughly 
homogeneous  as  far  as  its  vocational  needs  are  concerned 
appear  to  give  justification  to  the  practice  of  directing  the 
natural-science  work  for  agricultural  pupils  along  lines  ap- 
propriate to  the  pursuit  of  agriculture  and  animal  hus- 
bandry. As  yet  little  attempt  has  been  made  to  modify 
other  "  general  "  subjects  for  the  purposes  of  agricultural 
education  and  the  objections  raised  to  "vocational  English" 
and  "vocational -social  science"  in  connection  with  clerical, 
commercial,  and  industrial  education  need  not  here  be 
considered. 

V.  DOMESTIC  SUBJECTS 

275.  Scope  and  field  of  domestic  education.  Under  the 
general  title  of  "domestic  subjects"  are  here  considered 
those  subjects  related  to  the  various  activities  which  have 
developed  in  the  fields  of  housekeeping  and  homemaking. 
In  this  category  fall  such  subjects  as  are  commonly  listed 
under  the  titles  "household  arts,"  "household  sciences," 
and  many  "practical  arts  for  girls"  —covering  the  selec- 
tion, purchase,  preparation,  and  serving  of  food;  the  se- 
lection, purchase,  preparation,  and  care  of  clothing;  the 
selection,  purchase,  use,  care,  and  arrangement  of  house- 
hold apparatus;  the  care  and  training  of  little  children,  care 
for  household  sanitation  and  family  health,  etc. 

As  is  the  case  with  the  practical  arts  in  general  those 


612      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

dealing  with  the  home  and  family  have  been  almost  totally 
neglected  in  the  secondary  school  until  within  the  past  few 
years  and  even  at  present  receive  very  inadequate  atten- 
tion. Within  the  past  decade  or  two  domestic  subjects 
covering  a  relatively  wide  range  of  domestic  activities  have 
been  introduced  in  some  of  the  larger  secondary  schools. 
In  smaller  schools  the  tendency  has  been  to  introduce  ele- 
mentary courses  in  cooking  and  sewing.  In  many  secondary 
schools  no  domestic  subject  has  yet  found  its  way  into  the 
program  of  studies. 

The  late  development  of  instruction  in  domestic  subjects 
has  not  yet  permitted  the  establishment  of  many  stable 
policies  and  practices  and  domestic  education  must  at 
present  be  considered  as  in  its  experimental  and  formative 
stage.  No  exact  analysis  of  existing  domestic  subjects  can 
be  made  where  the  materials,  organization,  and  methods  of 
teaching  them  differ  widely  in  different  schools. 

276.  Factors  emphasizing  domestic  education.  The 
primary  factor  emphasizing  the  importance  of  domestic  arts 
in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school  is,  of  course,  recog- 
nition of  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  girls  will  later  be  en- 
gaged predominantly  in  the  activities  of  homemaking  and 
housekeeping.  It  is  true  that  in  the  past,  even  more  than 
in  the  present,  the  home  has  been  the  sphere  of  woman's 
activity.  Despite  the  fact,  however,  that  women  have  to 
an  ever-increasing  extent  engaged  in  activities  outside  the 
home,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  many  activities  have  been 
removed  from  the  home,  several  factors  have  tended  to 
emphasize  the  importance  of  secondary-school  training  in 
the  domestic  arts  at  the  present  time.  Among  those  factors 
may  be  mentioned  the  following,  (a)  The  education  hereto- 
fore emphasized  in  the  secondary  school  has  to  a  consider- 
able extent  tended  to  guide  the  girl  away  from  activities 
peculiar  to  the  home.  (6)  Compulsory  school-attendance 


PRACTICAL  AND   VOCATIONAL  ARTS           613 

laws  and  other  factors  have  tended  to  bring  more  girls  into 
the  secondary  school  and  to  hold  them  there  for  a  longer 
time.  The  secondary  school  has  made  such  demands  on  the 
time  and  energy  of  girls  that  the  amount  of  domestic  train- 
ing in  the  home  has  been  noticeably  curtailed,  (c)  Greatly 
extended  opportunities  for  girls  and  women  earning  a  liveli- 
hood in  industry  have  decreased  the  amount  of  relatively 
cheap  "  hired  help  "  in  the  home,  thereby  tending  to  some 
extent  to  offset  the  effect  of  labor-saving  devices  in  the 
home  and  to  increase  the  need  for  efficiency  in  domestic 
work,  (d)  Changed  conditions  of  family  life  (e.g.,  the  with- 
drawal of  the  mother  from  household  work  to  factory  work 
or  other  work  outside  the  home)  have  in  many  cases  ren- 
dered traditional  methods  of  transmitting  household  arts 
from  mother  to  daughter  inadequate,  (e)  The  modern  scien- 
tific study  of  food  values  and  nutrition  of  sanitation  and 
hygiene  has  lent  new  meaning  to  household  work.  (/)  The 
increased  cost  of  many  staple  food  commodities  (especially 
meats)  has  emphasized  the  need  for  economical  efficiency 
in  the  selection,  purchase,  and  preparation  of  food.  (<?)  The 
preparation  of  many  articles  of  food  and  clothing  outside 
the  home  has  both  simplified  and  complicated  the  econom- 
ical and  effective  management  of  the  household;  e.g.,  note 
the  dangers  of  adulterated  food,  the  waste  of  shoddy  cloth- 
ing, deception  in  the  sale  of  commodities,  and  the  knowledge 
required  to  safeguard  the  family  health  and  the  family  purse 
against  such  dangers,  (h)  The  conditions  of  modern  life, 
especially  in  the  city  and  among  foreigners,  call  for  read- 
justments in  home  and  family  life  that  are  fraught  with 
danger  unless  guarded  against.  In  this  readjustment  the 
secondary  school  must  play  its  part. 

277.  Females  in  various  occupations.  According  to  the 
Census  Report  for  1910  there  were  8,075,772  females  ten 
years  of  age  or  over  engaged  in  "  gainful  occupations  "  (i.e., 


614      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

not  in  their  own  homes).  Of  that  number  637,086  were 
between  ten  and  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  1,847,606  between 
sixteen  and  twenty  years  of  age,  leaving  5,591,086  females 
twenty-one  years  of  age  or  over  engaged  in  such  occupations. 
These  constituted  22.8  per  cent  of  all  females  twenty -one 
years  of  age  or  older  in  1910. l  The  remaining  18,964,668 
women  were  for  the  most  part  engaged  in  occupations  in 
their  own  homes.  In  addition  a  large  proportion  of  those 
engaged  in  gainful  occupations  to  some  extent  participated 
in  domestic  activities. 

Analysis  of  figures  presented  in  the  census  returns  under 
the  title  of  "  domestic  and  personal  service  "  is  of  relatively 
little  value  for  the  present  purpose.  Statistics  there  pre- 
sented indicate  that  of  women  engaged  in  occupations  thus 
classified  were  for  the  most  part  employed  as  servants 
(51.7  per  cent),  laundresses  (23.6  per  cent),  housekeepers 
(professionally  private,  boarding  and  lodging  12.4  per  cent) 
—  total  87.7  per  cent.2  The  total  number  engaged  in  those 
occupations  (2,530,846  in  all  "  domestic  and  personal  serv- 
ice") is,  however,  relatively  insignificant,  when  comparted 
with  the  number  engaged  in  domestic  occupations  in  their 
own  homes  and  excluded  from  the  above-presented  census 
returns.  It  is  to  be  noted  moreover  that  many  phases  of 
domestic  activity  are  essentially  the  same  whether  carried 
on  in  the  individual's  own  home  or  for  hire  in  other  situa- 
tions, so  that  domestic  arts  education  in  the  secondary 
school  may  prepare  almost  equally  well  for  the  majority  of 
domesticities  wherever  involved. 

278.  Values  of  domestic  education  for  girls.  The  chief 
activities  of  the  great  majority  of  women  will  always  be 
found  in  the  home.  Even  for  the  relatively  small  proportion 
of  girls  whose  "  profession  "  or  "  trade  "  will  lie  in  activities 
outside  the  home,  participation  in  some  of  the  major  activ- 

1  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910),  vol.  iv,  p.  73.  2  Ibid.,  p.  94. 


PRACTICAL  AND  VOCATIONAL  ARTS          615 

ities  of  the  home  is  inevitable,  and  the  contingency  is  high 
that  sooner  or  later  every  woman  will  be  the  central  figure 
controlling  the  destinies  of  the  home  and  family.  For  these 
reasons  it  is  probable  that  some  form  and  some  amount  of 
domestic  education  should  constitute  a  part  of  the  second- 
ary education  of  all  girls.  Beyond  doubt  important  respon- 
sibilities for  homemaking  must  rest  on  the  secondary-school 
boys  who  will  later  become  partners  in  homemaking.  It 
is,  therefore,  imperative  that  some  preparation  for  such 
activities  as  are  therein  involved  should  be  found  in  their 
education  in  the  secondary  school.  Nevertheless  it  is  prob- 
able that  any  attempt  to  enroll  secondary-school  boys  in  any 
specifically  organized  domestic  subject  would  wreck  itself 
on  the  reefs  of  antagonistic  interests  and  .attitudes.  In  all 
likelihood,  therefore,  such  homemaking  education  as  may 
profitably  be  provided  for  secondary-school  boys  must  be 
provided  in  connection  with  civics,  vocational  arts,  and 
possibly  science  and  economics. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  Make  a  study  of  State  provision  for  vocational  education  in  America. 

2.  Compare  provision  for  vocational  education  in  America  and  in  Ger- 
many, France,  England,  or  Switzerland. 

3.  Investigate  the  attitude  of  labor  organizations  to  vocational  education. 

4.  In  any  high-school  canvas  the  occupations  of  pupils'  parents. 

5.  In  any  high-school  canvas  the  vocational  interests  of  pupils  in  various 
grades. 

6.  For  any  industry  or  part  of  an  industry  make  an  analysis  of  the  knowl- 
edges and  skills  involved  according  to  the  length  of  time  ordinarily 
required  for  their  acquirement. 

7.  In  any  city  examine  the  "working  certificates"  granted  to  boys  and 
girls  leaving  school  before  the  completion  of  the  full  period  of  com- 
pulsory attendance.   What  occupations  do  they  enter? 

8.  Consider  the  pupils  of  any  one  "class"  who  entered  the  first  year  of  the 
high  school  five  or  six  years  ago.   Analyze  the  occupations  which  they 
have  entered,  classifying  them  according  to  the  stage  at  which  the 
different  groups  left  school. 

9.  Make  a  study  of  existing  apprentice  systems  in  this  country. 


616      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

10.  Make  a  study  of  the  occupations  found  in  a  large  department  store.  For 
which  can  the  secondary  school  profitably  provide  vocational  training? 

11.  Make  a  study  of  the  costs  of  various  forms  of  vocational  and  practical 
arts  education  in  the  secondary  schools. 

12.  Make  a  study  of  present  provisions  for  practical  and  vocational  arts 
education  in  the  secondary  schools  of  any  one  State. 

13.  In  any  high  school  determine  to  what  extent  pupils  leaving  school  either 
before  or  after  graduation  enter  occupations  closely  related  to  voca- 
tional studies  which  they  have  taken  in  the  secondary  school. 

14.  What  are  the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  providing  voca- 
tional studies  in  the  secondary  school  itself  and  of  providing  for  part- 
time  vocational  training  in  the  occupation  itself? 

15.  Debate  this  proposition:  "Secondary  education  should  be  restricted  to 
liberal  studies  because  they  can  be  provided  nowhere  else.   Vocational 
training  should  not  be  provided  in  the  secondary  school  because  it  can 
be  secured  better  in  the  vocation  itself." 

16.  To  what  extent  do  pupils'  vocational  interests  change  during  the  sec- 
ondary-school course? 

17.  Discuss  the  possible  effects  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Bill  on  secondary 
education  in  the  United  States. 


SELECTED   REFERENCES 

I.  General: 

Ayres,  L.  P.,  Constant  and  Variable  Occupations  and  their  Bearing 
on  Problems  of  Vocational  Education.  (Russell  Sage  Foundation.) 

Brown,  J.  S.,  et  al.,  "The  Place  of  Vocational  Subjects  in  the  High- 
School  Curriculum,"  Fourth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the 
Scientific  Study  of  Education,  part  n,  pp.  9-52. 

Bloomfield,  M.,  The  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth. 

Carlton,  F.  T.,  Education  and  Industrial  Evolution. 

Davenport,  E.,  Education  for  Efficiency,  especially  chaps,  i-vn. 

Dutton,  S.  T.,  and  Snedden,  D.,  The  Administration  of  Public 
Education  in  the  United  States,  chap.  xxn. 

Gillette,  J.  M.,  Vocational  Education. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  The  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects,  chaps,  xi- 

XIII. 

Leavitt,  F.  M.,  "Some  Sociological  Phases  of  the  Movement  for 

Industrial    Education,"   American  Journal    of    Sociology,   vol. 

xvin,  pp.  352-60. 
Leavitt,  F.  M.,  "The  Relation  of  the  Movement  for  Vocational  and 

Industrial  Education  to  the  Secondary  Schools,"  School  Review, 

vol.  xix,  pp.  85-95. 
Lodge,  T.  H.,  "Vocational  Subjects  in  the  Secondary  School," 

Educational  Review,  vol.  xxxix,  pp.  333-41. 


PRACTICAL  AND   VOCATIONAL  ARTS          617 

National  Education  Association,  Report  of  Committee  on  Voca- 
tional Education,  Vacationed  Secondary  Education,  Bureau  of 
Education  Bulletin  (1916)  no.  21. 

Snedden,  D.,  The  Problem  of  Vocational  Education. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chaps,  vi-x. 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Reports. 
II.  Commercial  and  clerical  education: 

Bartholomew,  W.  E.,  "Fundamental  Aims  in  the  Teaching  of 
Bookkeeping,"  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association 
(1916),  pp.  362-65. 

Brett,  G.  P.,  "The  Need  of  Commercial  Education,"  Independent, 
vol.  LXXII,  pp.  728-30. 

Hartog,  P.  J.,  "Commercial  Education  in  the  United  States," 
(Board  of  Education  for  England  and  Wales),  Special  Reports  on 
Educational  Subjects,  vol.  xi. 

Herrick,  C.  A.,  Meaning  and  Practice  of  Commercial  Education. 

Johnson,  J.  F.,  in  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation (1913),  vol.  i,  pp.  235-48. 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganiza- 
tion of  Secondary  Education,  Report  of  the  Committee  on 
Business  Education,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  ix. 

Stevens,  B.  M.,  Boys  and  Girls  in  Commercial  Work,  Cleveland 
Education  Survey. 

Thompson,  F.  V.,  Commercial  Education  in  Public  Secondary  Schools. 

Thompson,  F.  V.,  in  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education  (1915),  vol.  i,  pp.  279-93;  (1916),  vol.  i,  pp.  219-36. 
III.  Industrial  education: 

Arnett,  L.  D.,  "Educational  Outlook  based  on  Occupations," 
Pedagogical  Seminiary,  vol.  xn,  pp.  334-38. 

Carlton,  F.  T.,  Education  and  Industrial  Evolution. 

Cleveland  Education  Survey:  Shaw,  F.  L.,  The  Building  Trades; 
Bryner,  E.,  The  Garment  Trades;  Lutz,  R.  R.,  The  Metal  Trades; 
Shaw,  F.  L.,  The  Printing  Trades;  Lutz,  R.  R.,  Wage-Earning  and 
Education. 

Dean,  A.  D.,  The  Worker  and  the  State. 

Hanus,  P.  H.,  Beginnings  in  Industrial  Education. 

Harvey,  L.  D.,  "The  Need,  Scope,  and  Character  of  Industrial 
Education  hi  the  Public  School  System,"  Proceedings  of  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association  (1909),  pp.  49-70. 

Johnston,  C.  H.,  "The  Social  Significance  of  Various  Movements 
for  Industrial  Education,"  Educational  Review,  vol.  xxxvii,  pp. 
160-80. 

Kerschensteiner,  G.,  Organization  und  Lehrpldne  der  obligatorischen 
Fach-  und  Fortbildungschulen  fur  Knaben  in  Miinchen. 


618      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial  Education,  Reports. 

National  Council  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Place 
of  Industries  in  Public  Education,  Proceedings  of  the  National 
Education  Association  (1910),  pp.  652-59,  680-788,  especially 
pp.  731-66. 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganization 
of  Secondary  Education,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Industrial 
Arts,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education  Bulle- 
tins. 

Paquier,  J.  B.,  L' Enseignement  professional  en  France. 

Smith,  H.  B.,  Establishing  Industrial  Schools. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  vir. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  Bulletin  (1906)  no.  67,  Conditions 
of  Entrance  into  the  Principal  Trades. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  Bulletin  no.  162,  Voca- 
tional Education  Survey  of  Richmond,  Virginia. 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  Seventeenth  Annual  Report 
(1910),  Trade  and  Technical  Education. 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  Twenty-fifth  Annual  Report 
(1910),  Industrial  Education. 

Vanderlip,  F.  A.,  Business  and  Education. 

Wright,  C.  D.,  The  Apprenticeship  System  in  its  Relation  to  Industrial 

Education,  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1908)  no.  6. 
IV.  Agricultural  education: 

American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Agricultural  Teach- 
ing, Agricultural  Education  in  Secondary  Schools,  Bureau  of 
Education,  Bulletin  (1912)  no.  6;  Agricultural  Instruction  in 
Secondary  Schools,  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1913)  no. 
14. 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  "Education  by  Means  of  Agriculture,"  Cyclopedia  oj 
American  Agriculture,  vol.  iv,  pp.  467-77. 

Betts,  G.  H.,  New  Ideals  in  Rural  Schools. 

Bricker,  G.  A.,  The  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  High  School. 

Cubberley,  E.  P.,  Rural  Life  and  Education. 

Davenport,  E.,  Education  for  Efficiency. 

Davis,  B.  M.,  Agricultural  Education  in  the  Public  Schools. 

Giles,  F.  M.,  "The  Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the  High  School," 
School  Review,  vol.  xvii,  pp.  154-65. 

Knapp,  S.  A.,  "Shall  Agriculture  be  Taught  in  the  Secondary 
Schools  of  the  United  States?"  Southern  Educational  Review, 
vol.  iv,  pp.  53-64. 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganiza- 
tion of  Secondary  Education,  Report  of  Committee  on  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 


PRACTICAL  AND   VOCATIONAL  ARTS          619 

National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  "Agricultural  Edu- 
cation in  Secondary  Schools,"  Eleventh  Yearbook,  part  II. 

Robison,  C.  H.,  Agricultural  Instruction  in  the  Public  High  Schools 
of  the  United  States. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  vin. 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Reports. 
V.  Domestic  arts  education : 

Camp,  K.  B.,  "Some  Phases  of  the  Scientific  and  Social  Value  of 
Domestic  Science  in  Education,"  Proceedings  of  the  Eastern  Man- 
ual Training  Association  (1903),  pp.  84-90. 

Carlton,  F.  T.,  Education  and  Industrial  Evolution,  pp.  174-80. 

Condit,  E.  C.,  "The  Economic  Value  of  Domestic  Science,"  Atlantic 
Educational  Journal,  vol.  in,  pp.  24-28. 

Day,  L.  G.,  "The  Place  of  Domestic  Science  in  the  Public  School 
Curriculum,  Proceedings  of  the  Wisconsin's  Teachers'  Association 
(1907),  pp.  75-78. 

Gladfelter,  L.  M.,  "The  Strongest  Plea  for  Domestic  Science," 
Proceedings  of  the  Eastern  Manual  Training  Association  (1901), 
pp.  88-94. 

Kinne,  H.,  "The  Three  Values  of  Domestic  Science  and  Art  in 
the  Schools,"  Proceedings  of  the  Eastern  Manual  Training  Asso- 
ciation (1904),  pp.  57-69. 

Kinne,  H.,  "Vocational  Value  of  the  Household  Arts,"  Proceedings 
of  the  National  Education  Association  (1910),  pp.  55-59. 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganiza- 
tion of  Secondary  Education,  Report  of  Committee  on  Household 
Arts,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 

Norton,  A.  P.,  "The  Social  Value  of  Domestic  Science,"  Proceedings 
of  the  Eastern  Manual  Training  Association  (1904),  pp.  83-96. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xxm. 

Snow,  M.  S.,  "The  Place  of  Domestic  Economy  in  the  Curriculum," 
Proceedings  of  the  Western  Drawing  and  Manual  Training  Asso- 
ciation (1908),  pp.  40-44. 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Reports. 
VI.  Manual  training: 

Bailey,  H.  T.,  Instruction  in  the  Fine  and  Manual  Arts  in  the  United 
States,  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1909)  no.  6. 

Chamberlain,  A.  H.,  "The  Place  and  Policy  of  the  Manual  Training 
High  School,"  Proceedings  of  the  Eastern  Manual  Training  Asso- 
ciation (1905),  pp.  10-20. 

Crane,  W.  I.,  "A  Plea  for  the  Education  of  the  Hand,"  Proceedings 
of  the  Eastern  Manual  Training  Association  (1902),  pp.  27-39. 

Crawshaw,  F.  D.,  "What  Can  the  High  Schools  Do  Better  to  Help 
the  Industries?"  Manual  Training  Magazine,  vol.  xm,  pp.  193- 
204. 


620      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Davis,  B.  M.,  "The  Present  Status  of  Manual  Training  in  Its  Rela- 
tion to  Industrial  Education  in  the  Rural  Schools,"  Manual 
Training  Magazine,  vol.  xi,  pp.  456-61. 

Dean,  A.  D.,  "Relation  of  Manual  Training  in  Public  Schools  to 
Industrial  Education  and  Efficiency,"  Craftsman,  vol.  xiv, 
pp.  74-81. 

Fitch,  J.  G.,  Educational  Aims,  pp.  145-76. 

Morrison,  G.  B.,  "The  Present  Status  and  Future  of  Manual  Train- 
ing in  the  High  School,  "Fourth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society 
for  the  Scientific  Study  of  Education,  part  n,  pp.  18-37. 

Noyes,  W.,  "The  Ethical  Values  of  the  Manual  and  Domestic 
Arts,"  Manual  Training  Magazine,  vol.  xi,  pp.  201-13. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  x. 

Usherwood,  T,  S.,  "The  Place  of  Manual  Training  in  the  Curriculum 
of  the  Secondary  School,"  Manual  Training,  vol.  ix,  pp.  136-39, 
158-64. 

Williams,  S.  H.,  "The  Educative  Value  of  Manual  Training," 
Manual  Training  Magazine,  vol.  xi,  pp.  36-45,  158-67,  252,  260. 

Extended  bibliographies: 

Commercial  education:  Bureau  of  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1913)  no.  22, 
pp.  64-65;  Herrick  C.  A.,  Meaning  and  Practice  of  Commercial  Educa- 
tion, pp.  350-70. 

Industrial  education:  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1913)  no.  22, 
pp.  7  ff;  Technical  Education,  Bulletin  no.  6,  published  by  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University;  Richards,  C.  R.,  Selected  Bibliography 
on  Industrial  Education,  Bulletin  no.  2  of  the  National  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Industrial  Education. 

Agricultural  education:  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1912)  no.  10; 
Davis,  B.  M.  Agricultural  Education  in  the  Public  Schools;  Robison, 
C.  H.,  Agricultural  Education  in  the  Public  School  of  the  United  States. 

Domestic  arts  education:  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1912)  no.  10. 

Manual  training:  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1913)  no.  22,  pp.  79-83. 

General  bibliography  of  vocational  education:  Bureau  of  Education, 
Bulletin  (1913)  no.  22. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE   PLACE   OF  .ESTHETIC   ARTS   IN   THE   PROGRAM 
I.    GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

279.  Historical  position  in  the  program.  The  aesthetic 
arts  as  educational  instruments  occupied  a  position  in  prim- 
itive and  early  civilized  society  which  modern  educators  can 
with  difficulty  realize.  The  best  example  of  their  use  is 
found  among  the  Athenians,  in  whose  scheme  of  education 
the  aesthetic  arts  were  made  the  fundamental  vehicles  of 
intellectual,  religious,  moral,  social,  and  physical  training. 
Aristotle  mentions  four  branches  of  education  customarily 
afforded :  reading  and  writing,  gymnastic,  music,  and  (some- 
times) drawing  or  painting.  Of  these  the  first  constituted 
but  preliminary  training  and  the  last  occupied  a  doubtful 
position,  so  that  gymnastic  and  music  (in  the  Greek  sense) 
comprised  by  far  the  major  part  of  Greek  education.  Thus 
Plato:  l 

Education  has  two  branches,  —  one  of  gymnastic,  which  is 
concerned  with  the  body,  and  the  other  of  music,  which  is  designed 
for  the  improvement  of  the  soul. 

The  whole  choral  art  is  also  in  our  view  the  whole  of  education 
and  of  this  art,  rhythms  and  harmonies,  having  to  do  with  the 
voice,  form  a  part.  .  .  .  And  the  movement  of  the  body  and  the 
movement  of  the  voice  have  a  common  form  which  is  rhythm,  but 
they  differ,  in  that  one  is  gesture,  and  the  other  song.  .  .  .  And 
the  sound  of  the  voice  which  reaches  and  educates  the  soul,  we 
have  ventured  to  term  music.  .  .  .  And  the  movement  of  the  body, 
which,  when  regarded  as  an  amusement,  we  termed  dancing;  when 
pursued  with  a  view  to  the  improvement  of  the  body,  according 
to  the  rules  of  art,  may  be  called  gymnastic. 

1  Plato,  The  Laws,  Book  vii  and  Book  vi. 


622      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Gymnastic,  in  the  Greek  sense  of  the  term,  had  as  one  of 
its  chief  purposes  the  aesthetic  aim  of  developing  harmony 
and  grace  of  bodily  movement:  for  the  accomplishment  of 
this  end  dancing  was  one  of  the  principal  educational  means. 
Music,  in  the  Greek  sense  of  the  term,  included  music  in  the 
modern  sense  (including  vocal  and  instrumental  music), 
poetry,  the  mimetic  arts,  and  literature  in  general.  In  this 
connection  it  must  be  remembered  that  early  Greek  litera- 
ture was  almost  exclusively  poetic,  that  with  the  Greeks 
poetry  was  always  related  to  music,  and  that  poetry  and 
song  were  the  vehicles  of  social  and  religious  traditions  and 
ideals  intimately  connected  with  their  life.  The  important 
fact  to  be  noted  is  that  music  thus  embodied  racial  ideals 
and  traditions  in  a  form  which  lent  highly  emotionalized 
value  to  the  content.  The  Greeks,  probably  more  than  any 
other  people,  recognized  the  importance  of  emotional  ele- 
ments in  determining  the  unconscious  behavior  of  individ- 
uals and  society.  No  race  has  ever  made  more  effective  use 
of  the  aesthetic  arts  as  instruments  of  education.  After  the 
time  of  the  Greeks  the  aesthetic  arts  practically  disappeared 
from  the  program  of  education,  not  to  reappear  until  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century  or  even  later,  and  then  as 
very  inadequate  educational  instruments.  The  one  excep- 
tion to  this  statement  is  to  be  found  at  times  in  connection 
with  the  aesthetic  side  of  literature. 

In  the  Latin  grammar  school  of  the  American  colonies 
the  aesthetic  arts  had  no  place,  except  in  so  far  as  they  may 
have  been  related  to  literary  study.  Doubtless  drawing 
and  music  first  found  their  way  into  the  American  second- 
ary school  through  the  academy.  Thus  at  least  as  early  as 
1837  drawing,  vocal  music,  instrumental  music,  and  archi- 
tecture had  been  introduced  into  some  academies  in  New 
York  State.  In  some  schools  of  uncertain  status  absurdly 
elaborate  provision  was  made  for  aesthetic  arts  in  the  edu- 


THE  AESTHETIC  ARTS  623 

cation  of  girls  as  indicated  by  the  offerings  of  the  Armston 
School  of  the  late  eighteenth  century. 

In  the  public  high  school  drawing  first  made  its  appear- 
ance in  the  Girls'  High  School  of  Boston  in  1826  when  map- 
drawing  and  the  principles  of  perspective  were  introduced. 
In  1829  "  linear  drawing  "  was  made  an  elective  subject  in 
the  English  Classical  (High)  School  of  Boston.  The  develop- 
ment of  drawing  as  a  study  in  the  public  secondary  school 
was  of  slow  growth,  however,  until  mechanical  drawing 
received  impetus  through  the  manual  training  and  technical 
high-school  movement  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Recently,  the  arts  of  form,  design,  and  color  have 
received  constantly  increasng  attention  both  because  of 
their  relation  to  the  industrial  and  household  arts  and  be- 
cause of  increased  recognition  of  their  importance  per  se. 

Doubtless  vocal  music  of  an  informal  character  early  was 
found  in  the  public  high  school.  Its  first  mention  as  a  spe- 
cific subject  of  study  is  found  in  the  High  School  of  North- 
ampton, Massachusetts,  in  1837,  when  nearly  all  girls  in  that 
school  were  reported  to  be  engaged  in  its  study.  Through- 
out the  nineteenth  century  its  development  was  slow  and 
sporadic,  though  eventually  it  was  made  a  regular  part  of 
high-school  work  in  the  form  of  rather  ineffective  chorus 
work  by  the  entire  high-school  pupil  body  once  or  twice  a 
week  in  the  majority  of  schools.  Within  recent  years  there 
has  been  manifest  a  distinct  tendency  to  provide  far  more 
effective  instruction  in  music  in  the  public  high  schools  and 
in  some  notable  instances  to  provide  instruction  not  only  in 
vocal  music  but  also  in  instrumental  music. 

On  the  whole,  -and  with  the  possible  exception  of  litera- 
ture, instruction  in  the  aesthetic  arts  throughout  the  nine- 
teenth century  was  never  effective  as  far  as  the  secondary 
school  was  concerned.  In  mechanical  drawing  alone  was 
effective  instruction  provided  and  there  the  emphasis  was 


624     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

placed  on  that  subject  for  its  industrial  and  technical  values 
primarily.  The  past  decade,  however,  has  given  promise  of 
distinct  improvement. 

280.  Present  status.  The  aesthetic  arts  at  present  are 
manifested  in  the  American  secondary  school  in  connection 
with  numerous  subjects  of  study  found  in  the  program: 
music,  literature,  drawing,  painting  and  design,  manual 
arts,  clothing  arts,  household  arts,  physical  training  —  sub- 
jects ranging  all  the  way  from  those  in  which  the  aesthetic 
element  is  dominant  to  those  in  which  it  may  be  subordi- 
nated almost  entirely  to  other  elements.  Thus  music  has 
its  place  in  the  secondary-school  program  largely  for  its  aes- 
thetic values.  Literature  appears  to  share  its  values  more 
evenly  between  the  aesthetic  and  the  social.  Drawing, 
painting  and  other  phases  of  design  are  on  the  borderline 
between  aesthetic  arts  and  practical  arts,  swinging  now 
to  one  side  now  to  the  other  according  to  the  school  and 
teacher.  In  manual  arts,  clothing  arts,  and  household  arts 
the  purposes  involved  are  dominantly  utilitarian,  the 
aesthetic  element  varying  in  prominence  according  to  the 
materials  employed  and  the  teaching.  Physical  training  is 
dominated  by  the  conception  of  health  values  to  which  the 
aesthetic  elements  are  subordinated. 

It  must  be  recognized,  in  spite  of  noteworthy  exceptions 
in  certain  schools,  that  the  American  secondary  school 
minimizes  the  aesthetic  training  of  pupils,  save  possibly  in 
connection  with  literature.  Music,  while  regularly  finding 
a  place  in  the  program  of  studies,  is  commonly  limited  to 
relatively  ineffective  group  work  in  which  the  entire  school 
body  participates  (theoretically)  one  OP  two  periods  per 
week.  Few  secondary  schools  in  the  country  at  present 
afford  opportunity  for  effective  training  in  music  as  one  of 
the  studies  entitled  to  attention  similar  to  that  afforded 
\  other  subjects  of  study.  The  arts  of  design  (drawing,  paint- 


THE  .ESTHETIC  ARTS  625 

ing,  etc.)  at  present  manifest  a  tendency  toward  rapid 
development,  especially  in  connection  with  industrial  train- 
ing and  the  practical  arts.  This  development  has  not,  how- 
ever, taken  place  hi  the  majority  of  smaller  schools. 

281.  Fundamental  principles  involved.  Two  fundamental 
principles  are  involved  in  determining  the  values  of  the 
study  of  the  aesthetic  arts  hi  the  secondary  school:  (1)  it 
must  be  recognized  that  the  aesthetic  arts  represent  the 
results  of  original  tendencies  of  human  nature  to  manifest 
its  emotional  states  in  satisfying  form;  (2)  it  must  also  be 
recognized  that  the  results  of  the  expression  of  such  emo- 
tional states  tend  to  spread  similar  emotions  to  others  and 
thus  to  have  social  bearing.1  Hence,  as  Dewey  states: 

Viewed  both  psychologically  and  socially,  the  arts  represent 
not  luxuries  and  superfluities  but  fundamental  forces  of  develop- 
ment. 

By  far  the  major  portion  of  the  secondary-school  cur- 
riculum tends  to  emphasize  the  intellectual  development  and 
to  neglect  or  to  minimize  the  emotional  development  of  the 
pupils.  Such  a  situation  cannot  be  justified  as  long  as  the 
emotions  play  such  a  prominent  part  in  life  as  they  do  and 
should.  The  skeptic  concerning  the  important  part  played 
by  the  aesthetic  arts  in  modern  life  may  well  consider  the 
erotic  and  dithyrambic  music  and  song  which  attracts  the 
secondary-school  pupil  and  others,  the  character  of  modern 
dancing,  the  abundance  of  neurotic  literature  which  is  the 
common  pabulum  of  secondary-school  pupils  in  book  and 
magazine,  the  character  of  the  popular  "  musical  comedy," 
and  the  blatant  and  gaudy  magazine  cover  which  passes  for 
art.  If  interested  in  municipal  affairs  and  community  life, 
he  may  well  compare  conditions  in  communities  where  art 

1  Cf.  Dewey,  J.,  pp.  57^-80  of  Monroe,  P.  (EoUtor),  Principles  of  Second- 
ary Education. 


626      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

is  valued  with  those  where  art  is  decried  or  neglected.  In 
America  less  than  in  most  countries  do  the  ordinary  sur- 
roundings, apart  from  nature,  afford  stimuli  to  aesthetic 
appreciation  and  production.  In  America  less  than  in  most 
countries  have  traditions  and  ideals  been  perpetuated  in 
aesthetic  forms  which  might  enhance  their  intrinsic  value. 
In  America  more  than  in  most  countries  should  the  school 
aim  to  do  what  the  artificial  environment  does  not  —  de- 
velop the  aesthetic  arts. 

282.  Values  of  the  aesthetic  arts.  For  the  majority  of 
pupils  the  basic  values  of  the  study  of  aesthetic  arts  in  the 
secondary  school,  are  doubtless  to  be  found  in  the  contribu- 
tions which  that  study  may  make  to  the  individualistic- 
avocational  aim  of  education  —  in  the  development  of 
ability  worthily  to  utilize  leisure,  properly  to  enjoy  life,  and 
to  express  personality.  It  must  be  recognized,  however, 
that  the  aesthetic  arts  are  so  closely  related  to  other  fields 
of  study  and  activity  that  it  becomes  impossible  in  most 
cases  to  separate  them  other  than  for  purposes  of  analysis. 
The  social  and  aesthetic  elements  are  so  closely  interwoven  in 
the  study  of  literature  that  it  is  a  serious  mistake  to  attempt 
their  dissociation.  The  aesthetic  element  separated  from  the 
content  element  of  literature  becomes  a  barren  abstraction. 
Its  content  separated  from  the  aesthetic  element  loses  that 
emotional  appeal  which  gives  literature  much  of  its  im- 
pelling force  in  determining  thought,  attitude,  and  action. 
Thus  too  the  aesthetic  arts  of  design  are  so  intricately  in- 
volved in  the  industrial  arts,  in  the  clothing  arts,  and  in  the 
domestic  arts  that  the  two  elements  should  not  be  dissoci- 
ated. No  sharp  line  of  distinction  can  properly  be  drawn 
between  the  aesthetic  arts  and  the  practical  arts.  Any 
attempt  to  do  so  must  result  in  great  loss  to  both.  In  physi- 
cal exercise  also  we  are  beginning  to  realize  that  the  aesthetic 
has  its  place.  The  schoolboy  and  the  bleacherite  recognize 


THE  AESTHETIC  ARTS  627 

and  appreciate  "  form  "  in  athletics  and,  especially  for  girls, 
dancing  has  begun  to  find  a  recognized  place  in  physical 
exercise. 

It  is,  of  course,  a  fact  that  every  subject  of  study  and  most 
major  activities  of  life  in  which  the  secondary-school  pupil 
is  likely  later  to  engage  involve  some  elements  of  aesthetics 
and  have  their  emotional  sides.  Failure  to  develop  those 
elements  is  a  pedagogical  error  affecting  secondary  education 
to-day. 

II.  LITERATURE 

283.  ^Esthetic  art  and  literature.  By  far  the  most  com- 
monly and  most  extensively  studied  aesthetic  art  in  the 
secondary-school  program  is  literature.  In  Chapter  XII 
the  values  of  the  study  of  literature  were  considered  with 
particular  reference  to  content  values.  It  was  there  sug- 
gested that  the  fundamental  values  of  the  study  arose  from 
its  contribution  to  the  social-civic  aim  and  the  individual- 
istic aim  of  secondary  education.  In  particular  it  was  sug- 
gested that  through  the  study  of  literature  the  pupil  is 
brought  into  contact  (vicariously)  with  human  experiences 
and  human  conduct,  and  becomes  acquainted  with  the  facts, 
traditions,  and  ideals  of  society.  Such  contact  and  acquain- 
tance cannot  but  affect  vitally  the  life  of  the  pupil.  It  is 
through  the  emotional  factor  which  makes  literature,  how 
ever,  that  those  facts,  traditions,  and  ideals,  which  form  th 
content  of  the  study,  take  on  a  large  part  of  their  impelling 
power.  It  was  further  suggested  that  the  integrating  func- 
tion of  secondary  education  was  aided  by  the  study  of  liter- 
ature through  the  arousal  of  common  ideals  and  tendencies 
to  act.  Here  again  it  is  the  aesthetic  element  which  enhances 
those  ideals  and  tendencies  to  act  by  adding  emotional 
value.  Finally  it  was  suggested  that  the  study  of  literature 


628      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

contributed  to  the  ability  worthily  to  enjoy  leisure  by  es- 
tablishing standards  and  tastes  in  reading  and  by  increas- 
ing the  pupil's  ability  to  enjoy  good  literature.  This  means 
nothing  more  or  less  than  training  in  aesthetic  appreciation. 
In  so  far  as  the  development  of  ability  to  create  literature 
or  even  to  express  one's  self  well  is  affected  by  the  study  of 
literature,  aesthetic  art  on  the  expressive  side  is  created. 

The  aesthetic  element  in  literature  naturally  finds  its 
greatest  strength  in  poetry.  Content  elements  doubtless 
must  always  be  the  primary  factors  determining  the  selec- 
tion of  materials  in  prose  literature,  the  aesthetic  elements 
being  a  secondary  consideration.  In  poetry,  however,  the 
aesthetic  elements  should  equal  or  transcend  the  content 
elements  as  controlling  factors  determining  the  selection 
of  materials. 

III.  Music 

284.  Present  status  of  the  study  of  music.  At  the  present 
time  some  instruction  in  music  is  probably  provided  in  every 
public  secondary  school.  In  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  how- 
ever, such  instruction  is  restricted  to  one  or  two  periods  of 
chorus  work  which  is  frequently  of  a  useless  or  worse  than 
useless  character  —  worse  than  useless  in  many  instances 
because  it  arouses  a  positive  distaste  for  the  study  of  music 
and  an  opposition  to  the  ineffective  work  which  is  at- 
tempted. According  to  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  for  the  school  year  1914-15  pupils  were  en- 
gaged in  the  study  of  vocal  music  as  indicated  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 

TABLE  CXLIX  * 


Public  High  Schools  ...................    367,188  31.50 

Private  High  Schools  ..................      47,467  37.76 

All  Secondary  Schools  ..................    415,655  32.  19 

*  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  n,  pp.  487-89. 


THE  .ESTHETIC  ARTS  629 

These  figures  are  difficult  to  interpret  properly,  since  in  all 
probability  they  include  in  part  figures  for  pupils  who  en- 
gage merely  in  certain  general  chorus  work  and  in  part 
pupils  taking  special  elective  courses  in  technical  music.  For 
pupils  engaged  in  such  courses  and  in  courses  in  instrumental 
music  no  figures  are  available.  Nor  can  any  reliable  estimate 
be  made  of  the  educational  results  of  such  music  instruction 
as  is  sometimes  provided  through  the  organization  of  extra- 
curriculum  orchestras,  voluntary  choruses,  and  musical  clubs. 

285.  The  social-civic  values  of  music.  The  study  of  music 
is  not  ordinarily  conceived  as  possessing  social-civic  values. 
Nevertheless  the  social  value  of  the  study  of  music  is  not  to 
be  overlooked.  It  should  be  recognized  that  social  attitudes 
and  actions  are  not  controlled  exclusively  by  activity  of  the 
intellect  and  that  emotional  factors  play  no  unimportant 
part  in  the  determination  of  attitudes  and  actions.  Through 
the  enjoyment  of  music  may  be  developed  emotional  tones 
in  the  individual  or  group  which  powerfully  affect  attitudes 
toward  every  form  of  activity,  social,  civic,  vocational,  and 
personal.  Hence  the  importance  of  music  in  military  affairs, 
in  the  church,  in  school  group  activities,  and  in  general 
wherever  large  groups  of  people  are  assembled  for  common 
activity.    For  the  development  of  common  emotional  atti- 
tudes in  groups  united  for  any  purpose  few  instruments 
can  compete  with  music.    For  example,  the  singing  of  the 
"  Marseillaise,"  of  the  "  Wacht  am  Rhein,"  of  the  "  Star- 
Spangled  Banner,"  of  "  God  Save  the  King,"  may  serve  a 
social-civic  purpose,  where  any  amount  of  reasoning  might 
prove  relatively  ineffective.   As  one  of  the  commonest  forms 
of  group  activity  for  the  utilization  of  leisure,  music  also 
serves  a  distinct  social  purpose.   As  long  as  music  continues 
to  be  a  carrier  of  common  sentiment  and  ideals,  it  must 
continue  to  have  social-civic  values. 

286.  Economic-vocational  values  of  music.   The  voca- 


630      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

tional  values  of  the  study  of  music  have  been  strangely  over- 
looked in  the  secondary  school.  The  number  of  persons 
engaged  in  the  musical  profession  is  by  no  means  negligible 
from  the  viewpoint  of  vocational  education.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  is  to  be  noted  that,  whereas  in  most  general  fields  of 
vocational  activity  a  relatively  small  amount  of  elementary 
facts,  principles,  and  processes  is  common  to  the  various 
subdivisions  of  occupations  classified  under  one  general 
bead,  in  the  field  of  music  there  is  a  common  foundation  of 
;echnical  knowledge  underlying  all  the  special  subdivisions 
of  the  general  field.  Hence,  there  exists  a  considerable  body 
of  musical  education  which  may  be  of  definite  vocational 
value  to  individuals  engaging  in  the  several  branches  of 
the  musical  profession.1 

287.  Individualistic-avocational  values  of  music.  For 
the  majority  of  pupils  in  the  secondary  school  the  primary 
values  of  the  study  of  music  must  be  found  in  the  contribu- 
tions which  it  makes  to  the  individualistic-avocational  aim 
of  secondary  education  —  the  preparation  of  the  individual 
worthily  to  enjoy  his  leisure,  assimilate  the  musical  inherit- 
ance of  society,  and  develop  the  expression  of  his  own  per- 
sonality in  ways  which  are  not  designed  primarily  for  the 
attainment  of  social-civic  or  economic- vocational  efficiency. 
As  one  of  the  important  means  for  the  utilization  of  leisure, 
for  the  expression  of  certain  forms  of  personal  feeling,  as  an 
instrument  deeply  affecting  emotional  tones  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  of  groups,  as  an  art  closely  linked  up  with  poetry, 
song,  drama,  the  dance,  and  other  forms  of  aesthetic  ex- 
pression —  as  involving  all  these  elements  music  deserves 
far  greater  attention  in  the  secondary  school  than  it  now 
receives  in  most  instances. 

1  According  to  the  Thirteenth  Census  Report  (1910),  vol.  iv,  p.  93,  the 
number  of  people  engaged  primarily  as  musicians  and  teachers  of  music 
was:  total,  139,310;  male,  54,832;  female,  84,478. 


THE  AESTHETIC  ARTS  631 

288.  Three  groups  of  pupils  to  be  considered.  In  a  rough 
classification  pupils  in  the  secondary  school  may  be  divided 
into  three  general  groups:  (1)  those  who  possess  distinct 
interest  and  capacity  in  musical  accomplishment ;  (2)  those 
who   possess   distinct   interest   and    capacity   in   musical 
appreciation  but  only  a  moderate  interest  or  capacity  for 
musical  accomplishment;  (3)  those  who  possess  no  interest 
or  capacity  in  musical  accomplishment  and  only  a  moderate 
interest  or  capacity  for  musical  appreciation.    Obviously 
no  line  of  clear  distinction  can  be  drawn  between  group  (2) 
and  group  (1)  or  (3).  In  fact  it  is  to  be  hoped  and  expected 
that  in  their  progress  through  the  school  many  pupils  will 
pass  from  group  (2)  to  group  (1)  and  from  group  (3)  to 
group  (2). 

289.  Courses    emphasizing    musical    accomplishment. 
Attention  has  been  called  above  to  the  fact  that  an  appre- 
ciable number  of  secondary-school  pupils  are  destined  to 
become  professional  musicians.    Many  others  are  destined 
to   become   part-time  musicians  and  more  or  less  skilled 
amateurs.    The  number  of  pupils  thus  classified  in  any 
school  may  to  some  degree  be  reckoned  from  the  number  of 
pupils  who  now  "  take  private  music  lessons  "  outside  the 
school.    In  the  majority  of  schools  at  the  present  time  this 
group  is  remarkably  large.    Proper  attention  should  be 
given  to  this  group  either  in  the  school  program  or  through 
cooperation  with  instructors  now  providing  private  tuition. 
In  the  school  itself  should  be  offered  for  this  group  at  least 
courses  in  musical  theory  and,  as  far  as  may  be  practicable, 
courses  in  practice,  including  chorus  singing,  glee-club  work, 
orchestra,  and  applied  music  both  vocal  and  instrumental. 
Such  courses  should,  of  course,  involve  intensive  study  with 
emphasis  on  technical  knowledge,  skill,  and  accomplish- 
ment, with  a  tendency,  in  some  cases  pronounced,  toward 
emphasis  on  vocational  ends. 


632      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

290.  Courses  emphasizing  musical  appreciation.   Many 
persons  have  a  distinct  interest  in  and  capacity  for  musical 
appreciation  without  marked  interest  in  or  capacity  for 
musical  accomplishment.    They  do  not  desire  to  become 
professional  performers  or  even   skilled   amateurs,  though 
they  do  desire  to  have  extended  opportunity  for  musical 
appreciation  and  a  theoretical  knowledge  of  music.    For 
such  pupils  courses  should  be  provided  in  chorus  singing, 
glee-club  work,  music  appreciation,  and  musical  theory. 
In  such  courses  technique  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum 
necessary  for  proper  appreciation  and  the  vocational  pur- 
pose should  be  eliminated.    It  should  be  recognized,  how- 
ever, that  the  transition  of  many  pupils  from  this  group  to 
the  group  of  those  who  desire  to  study  music  for  vocational 
purposes  or  with  the  intention  of  becoming  skilled  amateurs 
is  to  be  expected. 

291.  Courses  for  other  pupils.    After  the  two  groups  of 
pupils   above   mentioned   have   been   provided   for   there 
remains  the  heterogeneous  group  of  other  pupils  in  the 
school  whose  musical  interests  and  capacities  range  all  the 
way  from  a  real  or  imaginary  opposition  to  music,  through 
indifference,  to  a  moderate  degree  of  interest  in  and  capacity 
for  musical  appreciation.  For  this  group  it  should  be  recog- 
nized that  musical  instruction,  in  so  far  as  it  is  at  all  proper, 
must  be  based  on  the  development  of  musical  appreciation. 
In  most  schools  at  the  present  time  the  only  provision  made 
for  this  group  (as  indeed  for  all  groups  mentioned)  is  general 
chorus  singing.    It  is  probable  that  for  many  pupils  in  this 
group,  particularly  the  boys,  no  surer  means  could  be  devised 
to  create  a  distaste  for  musical  instruction  than  the  require- 
ment of  chorus  singing.    ^Esthetic  appreciation,  being  of 
an  emotional  character  primarily,  is  not  readily  susceptible 
to  development  under  compulsion.   This  should  be  frankly 
recognized  in  the  organization  of  courses  in  music  for  this 


THE  AESTHETIC  ARTS  633 

group  of  pupils.  It  is  probable  that  the  utilization  of  me- 
chanical musical  instruments  (player  pianos,  etc.),  together 
with  performances  by  skilled  musicians,  would  accomplish 
much  more  to  develop  some  degree  of  musical  appreciation 
by  many  pupils  who  now  openly  or  silently  rebel  against  the 
requirement  of  participation  in  chorus  singing.  This  means 
that  chorus  singing  should  be  made  elective  rather  than 
required  in  the  secondary  school,  but  that  opportunity  be 
afforded  to  all  pupils  to  listen  to  good  music. 

HI.  DESIGN  AND  RELATED  ARTS 

292.  The  field  of  design  and  related  arts.  By  design  and 
related  arts  are  meant  here  those  aesthetic  arts  which  have 
to  do  with  the  manipulation  of  materials  in  space,  form,  and 
color,  and  represent  aesthetic  expression  in  the  felicitous 
harmony  of  spacial  or  color  relations.    Included  under  this 
head,  therefore,  are  drawing,  painting,  modeling,  the  aes- 
thetic side  of  construction  in  wood,  metal,  textiles,  or  other 
material,  color  selection  and  arrangement  in  cloth  or  other 
material,  and  such  arrangement  of  materials  or  objects  as 
may  be  involved  in  decoration.  At  the  one  extreme  is  found 
"  art  for  art's  sake  "  and  at  the  other  extreme  is  found  art 
almost  completely  subordinated  to  the  utilitarian  demand. 
Until    recently    drawing    (occasionally    supplemented    by 
color  work)  was  the  sole  representative  of  these  arts  in  the 
secondary  school.    Only  with  the  present  tendency  to  de- 
velop applied  arts  in  the  direction  of  industrial  and  house- 
hold arts  were  conditions  created  favorable  for  the  interre- 
lation of  practical  and  aesthetic  arts  so  that  the  materials 
dealt   with   might   satisfy   both   utilitarian   and   aesthetic 
demands. 

293.  Two  broad  divisions  of  art  instruction.  As  affecting 
instruction  in  art  in  the  secondary  school  it  is  helpful  to 


634      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

make  two  broad  divisions  of  the  field:  (1)  art  instruction 
which  concerns  itself  primarily  with  the  appreciation  (and 
to  a  slight  extent  possibly  with  the  expression)  of  art  not 
related  to  definite  utilitarian  ends;  (2)  art  instruction  which 
is  definitely  and  purposely  related  to  practical  ends.  The 
first  of  these  two  divisions  is  designed  primarily  to  develop 
an  appreciation  of  beauty  in  nature  and  the  artificial  envi- 
ronment, to  satisfy  the  inherent  love  for  the  beautiful  as 
a  part  of  the  development  of  personality,  and  to  enable  the 
individual  to  receive  the  spiritual  inheritance  of  the  race  as 
expressed  in  art.  This  means  courses  in  the  school  designed 
primarily  to  develop  in  pupils  appreciation  without  refer- 
ence to  artistic  technique  beyond  the  elements  requisite  for 
proper  appreciation.  In  such  courses  are  appropriate  only 
such  principles  of  space,  form,  and  color  harmony,  of  per- 
spective, composition,  design,  and  such  artistic  ideals  as  are 
suitable  for  the  proper  appreciation  and  enjoyment  of  art 
products  by  the  average  individual  who  will  not  engage  in 
activities  involving  artistic  accomplishment.  The  second 
of  the  two  divisions  of  art  instruction  is  designed  definitely 
to  lead  toward  some  form  of  artistic  production,  especially 
in  relation  to  industrial,  commercial,  and  household  arts. 
Some  of  its  more  important  phases  are  considered  in  the 
following  sections. 

294.  Design  and  related  arts  as  related  to  industrial  arts. 
Three  conceptions  emphasize  the  importance  of  relating 
aesthetic  art  to  the  industrial  arts:  (1)  that  life  may  be  made 
more  pleasant  and  therefore  more  efficient  when  ordinary 
artificial  objects  which  surround  us  are  agreeable  to  the 
senses  and  lend  favorable  emotional  tones  to  daily  life;  (2) 
that  aesthetic  qualities  attached  to  created  objects  add  actual 
commercial  values  to  the  industrial  product;  (3)  that  the 
distinction  between  craftmanship  and  workmanship,  be- 
tween the  artisan  and  the  laborer,  is  largely  dependent  on 


THE  AESTHETIC  ARTS  635 

the  presence  of  the  aesthetic  element  as  an  impelling  factor 
in  industrial  production.  Concerning  the  first  and  second 
of  these  conceptions  little  need  be  said  here.  Experience  in 
the  home  and  in  the  industrial  or  commercial  world  have 
shown  clearly  that  actual  efficiency  is  increased  under  more 
pleasant  surroundings.  Experience  has  also  shown  that  of 
two  industrial  products  equal  in  other  respects  that  which 
is  more  pleasing  to  the  senses  will  be  chosen  by  the  pur- 
chaser. 

The  third  conception  mentioned  above  deserves  more 
extended  comment.  The  development  of  the  factory  system 
and  of  standardized  production  has  all  but  destroyed  indi- 
vidualism in  the  character  of  many  industrial  products  and 
has  almost  eliminated  the  craftsmanship  of  earlier  days. 
Three  results  are  to  be  noted:  (1)  the  industrial  worker  lost 
a  large  part  of  that  stimulus  and  opportunity  to  contrive, 
invent,  and  create  —  to  express  his  personality  in  the  results 
of  his  work  —  which  means  so  much  on  the  side  of  interest, 
pleasure,  and  ultimately  efficiency  in  labor;  (2)  industry 
lost  something  which  can  result  only  when  the  worker  is 
interested  in  and  enjoys  his  labor;  (3)  the  user  of  industrial 
products  lost  much  which  might  add  to  enjoyment  in  utiliz- 
ing the  products  of  industrial  labor.  Industrial  conditions 
are  not  likely  to  be  reversed  but  rather  to  go  farther  in  the 
direction  which  they  have  taken.  Nevertheless  the  infusion 
of  aesthetic  ideals  into  the  industrial  arts  can  do  much  to 
ameliorate  existing  conditions. 

It  is,  of  course,  needless  to  enumerate  the  more  directly 
utilitarian  applications  of  the  aesthetic  arts  in  industrial 
occupations,  such  as  mechanical  and  architectural  drawing, 
design  and  color  harmony  in  textile  work,  wall-paper,  and 
the  like,  or  the  various  applications  of  art  design  in  metal  and 
wood  work.  It  needs  only  to  be  pointed  out  that  the  values 
of  design  and  related  arts  are  directly  vocational  for  certain 


636      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

vocational  groups  in  the  secondary  school  whose  later  occu- 
pations may  be  in  the  field  of  industry. 

295.  Design  and  related  arts  as  related  to  commercial 
arts.  As  long  as  the  commercial  arts  in  the  secondary  school 
were  limited  to  the  clerical  arts  of  bookkeeping,  stenogra- 
phy, typewriting,  and  the  like,  the  aesthetic  arts  could  be 
considered  as  having  no  contact  with  commercial  education 
in  the  school.    However,  with  the  growing  conception  that 
commercial  education  in  the  secondary  school  should  be 
extended  to  cover  salesmanship  and  other  phases  of  mer- 
chandising and  store  service,  a  much  wider  field  is  opened 
up  for  the  application  of  the  aesthetic  arts  of  design  and  its 
relatives.    Thus,  in  practically  all  commercial  enterprises 
advertising  opens  up  opportunities  for  art.    In  retail  stores 
window  display,  interior  decoration,  and  counter  display 
become  effective  fields  for  the  union  of  aesthetic  art  with 
business.    Finally,  in  all  stores  which  deal  in  clothing  and 
textiles,  furniture,  or  personal  and  household  furnishings, 
elements  of  color  harmony  and  design  become  important 
to  officers,  salesmen,  and  saleswomen.    Actual  efficiency 
of  commercial  value  is  here  contributed  by  applied  elements 
of  aesthetic  training  of  boys  and  girls  who  join  the  vast  army 
of  commercial  workers  and  come  into  direct  contact  with  the 
purchaser  of  articles,  no  small  part  of  whose  value  and 
appeal  arise  from  aesthetic  considerations. 

296.  Design  and  related  arts  as  related  to  domestic  arts. 
In  the  expansion  of  the  practical-arts  program  for  girls  in 
the  secondary  school  a  large  and  important  field  has  been 
opened  up  for  applied  forms  of  design  and  its  related  arts. 
This  is,  of  course,  particularly  true  in  connection  with  those 
arts  which  have  to  do  with  the  selection  of  household  equip- 
ment, even  the  house  itself,  the  arrangement  of  household 
equipment,  its  care  and  service,  and  in  the  clothing  arts. 
The  physical  environment  of  the  home  is  one  primary 


THE  ESTHETIC  ARTS  637 

source  of  happiness  or  unhappiness,  of  good  or  bad  charac- 
ter, of  good  or  bad  health,  of  economic  efficiency  or  ineffi- 
ciency —  we  may  even  say  that  it  is  in  many  cases  the  bask 
of  successful  or  unsuccessful  home  life.  Finally,  it  is  the 
environment  in  which  individuals  in  the  earlier  part  of  their 
lives  must  live  and  from  which  the  first  standards  of  aes- 
thetic feeling  must  come.  All  these  considerations  suggest 
the  importance  of  a  development  of  aesthetic  appreciation 
and  expression  on  the  part  of  girls  who  must  later  become 
home-makers  and  who  will  to  a  large  extent  determine  the 
character  of  the  home  surroundings  and  the  character  of 
coming  generations. 

Of  great  importance  also  is  the  development  of  aesthetic 
appreciation  and  expression  in  clothing  and  dress.  Instruc- 
tion in  costume  design  and  color  harmony  can  do  much  not 
only  to  affect  the  enjoyment  of  life,  but  also  to  aid  the  fam- 
ily pocketbook  and  to  offset  the  absurd  dictates  of  fickle, 
sometimes  even  wasteful  or  indecent,  "  fashion."  Unless  his- 
tory reverses  itself  dress  will  always  play  an  important  part 
in  the  youth  and  early  adult  life  of  the  girl  and  woman  (or 
boy  or  man).  In  meeting  the  needs  of  dress  the  practical, 
economical,  physiological,  moral,  and  aesthetic  combine. 
Habits  of  dress  have  much  to  do  with  the  character  and  life 
of  the  individual.  No  second  Teufelsdrockh  is  needed  to 
emphasize  the  philosophy  of  women's  clothes. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  In  any  secondary  school  make  a  survey  designed  to  ascertain  :(a)  what 
pupils  receive  or  have  received   musical   instruction   under  private 
tuition,  with  classifications  according  to  length  of  instruction,  number 
of  lessons  per  week  or  month,  kind  of  instrument  on  which  instruction 
is  received,  etc.;  (ft)  what  pupils  live  in  homes  where  muscial  instru- 
ments are  owned  and  played;  (c)  what  pupils  live  in  homes  where  me- 
chanical musical  instruments  are  owned;  etc. 

2.  In  any  secondary  school  make  a  survey  of  the  musical  compositions, 
songs,  etc.,  which  are  most  popular,  copies  of  which  are  owned,  or 


638      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

"records"  of  which  are  owned  in  the  home.    Do  not  neglect  the 
"words"  side  of  the  songs! 

3.  In  any  city  ascertain  the  number  of  persons  whose  sole  occupation  is 
music  and  the  number  of  those  who  devote  a  part  of  their  time  to 
the  musical  profession  for  remuneration.    (For  large  cities  use  the 
census  returns.) 

4.  Outline  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  requirement  of  some  study 
of  music  by  all  pupils  in  the  junior  high  school  grades;  in  the  first 
year  of  the  four-grade  high  school. 

5.  Outline  the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  private  instruc- 
tion and  school  instruction  in  music. 

6.  Compare  the  values  of  private  and  school  instruction  in  the  various 
forms  of  graphic  and  plastic  arts. 

7.  To  what  extent  can  justification  be  found  for  the  requirement  of  study 
in  drawing  in  the  junior  high  school  by  all  pupils?   What  objections 
could  be  raised? 

8.  Discuss  the  claim  that  drawing  should  be  made  a  required  study  in 
the  secondary  school  on  the  basis  of  its  tool  uses  as  a  universal  language. 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  specific  elements  of  art  instruction  which  may 
be  considered  of  importance  in  the  education  of  secondary-school 
girls? 

10.  Discuss  this  statement:  "The  (art)  work  (in  the  high  school)  simplifies 
itself,  however,  into  the  single  purpose  of  training  the  pupil  to  perfect 
his  apperceptive  faculties." 

11.  Discuss  Spencer's  theory:  "Accomplishments,  the  fine  arts,   belles- 
lettres,  and  all  those  things  which,  as  we  say,  constitute  the  efflorescence 
of  civilization,  should  be  wholly  subordinate  to  that  knowledge  and 
discipline  in  which  civilization  rests.   As  they  occupy  the  leisure  part  of 
life,  so  should  they  occupy  the  leisure  part  of  Education." 

12.  Discuss  Dewey's  theory  that  aesthetic  expression   precedes  aesthetic 
appreciation.    (Cf.  page  590  of  Monroe,  P.,  Principles  of  Secondary 
Education.) 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

I.  General: 

DeGarmo,  C.,  ^Esthetic  Education. 

Dewey,  J.,  Dow,  A.  W.,  and  Farnsworth,  C.  H.,  chap,  xv  of  Monroe, 
P.  (Editor),  Principles  of  Secondary  Education. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  The  Psychology  of  High-School  Subjects,  chap.  xv. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xxn. 

Spencer,  H.,  Education,  chap,  i,  pp.  64-79  (Burt  edition). 
II.  Music: 

Birge,  E.  B.,  "High-School  Courses:  Appreciation  Work,"  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Music  Teachers'  National  Association  (1909),  pp.  142  ff. 


THE  AESTHETIC  ARTS  639 

Baldwin,  R.  L.  (Chairman),  Report  of  Committee  on  Public  Schools, 
Proceedings  of  the  Music  'Teachers'  National  Association  (1908). 

Farnsworth,  C.  H.,  Education  Through  Music. 

Manchester,  A.  L.,  Music  Education  in  the  United  States  Schools  and 
Departments  of  Music,  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1908) 
no.  4. 

McConathy, O.,  "Music  in  High  Schools,"  Proceedings  of  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association  (1908),  pp.  844  jf. 

McConathy,  O.,  "High-School  Credit  for  Applied  Music  taken 
under  Special  Teachers  Outside  of  School,"  Proceedings  of  the 
National  Education  Association  (1914),  p.  634. 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganiza- 
tion of  Secondary  Education,  Report  of  Committee  on  Music  in 
Secondary  Schools,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 

Newton,  E.  W.,  Music  in  the  Public  Schools. 

Woods,  G.  H.,  "Instrumental  Music  and  Instrumental  Study  in 
the  Oakland  Schools,"  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  As- 
sociation (1915),  pp.  856-68. 
III.  Design  and  related  arts: 

Bailey,  H.  T.,  Instruction  in  the  Fine  and  Manual  Arts  in  the  United 
States,  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  (1909)  no.  6. 

Carter,  C.  M.,  "Art  Education  in  the  High  School,"  pp.  221-42 
of  Haney,  J.  P.  (Editor),  Art  Education  in  the  Public  Schools  of 
the  United  States. 

Coffin,  W.  S.,  "Art  Education  for  House  Furnishing,"  Proceedings 
of  the  National  Education  Association  (1916),  pp.  489-93. 

Dow,  A.  W.,  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art. 

Farnum,  R.  B.,  Present  Status  of  Drawing  and  Art  in  the  Elemen- 
tary and  Secondary  Schools  of  the  United  States,  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, Bulletin  (1914)  no.  13. 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganiza- 
tion of  Secondary  Education,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Art 
Education,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 

Cf.  also  references  for  Industrial  Education,  Domestic- Arts  Education, 
and  Manual  Training  at  close  of  chapter  xvn. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PHYSICAL   EDUCATION  IN   THE  SECONDARY   SCHOOL 
I.  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

297.  Historical  development.    The  ancient  Greeks  alone 
of  all  peoples  in  civilized  society  adequately  recognized  the 
importance  of  physical  education  and  made  proper  provision 
therefor.    After  their  time  physical  training  as  a  formally 
organized  part  of  the  work  of  secondary  education  practi- 
cally disappeared  from  the  school  until  about  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  the  Latin  grammar  school  of 
the  American  colonies  no  provision  was  made  for  physical 
education  nor  was  any  provision  made  for  that  phase  of 
education  in  the  early  academies.    After  the  establishment 
of  the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point  in 
1802  military  training  was  introducted  into  many  academies 
and  even  into  a  few  public  schools.    About  1825  German 
gymnastics  were  introduced  into  some  secondary  schools, 
but  that  movement  soon  gave  way  to  the  early  (Fellenberg) 
manual  labor  movement.  The  Civil  War  directed  attention 
again  toward  military  training  but  this  again  was  supplanted 
by  formal  gymnastics  in  the  eighties  and  nineties,  gymnasi- 
ums were  established  in  high  schools,  and  gymnasium  work 
remained  the  principal  form  of  physical  training  in  second- 
ary schools  until  the  modern  movement  toward  physical 
training  through  games  tended  in  part  to  take  the  place 
of  formal  gymnastics. 

298.  Present  status.  Physical  education  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  this  country  at  the  present  time  ranges  all  the 
way  from  the  zero  point  to  a  very  high  degree  of  effective 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  641 

provision.  Some  conception  of  the  situation  as  it  existed  in 
1910  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table: 

TABLE  CL.  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  IN  2392  PUBLIC 
HIGH  SCHOOLS  * 

Schools  Number  Per  cent 

Having  a  general  department  of  physical  education .  109          4 . 6 

Having  a  teacher  in  charge  of  department 104          4.3 

Giving  regular  instruction  in  hygiene 372     •  15.6 

Work  in  hygiene  prescribed 255  10 . 7 

Giving  credit  for  work  in  hygiene 183  7.6 

Giving  instruction  in  gymnastics •.  . . .  188  7.9 

Work  in  gymnastics  prescribed 114          6.0 

Giving  credit  for  work  in  gymnastics 79          3.3 

Giving  instruction  (?)  in  athletics 232          9.7 

Work  in  athletics  prescribed 28          1.2 

Giving  credit  for  work  in  athletics 15  0.6 

Giving  instruction  in  swimming 6  0.2 

Having  medical  examination  of  students 139  5.8 

Having  sanitary  inspection  by  physician 284  11 .8 

Having  swimming  pools 9  0.3 

Having  gymnasiums 175  7.3 

Having  military  drill 34          1.4 

Having  athletic  fields 469  19 . 6 

Having  tennis  courts 339  14 . 2 

*  Compiled  and  arranged  from  data  given  by  the  Committee  on  Status  of  Instruction 
in  Hygiene  in  American  Educational  Institutions,  Proceedings  of  the  Fourth  Congress  of  the 
American  School  Hygiene  Association,  pp.  174-75.  Also  pp.  453-54,  American  Physical 
Education  Review,  vol.  xv. 

While  conditions  have  improved  noticeably  since  1910, 
it  remains  true  that  woefully  inadequate  provisions  are  made 
for  physical  education  in  the  public  secondary  schools  at  the 
present  day.  In  the  great  majority  of  public  secondary 
schools  little  or  no  provision  is  made  for  gymnasiums,  no 
qualified  teacher  is  employed  for  physical  training  or  even 
for  the  teaching  of  hygiene,  athletics  are  supervised  and 
directed  by  teachers  with  few  or  no  qualifications,  no  ade- 
quate machinery  is  provided  for  physical  examination  or 
even  for  medical  inspection,  and  what  little  physical  train- 
ing is  given  is  of  a  formal  and  perfunctory  character.  The 
common  provision,  even  in  some  of  our  best  schools,  of  two 


642      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

periods  per  week  in  gymnasium  exercises,  is  little  more  than 
a  pretence  of  education. 

299.  The  values  of  physical  education.  The  values  of 
physical  education  in  the  secondary  school  are  universally 
recognized  in  theory  and  almost  universally  ignored  in  prac- 
tice. Vital  efficiency  must  always  underlie  and  condition  all 
other  forms  of  efficiency  —  social,  economic,  and  personal. 
This  fact  is  readily  recognized  but  its  implications  are  seldom 
sufficiently  understood.  A  few  salient  features  may  serve  to 
emphasize  those  implications. 

(1)  The  annual  death-rate  for  the  United  States  is  esti- 
mated to  be  between  fifteen  and  eighteen  per  thousand  of 
population.  Between  one  and  a  half  and  two  per  cent  of  our 
total  population  dies  each  year  and  the  median  age  of  death 
is  approximately  thirty-eight.  It  is  estimated  that  approxi- 
mately two  fifths  of  those  deaths  could  be  postponed  by  the 
application  in  a  reasonable  way  and  to  a  reasonable  extent 
of  knowledge  now  available.1 

(2)  It  is  estimated  that  in  the  United  States  there  are  con- 
stantly about  three  million  persons  on  the  sick  list.    The 
application  of  available  health  knowledge  in  a  reasonable 
way  and  to  a  reasonable  extent  could  probably  reduce  this 
number  by  fully  one  half.1 

(3)  The  economic  loss  to  society  each  year  through  deaths 
which  could  have  been  postponed  is  probably  more  than  a 
billion  and  a  third  dollars.  The  loss  of  earnings  annually  on 
the  score  of  preventable  illness  is  probably  more  than  a  half 
billion  dollars.  When  there  is  added  to  these  figures  the  cost 
of  medical  care  for  the  sick  which  might  with  reasonable 
precautions  have  been  avoided,  the  total  annual  loss  for  the 
country  is  estimated  at  over  two  billion  dollars  —  over  one 
hundred  dollars  for  each  family  in  the  country.1 

1  Based  on  data  collected  from  several  sources  by  Rapeer,  L.  W., 
School  Health  Administration,  pp.  17-27. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  643 

(4)  The  physical  and  mental  suffering  caused  by  ill  health 
and  death  cannot,  of  course,  be  estimated.  Its  extent  may 
be  judged  in  part  from  the  figures  above  presented.  The 
important  fact  to  be  noted  is  that  much  of  that  suffering 
might  be  prevented  if  proper  precautions  were  taken. 

It  is  obviously  true  that  the  prevention  of  premature 
death  and  of  many  illnesses  must  depend  on  the  physician's 
skill  to  a  large  extent.  It  is  also  true,  however,  that  much  de- 
pends on :  (a)  the  development  of  a  greater  degree  of  resist- 
ance to  disease  through  the  improvement  of  bodily  health; 
(6)  the  dissemination  of  available  health  knowledge  and  the 
development  of  health  habits.  Here  the  responsibility  rests 
on  the  school  for  physical  education  in  hygiene  and  physi- 
ology and  for  physical  training.  In  both  fields  the  secondary 
school  must  play  its  part. 

300.  Factors  emphasizing  physical  education.  Physical 
education  has  always  had  important  claims  for  attention  in 
the  secondary  school.  However,  numerous  factors  have  com- 
bined to  emphasize  its  importance  at  the  present  time. 
Among  those  factors  may  be  mentioned  the  following: 

(1)  The  past  quarter  of  a  century  has  seen  tremendous 
strides  taken  in  the  advance  of  preventive  medicine  as  re- 
lated to  hygiene  and  sanitation.  Much  of  that  advance  con- 
sists in  the  accumulation  of  relatively  simple  health  knowl- 
edges which  need  but  to  be  known  and  understood  to  reduce 
greatly  illnesses  and  death  or  to  improve  the  physical  effi- 
ciency of  the  individual  and  the  race.  The  dissemination  of 
those  health  knowledges  and  the  development  of  habits  of 
life  in  accordance  therewith  is  an  important  function  of  the 
school.  Much  of  this  may  readily  be  done  in  the  elementary 
school.   Much  is  appropriate  to  secondary  education. 

(2)  Recent  developments  in  health  knowledge  have  em- 
phasized the  importance  of  cooperation  in  community  hy- 
giene and  sanitation.    It  is  probable  that  children  in  the 


644      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

elementary  school  are  not  mature  enough  in  their  social 
consciousness  to  grasp  adequately  principles  and  problems 
of  this  phase  of  physical  education  and  that  the  major  part 
of  responsibility  for  it  must  rest  on  the  secondary  school.  It 
may  be  noted  that  this  phase  of  physical  education  merges 
with  civic  education  and  in  part  may  be  provided  for  in 
connection  with  community  civics. 

(3)  Changes  in  American  life  within  recent  years  have 
tended  to  diminish  the  stimuli  and  opportunities  for  physical 
exercise  and  training.   Among  the  most  important  factors 
here  involved  may  be  noted :  (a)  the  tendency  toward  life  in 
the  city  and  away  from  life  in  the  country  has  served  to 
lessen  the  stimuli  and  opportunities  for  physical  activity 
both  in  work  and  in  play;  (6)  not  many  generations  ago  the 
major  part  of  work  was  done  by  men  and  women,  boys  and 
girls.  At  present  the  major  part  of  work  is  done  by  machin- 
ery.  The  loss  in  physical  activity  by  the  worker  has  been 
great.  Even  where  "  hand  work  "  is  still  important  it  tends 
to  be  limited  to  a  single  series  of  specialized  movements; 

(c)  sedentary  occupations  have  tended  to  increase  greatly; 

(d)  within  recent  years  "  sedentary  "  amusements  have 
tended  to  supplant  amusements  involving  physical  activity 
and  to  be  confined  to  indoor  instead  of  out-of-door  amuse- 
ments. 

(4)  In  part  as  a  result  of  certain  factors  mentioned  above, 
in  part  for  other  reasons,  it  has  been  claimed  that,  while 
zymotic  diseases  have  been  greatly  decreased  by  develop- 
ments in  preventive  medicine,  certain  organic  diseases  and 
diseases  of  the   nervous  system   have   greatly  increased.1 
Here  the  facts  are  by  no  means  clear,  since  it  is  difficult  to 
ascertain  whether  the  figures  represent  a  real  increase  or  only 
an  apparent  increase  due  to  improvements  in  methods  of 

1  Corwin,  R.  W.,   Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association 
(1913),  pp.  419-20. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  645 

diagnosis  and  increased  attention  to  nervous  diseases.  The 
factor  mentioned  below  may,  however,  affect  the  situation. 
(5)  Through  improved  methods  of  preventive  and  reme- 
dial medicine  many  persons  are  now  preserved  to  maturity 
who  previously  would  have  died  at  an  early  age.  In  many 
cases  they  have  constitutions  which  require  careful  atten- 
tion if  they  are  to  be  protected  from  disease.  The  secondary 
school  must  do  its  share  in  providing  them  with  physical 
education. 

301.  Three  general  divisions  of  physical  education.  Three 
general  divisions  of  physical  education  may  be  distinguished 
in  the  secondary  school:  (1)  instruction  in  physiology  and 
hygiene;  (2)  physical  training  provided  as  a  regular  part  of 
the  school  work;  (3)  athletics  and  play.   In  making  this  dis- 
tinction it  is  not  intended  to  imply  that  work  in  the  various 
fields  mentioned  is  or  should  be  entirely  dissociated.  The 
sole  purpose  in  making  the  distinction  is  to  consider  the 
special  values  and  aims  of  the  three  phases  of  physical  edu- 
cation. In  the  work  of  the  secondary  school  they  should  be 
as  closely  associated  as  possible.  The  position  will  be  taken 
in  a  later  section  that  athletics  and  play  should  be  a  regular 
part  of  the  organized  and  directed  physical  training.   The 
position  will  also  be  taken  that  the  effective  administration 
of  physical  education  can  be  carried  out  only  when  there 
exists    adequate    machinery    for    medical    inspection    and 
health  supervision. 

302.  Physiology  and  hygiene:  past  and  present  status. 
The  study  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools 
had  its  beginning  in  the  third  decade  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury and  its  development  was  rapid  after  1850.    Its  greatest 
impetus,  however,  came  as  a  result  of  the  "  temperance  " 
movement  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  By 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century  nearly  all  States  had 
made  legal  provision  requiring  the  teaching  of  physiology 


and  hygiene  with  "  special  instruction  as  to  the  effect  of 
alcoholic  drinks  and  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  hu- 
man system."  Much  of  that  instruction  was  provided  in 
the  grades  of  the  elementary  school,  but  the.study  of  phy- 
siology and  hygiene  also  had  its  place  in  the  secondary 
school.  Data  concerning  the  study  of  the  subject  in  the  pub- 
lic high  schools  from  1895  to  1915  are  presented  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: 

TABLE  CLI.  PUBLIC  HIGH-SCHOOL  PUPILS  ENGAGED  m 
THE  STUDY  OF  PHYSIOLOGY,  1895-1915* 

Year  Number  Per  cent 

1895 104,862  29.95 

1900 142,401  27.42 

1905 : 149,262  21 .96 

1910 113,252  15.32 

1915 110,541  9.48 

*  Report,  of  the  Untied  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  n,  p.  487. 

On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  up  to  recent  date  instruc- 
tion in  physiology  and  hygiene  both  in  the  elementary  school 
and  in  the  secondary  school  has  been  a  conspicuous  failure, 
though  reforms  of  the  past  decade  give  promise  of  better- 
ment. For  this  failure  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  reasons: 
(a)  the  study  was  inaugurated  in  the  schools  as  part  of  a 
propaganda  and  became  preaching  rather  than  instruction; 
(6)  teachers  were  either  apathetic  and  merely  conformed  to 
the  letter  of  the  law  or  were  reformers  whose  enthusiasm  led 
to  well-meant  but  ignorant  teaching;  (c)  as  far  as  temper- 
ance instruction  was  concerned  much  that  was  taught  was 
demonstrably  false  and  obviously  untrue  even  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  pupils,  while  much  more  was  not  demonstrably 
true;  (d)  apart  from  the  temperance  propaganda  the  physi- 
ology which  was  taught,  especially  in  the  high  school,  con- 
cerned itself  with  anatomy  and  scientific  classification  of 
parts  and  organs  of  the  body  rather  than  with  the  applica- 
tion of  hygiene  knowledge;  (e)  textbooks  in  physiology  until 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  647 

within  recent  years  were  most  unsatisfactory,  either  tending 
to  exaggeration  and  falsity  when  designed  as  a  part  of 
temperance  propaganda  or  tending  toward  too  much 
scientific  classification  and  organization  and  neglecting 
practical  hygiene. 

Within  the  past  few  years  and  especially  in  the  high  school 
there  has  developed  a  tendency  to  provide  instruction  in 
physiology  and  hygiene  not  only  through  courses  in  that 
subject  proper,  but  also  in  connection  with  biology,  general 
science,  domestic  science,  and  community  civics.  Further, 
textbooks  in  the  subject  and  methods  of  teaching  have  been 
adapted  to  the  real  ends  of  instruction  in  physiology  and 
hygiene  —  the  imparting  of  health  knowledge  and  the  de- 
velopment of  health  habits  which  will  have  practical  and 
fairly  general  application  in  the  lives  of  the  pupils. 

303.  Place  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  program. 
It  must  be  recognized  that  instruction  in  physiology  and 
hygiene  has  its  legitimate  and  necessary  place  in  the  school. 
Some  of  that  instruction  is  and  should  be  provided  in  the 
elementary  school  throughout  its  course  (grades  one  to  six). 
Before  entrance  to  the  junior  high  school  the  pupil  should 
have  acquired  considerable  physiological  and  hygienical 
knowledge.  Instruction  in  those  fields  should  be  continued 
throughout  the  junior  high  school.  In  the  seventh  grade 
(first  grade  of  the  junior  high  school)  that  instruction  may 
well  be  given  as  a  separate  study.  In  the  eighth  and  ninth 
grades  (second  and  third  grades  of  the  junior  high  school) 
it  may  be  made  a  part  of  the  general  science  courses.  In  the 
ninth  grade  also  it  should  be  related  to  the  course  in  com- 
munity civics.  Throughout  the  junior  high  school  all  in- 
struction in  physiology  and  hygiene  should  be  conducted 
primarily  from  the  viewpoint  of  its  application  to  the  lives 
of  the  pupils  and  to  social  needs.  The  study  of  physiology 
and  hygiene  as  a  science  has  no  place  in  the  junior  high 


648      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

school.  As  a  science  physiology  and  hygiene  should  be 
reserved  for  study  as  elective  in  the  senior  high  school. 
Recognition  of  the  phenomena  of  retardation  and  elimina- 
tion should  guard  us  against  the  suggestion  made  by  some 
that  a  high-school  course  in  physiology  and  hygiene  (to  be 
engaged  in  by  all  pupils)  should  be  deferred  until  the  pupil 
may  have  studied  biology,  chemistry  and  physics.1 

304.  Direct  importance  of  physiology  and  hygiene.  There 
is  no  possible  way  of  determining  exactly  the  importance  of 
some  knowledge  of  physiology  and  hygiene  to  the  second- 
ary-school pupil  during  the  school  period  of  his  life.  A  few 
facts  are  worthy  of  attention,  however,  in  that  connection. 

(1)  In  1914-15  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion reports  that  585  cities  in  the  country  having  each  a 
population  of  10,000  or  over  had  a  total  enrollment  of 
643,957  high-school  pupils  with  an  average  daily  attendance 
of  540,603. 2    So  many  factors  affect  attendance  or  non- 
attendance  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  amount 
of  absence  from  high  school  that  is  due  to  illness  or  to  esti- 
mate the  effect  of  poor  attendance  on  the  pupil's  work, 
retardation,  and  sometimes  elimination.   It  is  known,  how- 
ever, that  one  of  the  most  potent  causes  of  retardation,  even 
in  high-school  pupils,  is  irregular  attendance. 3  The  amount 
of  non-attendance  due  to  illness  or  poor  health  is  greater 
than  is  sometimes  thought.   This  may  in  part  be  remedied 
by  proper  health  inspection  and  attention,  in  part  by  the 
dissemination  of  health  knowledge  and  the  development  of 
health  habits  among  high-school  pupils, 

(2)  Careful  investigation  of  the  physical  conditions  of 

1  Cf .  Beny,  C.  S.,  p.  357  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High  School  Education. 

2  Report  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  n,  p.  47. 

3  Cf.  Ayres,  L.  P.,  "The  Relation  Between  Physical  Defects  and  School 
Progress,"  Proceedings  of  the  Fourth  Congress  of  the  American  School  Hygiene 
Association,  pp.  99-105;   Rapeer,  L.  W.,  School  Health  Administration, 
pp.  31-50. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


649 


secondary-school  pupils  has  indicated  that  more  than  one 
half  of  the  high-school  pupils  suffer  from  more  or  less  serious 
physical  defects.1  While  the  correction  of  many  of  those 
defects  demands  the  care  of  the  specialist  the  health  instruc- 
tion of  the  school  can  at  least  impress  on  the  pupils  the 
recognition  of  their  defects  and  the  importance  of  immediate 
attention  to  their  correction. 

(3)  Children  of  secondary-school  age  in  alarming  numbers 
suffer  from  preventable  diseases.  Some  conception  of  the  im- 
portance of  this  factor  may  be  gained  from  figures  presented 
in  the  following  table.2 

TABLE  CLII.  ESTIMATED  PREVENTABILITY  OF  DEATHS  OF  CHIL- 
DREN OF  AGES  FIFTEEN  TO  NINETEEN  FOR  TEN  MOST  NU- 
MEROUS CAUSES  OF  DEATH  IN  1910 


Causes  of  deaths 

Total  num- 
ber of 
deaths  in 
United 
State* 

Per  cent 
preventable 

Number 
preventable 

Pulmonary  tuberculosis               

8650 

75 

6487 

4230 

? 

? 

Typhoid  fever    ..          

2830 

85 

2405 

Heart  disease,  organic          

1940 

25 

485 

Pneumonia                                   

1920 

45 

864 

Tuberculosis  other  parts           

1750 

75 

1177 

1270 

50 

635 

Bright's  disease   

740 

40 

286 

550 

? 

? 

Meningitis        ..        ..        

500 

70 

350 

These  and  other  considerations  render  imperative  and 
effective  program  of  health  instruction,  inspection,  and  care 
in  the  secondary  school. 

1  Small,  W.  S.,  pp.  500-03  of  Rapeer,  L.  W.  (Editor),  Educational  Hygiene. 

2  Arranged  from  data  given  by  Rapeer,  L.  W.,  School  Health  Administra- 
tion, p.  17.     Cf.    Department    of   Commerce,    Bureau  of    the   Census. 
Mortality  Statistics  (1911). 


650      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

305.  Sex  hygiene  and  sex  pedagogy.  Modern  civilization 
is  in  many  points  in  direct  conflict  with  nature;  nowhere  is 
it  in  greater  conflict  than  in  matters  related  to  sex.  Modern 
conventions  and  the  conditions  of  modern  life  make  neces- 
sary and  desirable  the  postponement  of  marriage  until  a  date 
considerably  later  than  the  development  of  strong  sex  in- 
stincts and  the  maturity  of  physiological  functions  related 
to  sex.  Sex  maturity  begins  to  appear  during  the  period  of 
secondary  education,  and  the  development  of  sex  instincts 
during  that  period  is  as  inevitable  as  the  daily  rising  of  the 
sun.  Sex  indulgence,  normal  and  perverted,  among  second- 
ary-school pupils  is  by  no  means  the  rare  exception  that  trust- 
ing and  optimistic  school  authorities  would  believe.  For 
every  case  that  becomes  known  there  are  many  cases  which 
remain  undiscovered. 

The  importance  of  measures  which  may  help  to  diminish 
the  ravages  of  venereal  diseases  in  society  need  not  here  be 
rehearsed.  The  prevalence  of  such  diseases  and  their  effects 
have  been  discussed  ad  nauseam  in  modern  literature,  both 
scientific  and  unscientific.  The  problems  of  education  in  this 
connection  are  not  those  of  need,  but  rather  of  ways  and 
means.  According  to  Crampton:  l 

The  problem  resolves  itself  into  two  parts: 

1st.  Shall  instruction  in  sex  hygiene  be  given  in  the  schools? 

2d.  When,  how,  and  by  whom  shall  it  be  given? 

The  situation  is  bristling  with  difficulties.  It  may  be  questioned 
whether  knowledge  is  more  protective  than  ignorance,  and  the 
answer  may  be  that  knowledge  from  a  worthy  source  is  better  than 
that  which  comes  from  vicious  companions. 

It  may  be  firmly  held  that  this  instruction  should  come  from  the 
father  and  mother,  the  physician  or  other  sources;  to  this  the 
reply  must  be  given  that  these  sources  are  ineffective,  for  the 
situation  still  demands  a  remedy. 

1  Crampton,  C.  W.,  "The  Teaching  of  Hygiene,"  Proceedings  of  the 
Fourth  Congress  of  the  American  School  Hygiene  Association,  pp.  137-42. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  651 

It  is  a  question  whether  this  instruction  should  begin  before  or 
after  puberty,  in  the  elementary  school  or  the  high  school.1 
Whether  it  should  be  taught  in  the  department  of  biology,  hygiene, 
physical  training,  or  in  an  entirely  separate  department,  is  still  to 
be  determined. 

The  advantages  of  the  lecture  method  as  against  the  individual 
conference,  the  systematic  as  against  the  occasional  presentation, 
are  all  to  be  considered. 

Whatever  course  may  be  followed  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it  should 
be  based  upon  the  relation  of  the  sex  hygiene  to  health,  rather  than 
its  relation  to  ethics  or  religion. 

The  answer  to  the  first  problem  raised  by  Crampton 
should  be  unqualifiably  affirmative.  Education  in  sex  hy- 
giene must  be  given  in  the  schools.  The  legitimate  place  for 
that  education  is  at  the  point  where  it  has  its  greatest  appli- 
cation, namely,  when  the  sex  instincts  begin  to  mature. 
The  school  is  the  only  agency  which  society  may  systemati- 
cally control  for  purposes  of  this  education. 

To  the  second  problem  raised  by  Crampton  no  final  answer 
can  be  given  on  the  basis  of  available  knowledge.  Much  may 
be  done  in  the  departments  of  biology,  physiology,  hygiene, 
physical  training,  and  civics.  Much  may  also  be  done  in 
the  administration  of  the  school  activities,  particularly  in 
connection  with  the  extra-curriculum  activities,  social  and 
athletic.  Crampton  quotes  Governor  Whitman  (formerly 
District  Attorney  for  New  York  City)  to  the  effect 

that  athletics  have  done  and  would  do  more  to  wipe  out  the 
"white  slave"  traffic  than  the  passage  of  any  or  all  of  the  legisla- 
tion now  pending  in  Washington  or  Albany.2 

306.  Past  and  present  status  of  physical  training.  In  the 
American  secondary  school  physical  training  through  bodily 

1  The  organization  of  the  six-three-three  school  system  affects  this 
problem. 

2  Crampton,  C.  W.,  "The  Teaching  of  Hygiene,"  Proceedings  of  the 
Fourth  Congress  of  the  American  School  Hygiene  Association,  p.  141. 


652     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

activity  has  at  various  times  and  to  varying  extent  followed 
four  principal  lines  of  development:  (1)  military  drill;  (2) 
"  manual  labor  "  and  "  manual  training  ";  (3)  formal  gym- 
nastic exercises;  (4)  athletic  exercises  and  games.  Military 
drill  was  found  in  some  of  the  Latin  grammar  schools.  Mili- 
tary or  semi-military  academies  and  private  schools  have 
been  more  or  less  prominent  from  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  Civil  War,  the  Spanish  War,  and 
the  present  World  War,  each  gave  at  least  temporary  impe- 
tus to  military  training  both  in  private  and  public  secondary 
schools.  The  early  manual  labor  movement  laid  emphasis 
on  "  practical  "  physical  activity  and  the  element  of  physical 
training  was  emphasized  in  the  manual  training  movement 
of  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Formal 
gymnastics  found  a  place  in  the  secondary  school  of  the 
second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  for  a  short  time 
and  were  prominent  periodically  until  they  secured  a  firm 
position  in  the  schools  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Athletics  and  games  developed  extensively  but  in- 
formally during  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Their  incorporation  into  the  secondary  school  as  an  integral 
part  of  its  work  and  their  extensive  substitution  for  formal 
gymnastic  exercises  have  been  developments  of  recent  years. 

In  Table  CLI  some  incomplete  data  were  presented  con- 
cerning physical  training  in  the  secondary  schools.  They 
show  that  the  problem  of  physical  training  through  exercise 
as  yet  has  not  been  adequately  recognized,  much  less  solved. 

307.  Values  and  aims  of  physical  training.  In  general 
the  values  and  aims  of  physical  training  through  motor  activ- 
ity are  per  se  the  values  and  aims  of  all  physical  education. 
In  particular  physical  training  through  motor  activity  aims 
to  improve  bodily  health  and  efficiency  by  giving  exercise 
to  those  parts  of  the  body  which  fundamentally  condition 
health  and  vigor,  by  developing  muscular  and  neural  coor- 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  653 

dination,  by  establishing  habits  of  healthful  exercise,  and,  in 
some  cases,  by  correcting  certain  physical  defects.  Physical 
training  through  motor  activity  as  such  concerns  bodily 
health  and  efficiency  alone.  However,  the  greatest  error  in 
physical  training  instruction  in  the  past  has  been  the  tend- 
ency (common,  e.g.,  in  formal  calisthenics  and  gymnastics) 
to  isolate  that  phase  of  education  both  from  instruction  in 
hygiene  and  also  from  the  mental,  social,  and  moral  education 
with  which  it  should  be  associated.  The  result  was  a  form 
of  physical  education  highly  artificial,  lacking  in  attraction 
to  the  pupil,  and  in  the  majority  of  schools  very  ineffective. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  the  course  in  physical  training  is 
properly  combined  with  other  phases  of  education,  espe- 
cially as  the  combination  is  found  in  games  and  athletics, 
few  courses  in  the  secondary  school  can  compete  with  physi- 
cal training  as  an  educative  force  at  once  physical,  social, 
and  moral,  and  few  courses  can  so  readily  stimulate  the  inter- 
est and  endeavor  of  the  pupils.  This  point  is  considered  at 
greater  length  in  following  sections. 

308.  Gymnastics  in  the  program.  In  the  German  higher 
schools  formal  gymnastics  are  judged  to  be  a  conspicu- 
ous success.  In  the  American  secondary  school  they  can- 
not be  considered  otherwise  than  as  a  conspicuous  failure. 
That  failure  has  been  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  very  in- 
adequate provision  was  made  in  many  schools  and  that 
teachers  are  not  well  trained  for  such  instruction.  More 
important,  however,  at  least  as  far  as  the  future  is  con- 
cerned, are  the  objections  which  may  be  raised  against  re- 
liance on  formal  gymnastics  as  the  sole  or  principal  means 
of  physical  training:  (1)  they  are  highly  artificial  and  do  not  ^ 
correspond  closely  to  the  normal  motor  activities  in  life; 

(2)  they  are  purely  mechanical  and  lack  mental  content;  ) 

(3)  they  frequently  arouse  a  distaste  rather  than  a  liking  for  v 
physical  exercise;  (4)  except  for  a  few  individuals  they  fail  ^ 


654      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

to  arouse  permanent  interests  or  develop  self-sustaining 
habits;  (5)  they  ignore  or  minimize  the  recreation  element; 
(6)  they  lack  the  social  and  moral  elements  which  are  prom- 
inent in  athletics  and  games;  (7)  as  commonly  taught  to 
large  groups  they  tend  to  ignore  individual  differences  in 
physical  endowment,  acquirements,  and  needs. 

All  these  objections  may  be  raised  against  formal  gym- 
nastics as  the  sole  or  principal  means  of  physical  training. 
As  a  part  of  the  program  for  physical  training  they  have  a 
legitimate  place,  possessing  as  they  do,  certain  advantages 
which  may  not  be  found  in  athletics  and  games.  Among 
those  advantages  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  (a)  prop- 
erly administered  gymnastics  may  be  made  an  effective 
means  of  corrective  training  for  individuals  or  selected 
groups  of  pupils;  (6)  their  artificial  character  permits  the 
selection  of  those  exercises  and  only  those  exercises  for 
psychomotor  activity  which  make  positive  contributions 
to  specific  ends  in  physical  training;  (c)  they  may  be  made  to 
combine  certain  aesthetic  elements  with  physical  training; 

(d)  they  may  be  made   to  include  disciplinary  elements; 

(e)  they  leave  no  room  for  the  evils  which  always  threaten 
athletics  and  games;  (/)  they  permit  organization  into  sys- 
tematically   graduated   exercises   which    may   readily   be 
adapted  to  the  demands  of  physiological  development  on 
the  part  of  pupils. 

309.  Athletics,  dancing,  and  games.  While  formally 
organized  and  officially  administered  physical  training  was 
struggling  for  a  place  in  the  work  of  the  secondary  school 
during  the  later  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was 
rapidly  developing  an  extensive  amount  of  informally  organ- 
ized and  unofficially  directed  physical  training  through 
athletics  and  games  in  connection  with  the  secondary 
schools.  At  first  opposed  by  many  school  authorities,  later 
accepted  as  a  necessary  evil,  athletics  and  games  have  fin- 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  655 

ally  been  welcomed  at  least  as  desirable  auxiliaries  to  physi- 
cal training.  At  present  there  is  evidence  that  the  stone 
which  the  builders  rejected  may  become  the  head  of  the 
corner.  One  of  the  immediate  needs  of  physical  training 
in  the  secondary  school  is  the  harnessing  up  for  effective 
training  of  those  forms  of  physical  activity  which  in  ath- 
letics, dancing,  and  games  so  vitally  hold  the  interest  and 
provoke  the  endeavor  of  pupils. 

Properly  organized  and  administered  athletics,  dancing, 
and  games  offer  opportunities  for  the  development  of  a  pro- 
gram of  physical  training  and  its  coordination  with  other 
forms  of  education  which  no  program  of  formal  gymnastics 
can  hope  to  accomplish.  Reasons  for  this  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  considerations. 

(1)  For    the    normal    secondary-school    pupil    physical 
training  through  athletics  and  games  provides  opportunity 
for  motor  activity  which  meets  every  aim  of  physical  train- 
ing as  such  much  better  than  any  form  of  artificial  training. 
The  movements  of  the  body  in  athletics,  dancing,  and  games 
are  natural  movements  and  have  at  least  a  temporarily 
definite  purpose  obvious  to  the  pupil.    In  addition  such 
exercises  engage  every  important  organ  and  part  of  the  body 
and  to  a  considerable  extent  they  are  carried  on  in  the  open 
air  instead  of  in  an  enclosed,  sometimes  unhygienic,  gym- 
nasium. 

(2)  Athletics,  dancing,  and  games,  to  a  degree  not  par- 
alleled by  any  other  school  exercise,  unite  phases  of  physical, 
mental,  social,  and  moral  education.    In  the  majority  of 
school  studies  social  and  moral  principles  are  read  about 
and  talked  about.    In  athletics  and  games  they  are  learned 
through  actual  practice  and  by  actual  participation  in  the 
activities  which  call  for  their  manifestation. 

(3)  In  the  greater  part  of  secondary-school  work  the 
school  must  develop  interests  and  endeavor.   Athletics  and 


656      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

games  have  developed  among  the  pupils  to  a  certain  degree 
spontaneously  and  through  their  native  interests.  Nowhere 
in  the  program  of  school  work  do  we  find  such  a  firm  basis 
of  established  interest. 

(4)  Physical   training  through  athletics,   dancing,   and 
games  offers  an  opportunity  for  the  establishment  of  per- 
manent health  and  recreation  interests  and  habits.    It  thus 
becomes  not  merely  a  temporary  expedient  but  an  abiding 
instrument  for  health  and  pleasure. 

(5)  Educators  are  but  beginning  to  recognize  the  impor- 
tant part  held  by  play.  Formal  gymnastics  ignores  its  impor- 
tance.   Athletics,  dancing,  and  games  make  play  the  very 
basis  of  their  appeal  and  value. 

(6)  Formal  gymnastics  as  the  principal  means  of  physi- 
cal training  readily  allows  the  subordination  of  educational 
needs  to  administrative  exigencies.    The  organization  of 
physical  training  on  the  basis  of  athletics  and  games  forces 
the  subordination  of  administrative  exigencies  to  the  real 
needs  of  physical  training. 

310.  Some  dangers  in  such  organization.  In  the  organiza- 
tion of  physical  training  on  the  primary  basis  of  athletics 
and  games  certain  dangers  must  be  guarded  against. 

(1)  Properly  organized  and  administered  athletics  and 
games  may  be  made  the  basis  of  very  effective  social  and 
moral  education.    Improperly  organized  and  improperly  ad- 
ministered they  may  become  the  means  of  harmful  results 
in  social  and  moral  education.    The  price  of  gain  is  always 
the  possibility  of  loss.    The  more  effective  an  instrument  is 
when  properly  employed  the  more  dangerous  it  is  likely  to 
be  when  misapplied  or  carelessly  used. 

(2)  A  program  of  physical  training  through  athletics  and 
games  must  be  prepared  with  great  care.    For  girls  in  par- 
ticular athletics  and  games  in  the  secondary  school  where 
girls  are  in  the  pubescent  or  adolescent  stages  must  be 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  657 

organized  with  attention  to  their  physical  needs  and  con- 
ditions. 

(3)  A  program  of  physical  training  based  on  athletics  and 
games  as   the  primary  element  presupposes  proper  pro- 
vision for  physical  examination  and  care.    In  this  connec- 
tion it  should  be  noted  that  physical  training  of  any  kind 
cannot  be  effective  and  may  be  actually  harmful  unless  an 
effective  program  of  health  administration  is  established. 

(4)  Attempts  to  harness  athletics  and  games  to  the  regu- 
lar work  of  the  secondary  school  may  easily  result  in  the 
destruction  of  those  spontaneous  interests,  enthusiasms,  and 
endeavors  which  have  made  them  such  effective  instru- 
ments for  physical  training  (and  for  other  forms  of  educa- 
tion) in  the  past  when  they  were  left  more  or  less  to  the 
control   of  the  pupils.    In   the  organization   of  athletics 
as  an  integral  part  of  the  work  of  the  secondary  school, 
unless  those  spontaneous  interests  of  the  pupils  can  be 
preserved,  there  is  danger  that  many  of  the  advantages  of 
athletics  and  games  as  forms  of  physical  training  may  be 
lost. 

(5)  Closely  related  to  the  above  is  the  problem  of  com- 
petitive  interscholastic  athletics.     Many  evils  have   un- 
doubtedly developed  around  interscholastic  contests  and 
for  that  reason  considerable  opposition  has  been  raised  to 
their  continuance.    It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  inter- 
scholastic contests  have  been  the  principal  factor  contribut- 
ing to  the  development  of  secondary-school  athletics.    No 
greater  error  could  be  made  than  to  destroy  the  pupils'  inter- 
est and  cooperation  in  physical  training  through  athletics 
and  games  by  eliminating  interscholastic  contests. 

311.  Military  training  and  physical  training.  The  pres- 
ence or  imminence  of  war  has  always  led  to  the  considera- 
tion of  military  training  as  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  second- 
ary school.  The  predominant  purpose  of  military  training 


658      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

is  social  and  moral.  Nevertheless  it  is  to  some  extent  re- 
lated to  physical  training  and  is  sometimes  made  a  substi- 
tute for  other  forms  of  physical  training.  For  convenience 
it  may  be  considered  in  the  present  connection. 

As  a  principal  or  sole  means  of  physical  training  military 
training  is  unsatisfactory  for  the  following  reasons:  (1)  it  is 
almost  totally  unsuitable  for  girls;  (2)  except  as  it  includes 
forms  of  physical  training  not  peculiar  to  military  training 
it  is  limited  in  its  scope  for  that  purpose;  (3)  it  cannot  be 
required  of  all  boys  in  the  secondary  school;  (4)  it  does  not 
capitalize  the  powerful  instincts  and  interests  of  play  and 
competition  as  do  athletics  and  games;  (5)  its  primary 
and  fundamental  aim  is  not  physical,  but  social  and  moral, 
and  those  aims  should  dominate  its  instruction. 

As  a  subsidiary  means  of  physical  education  and  as  a 
means  of  social-moral  education  military  training  has  legiti- 
mate claims  for  attention  in  the  secondary  school.  Optimis- 
tic belief  in  the  ultimate  brotherhood  of  man  and  confidence 
in  the  ultimate  elimination  of  militarism  and  war  should  not 
blind  us  to  the  fact  that  at  present  preparation  for  the  social- 
civic  duties  of  life  includes  preparation  for  the  defense  of 
our  lives  and  of  our  institutions.  This  can  never  be  wholly 
intellectual  and  emotional.  It  must  also  involve  the  physi- 
cal. In  military  training,  therefore,  some  opportunity  is 
afforded  for  this  necessary  factor  through  the  combination 
of  social,  moral,  and  physical  elements  which  must  be  in- 
volved in  adequate  preparation  for  civic  education. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  In  any  secondary  school  make  an  investigation  of  the  illnesses  of  pupils 
and  absences  due  to  illness. 

2.  In  any  secondary  school  investigate  the  amount  and  character  of 
physical  exercise  engaged  in  by  pupils  for  any  given  period. 

8.  Compare  the  systems  of  physical  education  in  German,  English,  and 
American  secondary  schools. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  659 

4.  Trace  the  development  of  gymnastics  in  the  American  secondary 
school. 

5.  Trace  the  development  of  athletics  hi  the  American  secondary  school. 

6.  Trace  the  development  of  military  training  in  the  American  secondary 
school. 

7.  Trace  the  development  of  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the 
American  secondary  school. 

8.  Analyze  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  separate  and  direct  teaching 
of  sex  hygiene  in  the  public  secondary  school. 

9.  Analyze  the  arguments  for  and  against  military  training  for  boys  in 
the  public  secondary  school. 

10.  Analyze  the  evils  of  secondary  school  athletics.    How  may  they  be 
remedied? 

11.  Select  one  group  of  pupils  from  the  highest  quarter  of  any  secondary- 
school  class  (as  measured  by  school  grades)  and  another  group  of  pupils 
from  the  lowest  quarter  of  the  same  class.    Compare  the  amount  of 
illness  and  absence  because  of  illness  in  both  groups. 

12.  Compare  the  grades  received  by  pupils  who  have  engaged  in  athletics 
and  those  received  by  pupils  who  have  engaged  in  no  athletics  in  any 
one  year. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 
I.  General: 

Dutton,  S.  T.,  and  Sne'dden,  D.,  The  Administration  of  Public  Educa- 
tion in  the  United  States,  chap.  xxm. 

Fisher,  I.,  National  Vitality:  Its  Waste  and  Conservation,  Report  of 
the  National  Conservation  Commission,  vol.  in,  pp.  620-751. 

Gulick,  L.  H.,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Status  of  Physical  Edu- 
cation in  Public  Normal  Schools  and  Public  High  Schools  in  the 
United  States,  American  Physical  Education  Review,  vol.  xv, 
pp.  453-54.  Also  in  Proceedings  of  the  Fourth  Congress  of  the 
American  School  Hygiene  Association,  pp.  174-75. 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganiza- 
tion of  Secondary  Education,  Report  of  Committee  on  Physical 
Education  in  Secondary  Schools,  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 

New  York  State,  General  Plan  and  Syllabus  for  Physical  Training 
in  the  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools. 

American  Physical  Education  Review. 

Rapeer,  L.  W.,  School  Health  Administration,  especially  pp.  17-53. 

Rapeer,  L.  W.  (Editor),  Educational  Hygiene,  especially  chaps.  I, 

XXIII,  XXVI. 

Sargent,  D.,  Physical  Education. 

Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  chap.  xxiv. 
Wood,  T.  D.,  "Health  and  Education,"  Ninth  Yearbook  of  the  Na- 
tional Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  part  I. 


660      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

II.  Physiology  and  hygiene: 

Berry,  C.  S.,  chap,  xix  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  High-School 
Education. 

Cabot,  R.  C.,  "The  Teaching  of  Hygiene,"  American  Physical  Edu- 
cation Review,  vol.  xiv,  pp.  352-58. 

Crampton,  C.  W.,  "The  Teaching  of  Hygiene,"  Proceedings  of  the 
Fourth  Congress  of  the  American  School  Hygiene  Association, 
pp.  137-42. 

Henderson,  C.  R., "  Education  with  Reference  to  Sex,"  Eighth  Year- 
book of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  parts  i  and  n. 

Lloyd,  F.  E.,  and  Bigelow,  M.  A.,  The  Teaching  of  Biology  in  the 
Secondary  Schools. 

Small,  W.  S.,  "Health  Teaching  in  the  High  School,"  chap,  xxvi  of 
Rapeer,  L.  W.  (Editor),  Educational  Hygiene. 

Storey,  T.  A.,  "The  Relation  of  School  Hygiene  to  Physical  Educa- 
tion," American  Physical  Education  Review,  vol.  xiv,  pp.  529-36. 

Wile,  I.  S., "  Sex  Hygiene  and  Sex  Education,"  chap,  xxix  of  Rapeer, 
L.  W.  (Editor),  Educational  Hygiene. 

III.  Athletics,  dancing  and  games: 

Curtis,  H.  S.,  Education  through  Play,  especially  chaps,  i-vi,  x,  xi. 

Dudley,  G.,  and  Kellor,  F.,  Athletic  Games  in  theEducation  of  Women. 

Pauver,  E.,  "Physical  Education  and  Athletics  in  the  High  School," 
chap,  xxin  of  Rapeer,  L.  W.,  Educational  Hygiene. 

Hetherington,  C.  W.,  "Athletics,"  chap,  xix  of  Monroe,  P.  (Editor), 
Principles  of  Secondary  Education. 

Johnson,  G.  E.,  Education  by  Plays  and  Games. 

Kindervater,  A.  E.,  "German  Gymnastics  Adapted  to  American 
High  School  Conditions,"  Proceedings  of  the  Fourth  Congress  of  the 
American  School  Hygiene  Association,  pp.  47-56. 

Lee,  J.,  Play  in  Education. 

Naismith,  J.,  "High-School  Athletics  and  Gymnastics,"  chap,  xvii 
of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  The  Modern  High  School. 

Nichols,  E.  H.,  "Competitive  Athletics,"  American  Physical  Educa- 
tion Review,  vol.  xiv,  pp.  589  ff. 

Playground  Association  of  America,  Report  of  Committee  on  Athletics 
for  Boys  and  Athletics  for  Girls. 

Sargent,  D.  A.,  Physical  Education,  chap.  vm. 

IV.  Military  training: 

Ayres,  L.  P.,  "Military  Drill  in  High  Schools,"  School  Review, 

vol.  xxv,  pp.  157-60. 
Bliss,  D.  C.,  "Military  Training  in  the  High  School,"  School  Review, 

vol.  xxv,  pp.  161-67. 
Massachusetts  Commission  on  Military  Education,  Report,  School 

Review,  vol.  xxv,  pp.  168-76. 
National  Education  Association,  Report  of  Committee  on  Military 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  661 

Training,   "Military  Training   in   the   Schools   and   Colleges," 

Educational  Review,  vol.  LIV,  pp.  54-72.  Also,  Proceedings  (1917), 

pp.  1006-18. 

New  York  State  Laws  (1916),  chap.  566. 
Sargent,  D.  A.,  Physical  Education,  chap.  ix. 
Small,  W.  S.,  "Military  Training  in  the  High  School:  Why  and 

How?"  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association  (1916), 

pp.  570-74. 
Steever,  E.  Z.,  "The  Wyoming  Plan  of  Military  Training  for  the 

School,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxv,  pp.  145-50. 

Extended  bibliographies:  McCurdy,  J.  H.,  Bibliography  of  Physical 
Training;  Bibliography  of  Medical  Inspection  and  Health  Super- 
vision, Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  (1913),  no.  16;  Indices  of 
volumes  of  the  American  Physical  Educational  Review;  Burgess, 
W.  R.,  Cummings,  H.  B.  Tomlinson,  W.  P.,  "Military  Train- 
ing in  the  Public  Schools,  An  Annotated  Bibliography,"  Teachers 
College  Record,  vol.  xvra,  pp.  141-60. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION: 
CURRICULUMS 

I.  HISTORICAL  AND  COMPARATIVE 

312.  Historical  development  of  curriculums.  The  Latin 
grammar  school  of  the  American  colonies,  as  elsewhere, 
provided  a  single  inflexible  curriculum  for  all  pupils  —  a 
narrowly  classical  curriculum  designed  to  prepare  boys  for 
college.  No  departure  from  that  plan  was  made  until  the 
time  of  the  academy  with  its  introduction  not  only  of 
different  subjects  of  study  but  also  of  differentiated  cur- 
riculums. Thus  in  the  academy  established  by '  Franklin 
provision  was  made  for  a  Latin  school,  an  English  school, 
and  a  mathematical  school,  to  which  was  added  later  a 
philosophical  school.  Thus  also  we  find  a  Classical  Depart- 
ment and  an  English  Department  in  the  Phillips  Academy 
at  Andover  in  1818.  At  least  to  the  extent  of  somewhat 
separate  classical  and  English  departments  and  sometimes 
separate  departments  or  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  curricu- 
lum differentiation  became  common  in  the  academy  at  a 
relatively  early  date. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  high-school  movement  the  tend- 
ency toward  differentiation  was  manifested  not  by  offering 
different  curriculums  in  the  same  school  but  by  establishing 
separate  schools  for  different  groups  of  pupils.  Thus  we 
find  the  secondary-school  system  of  Boston,  which  up  to 
1821  had  consisted  of  the  Public  Latin  School  alone,  en- 
larged by  the  establishment  of  the  English  Classical  (High) 
School  in  that  year  and  by  the  establishment  of  the  Girls' 


CURRICULUMS  663 

High  School  in  1826.  A  few  other  cities  followed  this  plan. 
The  high-school  law  of  1827  in  Massachusetts  tended  to 
check  the  practice  of  establishing  separate  secondary  schools 
for  different  groups  of  pupils  and  tended  to  establish  public 
high  schools  in  which  somewhat  differentiated  curriculums 
were  provided.  The  practice  of  providing  separate  curricu- 
lums or  departments  within  the  same  school  has  been  the 
usual  practice  almost  from  the  beginning  of  the  high-school 
movement.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  bases  of  differentiated 
curriculums,  until  well  toward  the  close  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  were  (1)  separate  courses  for  those  going  to  college 
and  those  not  going  to  college;  (2)  separate  courses  for  boys 
and  for  girls,  especially  during  the  earlier  period;  and  (3) 
toward  the  close  of  the  century  somewhat  differentiated 
courses  for  pupils  preparing  for  varying  forms  of  higher 
education. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  num- 
ber of  factors  combined  to  foster  greater  differentiation  than 
had  previously  obtained  in  the  organization  of  curriculums : 
(1)  the  increased  differentiation  in  college  admission  re- 
quirements; (2)  the  increasing  strength  of  demands  for  the 
recognition  of  newly  developed  subjects  of  study;  (3)  the  ex- 
tension of  the  patronage  of  the  public  high  school  and  the 
influx  of  pupils  with  different  interests,  capacities,  and  prob- 
able future  needs;  (4)  the  demands  of  vocational  education 
and  practical-arts  education,  especially  as  related  to  man- 
ual, technical,  and  commercial  training;  (5)  increasing  rec- 
ognition of  the  principle  of  "  selection."  These  and  other 
factors  as  early  as  1890  caused  such  a  lack  of  uniformity  and 
so  much  variation  in  secondary  education  that  a  committee 
was  appointed  by  the  National  Council  of  Education  to 
render  a  report  on  the  general  subject  of  uniformity  in 
school  programs  and  in  requirements  for  admission  to  col- 
lege. As  a  consequence  of  the  report  presented  by  that  com- 


664     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

mittee  in  1891  the  National  Education  Association  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  continue  the  study  of  the  matter  in 
1892.  That  committee  (the  Committee  of  Ten  on  Secondary 
School  Studies)  rendered  a  report  in  1893  which  practically 
dominated  the  curriculums  of  American  secondary  educa- 
tion for  more  than  a  decade  and  whose  influence  has  not  yet 
entirely  ceased.  The  diversity  of  subject  which  had  devel- 
oped in  the  secondary  school  in  1893  may  be  seen  from  the 
fact "  that  the  total  number  of  subjects  taught  in  the  sec- 
ondary schools  was  nearly  forty,  thirteen  of  which,  however, 
were  found  in  only  a  few  schools." 

313.  Curriculums  recommended  by  the  Committee  of 
Ten.  The  most  important  result  of  the  work  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Ten  was  the  formulation  of  four  curriculums  which 
were  recommended  as  models  for  the  work  of  the  secondary 
school.  Those  curriculums  were  based  on  the  list  of  sub- 
jects "  which  the  Conferences  deal  with  as  proper  for  sec- 
ondary schools."  1 

They  are:  1.  languages — 'Latin,  Greek,  English,  German,  and 
French,  (and  locally  Spanish) ;  2.  mathematics — algebra,  geometry, 
and  trigonometry;  3.  general  history,  and  the  intensive  study  of 
special  epochs;  4.  natural  history  —  including  descriptive  astron- 
omy, meteorology,  botany,  zoology,  physiology,  geology,  and  eth- 
nology, most  of  which  subjects  may  be  conveniently  grouped  under 
the  title  of  physical  geography;  and  5.  physics  and  chemistry.  The 
Committee  of  Ten  assent  to  this  list,  both  for  what  it  includes  and 
for  what  it  excludes,  with  some  practical  qualifications  to  be 
mentioned. 

On  the  basis  of  this  list  of  subjects  the  committee  sug- 
gested four  curriculums  —  the  Classical  Course,  the  Latin- 
Scientific  Course,  the  Modern  Languages  Course,  and  the 
English  Course.  For  a  complete  view  of  the  curriculums  rec- 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Secondary  School  Studies,  pp.  36-37  (Bu- 
reau of  Education  edition).  , 


CURRICULUMS 


665 


ommended  the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  report  of  the 
committee.  Some  conception  of  the  relative  importance  at- 
tached by  the  committee  to  the  various  fields  of  study  may 
be  gained  from  the  figures  presented  in  the  folio  whig  table: 

TABLE  CLUE.  CURRICULUMS  RECOMMENDED  BY  THE  COMMITTEE 
OF  TEN  IN  1893.  PERCENTAGES  OF  TOTAL  TIME  DEVOTED  TO 
SUBJECT  GROUPS* 


Subject  groups 

Curriculum* 

Classical 
(per  cent) 

Latin-scientific 
(per  cent) 

Modern 
Languages 
(per  cent) 

English 
(per  cent) 

English  

13.75 
48.75 
13.75-17.50 
11.25 
12.50-  8.75 

16.25 
36.25 
13.75-17.50 
22.50 
11.25-  7.50 

Not  specifically 
Not  specifically 
Not  specifically 

16.25 
36.25 
13.75-17.50 
22.50 
11.25-  7.50 
provided 
provided 
provided 

21.25-20.00 
21.25-22.50 
17.50 
22.50 
17.50 

Foreign  language.  .  .  . 
Mathematics  

Natural  Science.  . 

Social  Science  

Fine  Arts  

Vocational  subjects.  . 
Physical  education  .  . 

*  Compiled  from  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Secondary  School  Studies,  pp.  46-47  (Bureau 
of  Education  edition). 

314.  Criticism  of  the  committee's  recommendations.  In 
the  light  of  present  knowledge,  theory,  and  practice  it  is 
obvious  that  the  recommendations  of  the  Committee  of 
Ten  are  open  to  serious  criticism.  Without  attempting  a 
complete  analysis  of  the  recommendations  we  may  note 
the  following  serious  objections:  (1)  the  almost  complete 
failure  to  recognize  the  practical  and  vocational  arts  sub- 
jects; (2)  the  obvious  dominance  of  the  college-admission 
function;  (3)  the  differentiation  of  curriculums  on  the  basis 
of  predominant  subjects  rather  than  on  the  basis  of  the 
activities  of  life  to  which  pupils  will  apply  their  training; 
(4)  the  over-emphasis  on  the  study  of  foreign  language  (re- 
quired of  all  pupils  and  demanding  from  more  than  one  fifth 


666     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

to  nearly  one  half  of  all  the  time  devoted  to  formal  school 
work) ;  (5)  the  failure  to  provide  for  those  pupils  who  must 
leave  school  before  the  secondary-school  course  can  be  com- 
pleted; (6)  the  relatively  small  amount  of  flexibility  afforded; 
(7)  the  failure  in  other  ways  to  provide  curriculums  well 
suited  to  the  demands  of  individual  differences. 

In  spite  of  all  these  defects  the  report  of  the  committee 
did  much  to  aid  secondary  education  in  the  United  States 
through  the  introduction  of  valuable  standardizing  agencies 
at  a  time  when  they  were  sorely  needed.  Ultimately,  how- 
ever, the  curriculums  proposed  could  not  meet  the  demands 
of  secondary  education.  The  theory  and  practice  of  the 
past  decade  or  more  have  tended  to  correct  the  obvious 
defects  in  the  plans  recommended  by  the  Committee  of  Ten. 
The  principles  involved  in  the  present  tendency  toward 
reorganization  in  curriculums  are  best  considered  analyti- 
cally rather  than  historically  and  descriptively.  They  are 
considered  in  later  sections  of  this  chapter. 

315.  Suggestions  from  foreign  practice.  In  Chapter  VI 
an  attempt  was  made  to  outline  briefly  the  organization 
of  curriculums  in  Germany,  France,  and  England.  Further 
consideration  is  here  pertinent  only  to  point  out  some  special 
features  which  may  be  suggested  for  American  practice. 

(1)  Secondary  education  in  most  foreign  countries  begins 
at  an  earlier  age  and  stage  than  in  the  United  States,  com- 
monly beginning  at  an  age  between  nine  and  twelve  and  at 
a  stage  corresponding  to  a  point  between  the  fifth  and 
seventh  grades  of  the  American  school  system.  Differences 
in  social  organization  and  aims,  in  educational  theory  and 
functions,  in  a  multitude  of  other  factors,  make  it  difficult, 
or  even  dangerous,  to  draw  applications  to  American  prac- 
tice from  practices  in  other  countries.  Nevertheless  consid- 
eration of  foreign  practice  suggests  that  in  the  organization 
of  secondary  education,  and  therefore  of  secondary-school 


CURRICULUMS  667 

curriculums,  we  may  safely  consider  at  least  two  grades  be- 
low the  four  grades  now  commonly  considered. 

(2)  Vocational  and  practical  arts  education  have  devel- 
oped far  more  rapidly  and  successfully  in  some  European 
countries  than  in  America.   While  it  is  true  that  vocational 
curriculums  have  developed  in  European  countries  apart 
from  other  forms  of  secondary  education  and  in  separate 
schools  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  greater  provision  has 
been  made  for  vocational  education  abroad  and  that  we  may 
learn  much  from  their  practice. 

(3)  In  most  foreign  schools  more  work  is  required  of 
pupils  than  in  the  American  secondary  school.    It  is  not 
improbable  that  in  the  organization  of  the  curriculums  more 
study  than  is  required  at  present  could  be  expected. 

II.  PRINCIPLES  DETERMINING  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF 
CURRICULUMS 

Practically  every  factor  and  principle  discussed  in  the 
preceding  chapters  of  this  book  in  some  degree  affects  the 
determination  of  secondary-school  curriculums.  Some  are 
so  vitally  involved  that  they  deserve  special  attention  here. 

316.  The  aims  and  functions  of  secondary  education. 
In  Chapter  X  it  was  pointed  out  that  every  individual  is 
destined  to  participate  in  three  general  forms  of  activity, 
and  accordingly  that  secondary  education  has  three  funda- 
mental aims:  (1)  the  social-civic  aim,  involving  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  individual  as  a  prospective  citizen  and  cooperat- 
ing member  of  society;  (2)  the  economic- vocational  aim, 
involving  the  preparation  of  the  individual  as  a  prospective 
worker  and  producer;  and  (3)  the  individualistic-a voca- 
tional aim,  involving  the  preparation  of  the  individual  for 
participation  in  those  activities  of  life  which  primarily  con- 
cern the  proper  use  of  leisure  and  the  development  of  per- 


J68     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

sonality  apart  from  distinctly  constructive  social  ends. 
Since  every  individual  is  at  once  a  citizen,  a  worker,  and  a 
relatively  independent  personality,  and  since  those  three 
phases  of  his  activity  cannot  be  divorced,  it  follows  that  a 
fundamental  principle  in  the  organization  of  curriculums  is 
the  conception  that  each  of  the  three  aims  mentioned  must 
be  recognized  in  due  proportion  and  that  no  curriculum 
which  ignores  or  minimizes  any  one  of  those  aims  can  be 
acceptable.  Two  facts  should  be  noted,  however,  (a)  it 
cannot  be  assumed  that  studies  in  the  secondary-school  pro- 
gram can  be  distributed  entirely  according  to  the  three  aims 
suggested;  e.g.,  English  may  well  contribute  to  all  three 
aims:  (6)  for  some  groups  of  pupils,  e.g.,  those  postponing 
direct  vocational  training  until  the  period  of  higher  educa- 
tion, vocational  education  in  the  secondary  school  must  be 
conceived  as  indirect  and  propaedeutic. 

It  was  also  pointed  out  in  Chapter  X  that  secondary  edu- 
cation has  certain  "  functions  "  or  general  lines  of  activity 
which  it  must  follow  if  the  aims  above  mentioned  are  to  be 
attained.  These  functions  have  very  important  bearing  on 
the  determination  of  the  curriculums. 

( 1 )  The  adjustive  function  of  secondary  education  demands 
that  provision  be  made  in  the  curriculums  for  media  of 
training  which  involve  fundamental  principles,  skills,  etc., 
and  suggests  the  limitations  of  curricula  which  involve  only 
training  for  temporary  present  conditions. 

(2}  The  integrating  function  of  secondary  education  is  one 
of  the  most  important  factors  determining  the  establish- 
ment of  essentially  identical  elements  which  should  form 
a  part  of  every  curriculum.  It  is  one  of  the  basic  principles 
suggesting  the  presence  of  certain  subjects  (especially 
English  and  social  science)  in  every  curriculum. 

(3)  The  differentiating  function  is  the  basis  on  which  rest 
different  curriculums  for  different  groups  of  pupils,  varying 


CURRICULUMS  669 

elements  entering  into  every  curriculum  to  meet  the  needs 
of  different  capacities  and  aptitudes  of  different  pupils 
engaged  in  that  curriculum,  and  in  general  the  adaptation 
of  curriculums  to  individual  differences  among  pupils  and 
the  differentiated  needs  of  society. 

(4)  The  propaedeutic  function  demands  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  certain  forms  of  education  are  necessary  for  the 
successful  participation  in  other  forms  of  education  which 
depend  on  them.  Its  special  importance  is  found,  of  course, 
in  connection  with  curriculums  for  secondary-school  pupils 
destined  to  continue  their  formal  education  in  higher  insti- 
tutions. 

(5)  The  selective  function  emphasizes  two  important  facts 
in  connection  with  the  organization  of  curriculums:  (a)  it 
suggests  recognition  of  the  fact  that  it  should  operate  by 
differentiation  rather  than  by  elimination;  (6)  it  demands 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  bases  for  curriculums  vary 
noticeably  in  different  grades  of  the  school.    Thus  Table 
LXVIII  indicates  that  pupils  destined  to  go  to  some  higher 
institution  after  the  high  school  constitute  one  sixth  of  the 
entire  first -year  class,  one  quarter  of  the  second-year  class, 
one  third  of  the  third-year  class,  and  one  half  of  the  fourth- 
year  class. 

(6)  The  diagnostic  function  demands  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  in  the  organization  of  curriculums  an  attempt 
should  be  made  to  bring  pupils  into  contact  with  a  relatively 
wide  range  of  subject-matter  to  the  end  that  they  may  more 
intelligently  and  more  effectively  determine  their  own  needs, 
interests,  and  capacities.   It  is,  for  instance,  one  reason  for 
the  introduction  of  "general"  or  "elementary"  science  in 
an  early  grade,  and,  possibly,  for  diagnostic  "short-unit" 
courses  in  the  junior  high  school. 

317.  Principles  arising   from   pupils'   development.    In 
Chapters  I  and  II  an  attempt  was  made  to  analyze  factors 


C70     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

involved  in  the  physical  and  psychological  development  of 
pupils  and  their  bearing  on  secondary  education.  Certain 
deductions  were  drawn,  some  of  which  have  important 
bearing  on  the  determination  of  secondary-school  curricu- 
lums.  Of  particular  importance  is  the  principle  that  the 
development  of  the  pupil  is  essentially  gradual  and  con- 
tinuous without  sudden  and  abrupt  changes  at  any  one 
point  to  justify  radical  changes  in  the  curriculums.  This 
principle  suggests  that  in  the  organization  of  curriculums 
provision  should  be  made  for  gradual  transition  from 
grade,  with  special  reference  to  the  transition  from  one 
division  of  the  system  to  another.  In  this  connection  atten- 
tion may  be  called  to  the  following  elements  involved: 

(1)  provision  for  close  articulation  between  the  last  grades 
of  the  elementary  school  and  the  first  grades  of  the  high 
school  and  between  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools; 

(2)  provision  for  the  somewhat  gradual  introduction  of 
"  elective  "  subjects  and  the  gradual  expansion  of  the  area 
of  variable  elements  in  the  curriculums;  (3)  provision  for 
the  gradual  introduction  of  "departmental  "  work;  (4)  pro- 
vision for  the  gradual  introduction  of  new  subjects;  (5) 
provision  for  the  close  correlation  of  subjects. 

A  second  principle  arising  from  the  nature  of  the  develop- 
ment of  pupils  is  that  the  introduction  of  subjects  is  in  a 
general  way  only  related  to  the  age  of  the  pupils  and  that 
there  is  no  justification  in  the  theory  which  postulates  that 
certain  ages  are  especially  suited  to  different  subjects.  For 
example,  there  is  no  established  justification  for  the  belief 
that  subjects  requiring  a  great  amount  of  memorization 
should  be  introduced  relatively  early  nor  that  subjects  call- 
ing for  logical  reasoning  should  be  delayed  in  their  introduc- 
tion. On  the  other  hand  the  manner  in  which  subjects  are 
presented  is  very  seriously  affected  by  the  stage  of  progress 
of  the  pupils.  The  factors  which  determine  the  appropriate 


CURRICULUMS  671 

times  for  the  introduction  of  subject-matter  are  (a)  the  pre- 
vious experiences  and  training  of  the  pupils,  and  (6)  social 
factors  determining  the  use  of  education  afforded.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  the  organization  of  materials  and  the 
methods  of  teaching  must  vary  widely  according  to  the 
grades  in  which  the  subjects  are  introduced. 

318.  Principles  arising  from  individual  differences.    In 
Chapter  III  an  attempt  was  made  to  point  out  the  factors 
iri volved  in  the  distribution  of  individual  differences  among 
secondary-school  pupils.    It  was  there  shown  that  pupils 
differ  widely  in  native  capacities,  acquired  abilities,  native 
and  acquired  interests,  environmental  conditions,  and  prob- 
able future  activities.  Recognition  of  this  factor  is  the  basis 
not  only  of  differentiated  curriculums  but  of  greater  or  less 
variation  within  the  limits  of  any  one  curriculum.   Curric- 
ulum differentiation  is  determined  primarily  by  the  prob- 
able future  activities  of  pupils,  especially  along  vocational 
lines.    Differentiation  within  any  curriculum  must  be  pro- 
vided in  order  to  meet  still  further  the  demands  of  individ- 
ual differences  in  capacities,  interests,  and  aptitudes. 

On  the  principle  that  individual  differences  must  be  met 
as  far  as  may  be  possible  rest  all  the  variable  elements  in  the 
secondary  school  —  curriculum  "  election,"  subject  "  elec- 
tion," promotion  by  subjects  rather  than  by  grades,  pro- 
vision for  educational  diagnosis,  exploration,  etc.,  provision 
for  educational  guidance  (including  vocational,  social, 
moral,  and  avocational  guidance),  provision  for  economy 
of  time  in  education,  etc. 

319.  The  distribution  and  classification  of  pupils.    In 
Chapter  IV  it  was  shown  that  of  pupils  who  enter  the  first 
grade  of  the  four-year  high  school  at  \he  present  time  about 
one  third  leave  before  the  beginning  p|  the  second  grade, 
about  one  half  are  gone  before  the  beginning  of  the  third 
grade,  about  two  thirds  are  gone  before  the  beginning  of  the 


672     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

fourth  year,  and  less  than  one  third  are  graduated.  Of  those 
pupils  who  enter  the  seventh  grade  of  the  elementary  school 
little  more  than  one  half  reach  the  first  grade  of  the  high 
school,  two  thirds  are  gone  by  the  beginning  of  the  second 
year,  about  three  quarters  have  left  by  the  beginning  of  the 
third  year,  and  few  more  than  one  fifth  are  left  in  the  last 
grade  of  the  high  school.  However  conditions  for  the  reten- 
tion of  pupils  may  be  improved  in  the  future,  it  must  be 
recognized  that  the  factor  of  elimination  vitally  affects  the 
organization  of  curriculums  in  two  important  respects:  (a) 
provision  must  be  made  by  the  organization  of  flexible 
curriculums,  the  introduction  of  varied  forms  of  education, 
and  the  proper  administration  of  the  diagnostic  function, 
which  will  encourage  continuance  in  the  secondary  school 
longer  of  pupils  who  now  leave  school  in  large  numbers; (6) 
provision  must  be  made  for  an  education  as  effective  as 
possible,  as  appropriate  as  possible,  and  as  well  rounded-out 
as  possible  for  pupils  who  must  leave  school  before  the 
completion  of  the  course. 

In  Chapter  IV  also  an  attempt  was  made  to  classify  pupils 
according  to  their  probable  stay  in  the  secondary  school  and 
according  to  the  character  of  the  future  activities  of  different 
groups.  In  Table  LXVIII  figures  were  presented  showing  for 
the  country  at  large  the  proportions  of  pupils  in  the  various 
!  grades  belonging  to  different  groups,  classified  according  to 
their  probable  stay  in  the  school.  If  the  classification  there 
made  be  accepted  it  follows  that  the  following  general  groups 
of  pupils  must  be  considered  in  the  organization  of  secondary 
school  curriculums: 

1.  Those  who  will  continue  their  education  beyond  the  second- 
ary school  in  some  higher  institution.  This  group  is  composed 
of  those  who  will  enter  the  "higher"  professions  and  whose 
direct  vocational  education  will  be  provided  in  the  higher 
institutions.  Under  existing  conditions  this  group  consti- 


CURRICULUMS  673 

tutes  approximately  one  sixth  of  pupils  in  the  first  grade  of 
the  four-year  high  school,  about  one  quarter  of  those  in  the 
second  grade,  about  one  third  of  those  in  the  third  grade  and 
about  one  half  of  those  in  the  fourth  grade.  It  constitutes 
about  one  eleventh  of  those  in  the  seventh  grade  of  the  present 
elementary  school. 

2.  Those  who  will  complete  the  secondary  school  course  but 
close  their  formal  education  at  that  point.    Boys  and  girls 
belonging  to  this  group  will  or  should  enter  relatively  high 
grade  occupations  and  should  be  provided  preparation  for 
those   occupations    in    the    secondary   school.     Their   stay 
throughout  the  full   school  course  permits  well-developed 
curriculums  which  should  be  definitely  directed  toward  the 
attainment  of  rather  highly  developed  knowledge  or  skill 
related  to  some  occupation,  a  well  organized  body  of  asso- 
ciated occupational  knowledges  and  skills,  toward  the  attain- 
ment of  a  satisfactory  social-civic,  and  toward  the  develop- 
ment of  worthy  means  of  enjoying  leisure.   This  group  is  of 
proportions  in  various  grades  of  the  school  system  approxi- 
mately the  same  as  were  true  of  the  previous  group.   Pupils 
graduated   from   the   secondary   school   are   about   equally 
divided  between  those  continuing  and  those  not  continuing 
their  formal  education. 

3.  Those  who  remain  in  school  until  the  close  of  the  eleventh 
grade  but  who  leave  school  at  that  point.   Pupils  belonging 
to  this  group  will  for  the  most  part  engage  in  occupations 
involving  knowledges  and  skills  appropriate  to  agricultural, 
industrial,  commercial,  or  domestic  activities.    The  group 
constitutes   (under  present  conditions)   approximately   one 
twentieth  of  the  pupils  in  the  seventh  grade  of  the  school, 
approximately  one  tenth  of  pupils  in  the  ninth  grade,  about 
one  seventh  of  those  in  the  tenth  grade,  and  about  one  third 
of  those  in  the  eleventh  grade. 

4.  Those  who  remain  in  school  through  the  tenth  grade  but  who 
leave  at  that  point.  Their  occupations  will  be  much  the  same 
as  those  who  leave  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  grade.   The 
group  constitutes  (under  present  conditions)  about  one  tenth 
of  those  in  the  seventh  grade,  about  one  fifth  of  those  in  the 
ninth  grade,  and  about  one  third  of  pupils  in  the  tenth  grade. 

5.  Those  who  at  present  receive  but  one  year  (or  less)  of  high- 
school  education.  Pupils  belonging  to  this  group  must  enter 


674     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

occupations  in  the  fields  of  agriculture,  industry,  commerce, 
or  household  work.  For  the  most  part  they  must  be  recruited 
into  the  trades  and  the  curriculum  organization  must  recog- 
nize that  fact.  The  group  constitutes  about  one  fifth  of  those 
who  are  in  the  seventh  grade,  about  one  fourth  of  those  in  the 
eighth  grade,  and  about  one  third  of  those  in  the  ninth  grade 
of  the  school. 

6.  Where  the  junior-senior  high  school  organization  is  in  opera- 
tion there  must  be  considered  in  the  organization  of  curricu- 
lums  the  fact  that  about  two  fifths  of  the  pupils  entering  the 
seventh  grade  never  proceed  (under  present  conditions)  as 
far  as  the  ninth  grade.  Curriculums  must  there  be  organized 
for  the  purpose  of  retaining  those  pupils  at  least  through  the 
ninth  grade  and  for  the  purpose  of  providing  curriculums  as 
effective  as  possible  for  those  who  must  leave  at  the  close  of 
the  junior  high  school. 

It  is,  of  course,  obvious  that  the  distribution  of  pupils 
among  the  groups  above  mentioned  is  true  for  the  country 
at  large  only  and  will  not  hold  for  individual  communities. 
The  importance  to  be  attached  to  the  different  groups  must 
vary  with  the  character  of  the  community  and  the  second- 
ary-school population.  It  is  obvious  also  that  the  conditions 
at  present  obtaining  will  not  remain  constant  but  that  with 
each  improvement  in  the  organization  of  the  school  system 
the  proportions  of  pupils  falling  in  any  of  the  above-men- 
tioned groups  may  be  radically  changed.  Whatever  be  the 
conditions  at  any  time,  however,  in  the  organization  of  cur- 
riculums attention  must  be  paid  to  the  expectancy  of  stay 
of  different  pupils  in  the  school  and  their  probable  later 
activities. 

320.  Constant  and  variable  elements.  Certain  subjects  of 
study  are  of  such  universal  value  that  they  may  legitimately 
find  a  place  in  practically  every  curriculum  provided  and 
be  engaged  in  (under  normal  conditions)  by  practically 
every  pupil  at  appropriate  stages  in  the  course,  without 
regard  for  the  special  activities  connected  with  particular 


CURRICULUMS  675 

occupations.  Such  subjects  may  well  be  organized  in  the 
same  way,  cover  the  same  field,  and  be  taught  in  the  same 
manner  for  all  pupils  in  all  curriculums.  For  convenience 
such  studies  may  be  termed  "  constants." 

Other  subjects  of  study  in  the  secondary  school  are  of 
such  limited,  contingent,  or  specialized  value  that  they 
should  belong  to  one  of  three  groups  of  studies:  (1)  those 
found  only  in  certain  specialized  curriculums; (2)  those  found 
in  several  or  all  curriculums  but  with  certain  modifications; 
(3)  those  not  required  of  all  pupils  nor  necessarily  required 
in  any  one  curriculum,  but  open  to  the  free  election  by  any 
pupil  in  whatever  curriculum  enrolled.  The  entire  group 
may  for  convenience  be  termed  "  variables  ";  those  in  group 
(1)  may  be  termed  "  curriculum  specials,"  those  in  group  (2) 
may  be  termed  "  curriculum  modifiables,"  and  those  in 
group  (3)  may  be  termed  "  free  electives."  On  the  proper 
distribution  of  the  constants  and  several  variables  to  a  great 
extent  depends  the  success  of  curriculum  organization. 
Suggestions  concerning  then*  proper  distribution  are  pre- 
sented in  following  sections. 

321.  The  determination  of  constants.  Two  somewhat  re- 
lated yet  separate  factors  determine  the  constants  which 
should  enter  into  the  curriculums  of  the  secondary  school. 

(1)  Fundamental,  universal,  and  direct  values  character- 
ize some  subjects  of  study.  Thus,  whatever  be  the  special 
field  of  one's  activities,  certain  elements  of  language  use  are 
fundamentally  important.  The  development  of  ability  to 
use  language  (the  mother  tongue)  as  an  instrument  for  think- 
ing and  for  the  expression  and  interpretation  of  thought 
must  be  an  aim  common  to  all  curriculums  and  must  form 
a  part  of  the  education  of  every  individual.  Likewise  social- 
civic-moral  activities  must  be  engaged  in  by  all  individuals 
and  must,  therefore,  be  a  part  of  every  curriculum  in  the 
secondary  school.  As  a  minimum  this  should  include  a  study 


676     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

of  the  history  of  the  United  States,  civics,  some  elements  of 
government,  literature,  and,  in  the  junior  high  school,  so- 
cial and  economic  geography.  In  this  group  also  must  be 
considered  health  education,  together  with  "  general  "  or 
"  elementary  "  science  where  one  primary  basis  of  its  organi- 
zation is  the  inclusion  of  such  common  scientific  knowledges 
as  enter  into  the  activities  of  almost  all  individuals.  Further, 
we  must  consider  as  belonging  to  this  group  of  studies, 
particularly  in  the  junior  high  school,  such  universally  im- 
portant elements  of  arithmetic,  penmanship,  spelling,  and 
the  like,  as  should  be  judged  necessary  for  all  and  have  not 
reached  the  proper  stages  of  development  in  the  lower 
grades.  Finally,  we  must  recognize,  wherever  possible, 
certain  universal  elements  of  aesthetic  appreciation,  e.g., 
musical  appreciation  and  literature  in  the  junior  high  school. 

A  second  factor  affecting  the  determination  of  constants 
is  found  in  the  integrating  values  attached  to  some  studies, 
especially  to  the  social  studies  and  to  the  mother  tongue  and 
its  literature.  Fortunately  for  economy  in  education  subjects 
of  study  which  contribute  most  to  this  end  are  the  same  as 
some  suggested  by  the  values  suggested  in  the  preceding. 

On  the  basis  of  such  criteria  we  may  suggest  as  constants 
in  the  curriculums  of  the  secondary  school  the  following: 
(a)  English  throughout  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools; 
(6)  some  social  science  in  each  grade  of  the  junior  and  senior 
high  schools;  (c)  health  study  throughout  the  junior  high 
school  in  some  form,  physical  training  through  exercise  in 
all  grades  of  the  secondary  school;  (d)  "  general  science  " 
in  the  junior  high  school;  musical  appreciation  in  the  junior 
high  school.  These  should  be  considered  as  irreducible 
minima  in  the  group  of  constants. 

322.  The  determination  of  variables.  Three  important 
factors  must  determine  the  amount  and  character  of  the 
variables  in  secondary-school  curriculums. 


CUKRICULUMS  677 

(1)  Individual  differences  among  pupils  in  capacities, 
acquired  abilities,  interests,  and  futures  is  the  primary  factor 
determining  variables  in  secondary-school  studies.  To  ignore 
their  existence  and  the  character  of  their  distribution  is  to 
come  directly  into  conflict  with  nature.  Nevertheless  domi- 
nant differences  only  can  be  considered,  since  the  effective 
and  economical  administration  of  curriculums  demands  that 
a  sufficiently  large  group  of  pupils  having  somewhat  simi- 
lar capacities,  abilities,  interests,  and  probable  futures  be 
afforded  to  justify  the  formation  of  classes  for  instruction  in 
any  subject.   Within  the  limits  of  effective  and  economical 
administration  the  number  and  kinds  of  variables  introduced 
into  secondary-school  curriculums  should  be  as  large  and 
diversified  as  possible.  Any  subject  of  study  which  meets  the 
needs  of  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  pupils  to  permit 
effective  organization  of  classes  and  which  possesses  educa- 
tional value  is  justified  in  the  secondary  school. 

(2)  The  differentiated  needs  of  society  demand    that 
variable  elements  enter  the  curriculums  of  the  secondary 
school.   No  single  group  of  activities  in  life  can  justifiably 
monopolize  the  field  of  secondary  education.  Studies  dealing 
with  every  important  phase  of  life's  activities  should  be 
represented  in  the  program  of  the  secondary  school  when- 
ever they  can  be  suited  to  the  capacities  of  pupils  and  meet 
real  needs  on  their  part. 

(3)  The  size  of  the  secondary  school  and  available  means 
especially  affect  the  secondary  school  variables.   Differen- 
tiated education  is  directly  conditioned  by  the  number  of 
pupils  involved.  In  nine  tenths  of  the  secondary  schools  of 
the  country  the  number  of  variables  possible  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum  by  the  fact  that  the  enrollment  is  too  small  to 
permit  differentiation  and  by  the  fact  that  financial  assets 
are  narrowly  limited. 

323.  Rigid  versus  flexible  curriculums.  In  the  history  of 


678     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

the  high  school  during  the  past  half-century  there  is  observa- 
ble a  tendency  to  swing  alternately  from  the  one  extreme  of 
rigidity  in  curriculum  organization  to  the  other  extreme  of 
almost  entire  flexibility  and  back  again.  During  the  early 
days  of  the  high  school  curriculums  were  rather  distinctly 
separated  and  permitted  little  overlapping  or  cross-cutting. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  curriculums 
were  rather  loosely  administered  and  in  some  cases  all  lines 
of  curriculum  demarcation  were  practically  nominal.  With 
the  recent  change  in  the  basis  of  curriculum  differentiation 
from  subject-matter  to  individual  needs  and  post-scholastic 
destinies  there  has  developed  a  tendency  to  organize  rather 
definitely  separated  curriculums  which  permit  a  relatively 
small  amount  of  overlapping  or  cross-cutting.  The  advan- 
tages of  exclusive  curriculums  are  readily  seen:  (1)  such  a 
practice  permits  a  much  more  effective  organization  of  the 
work  of  different  curriculums  and  its  adaptation  to  special 
ends  which  are  largely  vocational;  (2)  it  permits  a  more 
homogeneous  grouping  of  pupils;  (3)  it  permits  the  more 
effective  direction  of  teaching;  (4)  as  a  result  of  those  and 
other  factors  involved  it  permits  the  securing  of  better  results 
as  far  as  the  special  features  of  the  different  curriculums  are 
concerned.  The  disadvantages  of  exclusive  curriculums  are 
no  less  obvious,  however:  (1)  such  a  practice  considers 
primarily  differentiation  according  to  dominant  interests 
(largely  vocational)  and  neglects  other  elements  of  differ- 
entiation, by  delimiting  the  range  of  subjects  which  may  be 
studied  by  pupils  engaged  in  any  one  curriculum,  thus 
reducing  the  flexibility  of  the  school  work;  (2)  it  tends  to 
introduce  differentiation  where  advantages  are  small  (some- 
times dangerous)  and  disadvantages  are  great ;  (3)  it  pre- 
supposes a  rather  early  determination  of  life  interests  and 
life  careers;  (4)  it  presupposes  that  interests  remain  fairly 
constant;  (5)  in  nine  tenths  of  the  secondary  schools  of  the 


CURRICULUMS  670 

country  the  rigid  separation  of  curriculums  is  impractical  if 
not  impossible. 

All  things  considered  it  would  appear  to  be  reasonable 
that  curriculums  should  be  characterized  by  a  relatively 
high  degree  of  flexibility  in  the  early  grades  of  the  secondary 
school,  by  a  relatively  high  degree  of  rigidity  in  the  later 
grades,  and  by  a  gradual  transition  from  the  one  status  to 
the  other.  Such  a  practice  would  recognize  in  the  early 
grades  of  the  secondary  school  (a)  the  desirability  of  a  rela- 
tively wide  range  of  subject-matter  favorable  to  educational 
diagnosis,  prognosis,  and  guidance  —  themselves  conducive 
to  the  possibility  of  greater  definiteness  in  later  work;  (b)  the 
desirability  of  not  anticipating  too  much  the  decision  of 
vocational  or  other  choices;  and  (c)  the  desirability  of  per- 
mitting as  much  adaptation  to  individual  differences  as  may 
be  practicable.  At  the  same  time  it  would  recognize  in  the 
later  grades  of  the  school  the  desirability  of  definitely  deter- 
mined vocational  work,  the  necessity  for  specialization  and 
concentration  along  definite  lines,  and  definite  propaedeu- 
tic training  for  those  whose  education  will  continue  beyond 
the  secondary  school.  It  would  further  recognize  that  in 
the  later  grades  of  the  secondary  school  groups  of  pupils 
may  more  readily  be  classified  and  their  special  needs 
determined. 

It  should  be  recognized  that  the  work  of  the  last  three 
grades  of  the  secondary  school  should  represent  rather  clear- 
cut  and  definitely  directed  training  and  in  those  grades  the 
lines  of  curriculum  differentiation  may  be  fairly  distinct. 
Before  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  of  the  present  four- 
year  high  school  the  rigid  demarcation  of  curriculums  is  un- 
desirable. In  the  first  year  of  the  four-year  high  school  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  adaptation,  diagnosis,  and  guidance 
and  the  curricula  should  be  as  flexible  as  possible.  The 
primary  functions  of  the  junior  high  school  (where  the 


junior-senior  secondary  schools  exist)  preclude  any  rigid 
demarcation  of  curriculums,  at  least  in  the  earlier  grades. 
It  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  formally  separated 
2urriculums  are  entirely  out  of  place,  though  insistence  must 
be  placed  on  the  widest  possible  variation  in  subject  offer- 
ings. In  general  it  may  be  said  that  provision  for  individual 
differences  in  the  first  six  grades  is  for  the  most  part  re- 
stricted to  differentiated  teaching  methods,  that  provision 
for  individual  differences  in  the  junior  high  school  should 
involve  differentiated  subject  matter  and  teaching  method, 
and  that  in  the  senior  high  school  should  be  added  definitely 
differentiated  curriculums.  However,  from  stage  to  stage 
in  the  system  the  transition  should  be  gradual. 

324.  Continuity  and  concentration.  One  of  the  most 
common  criticisms  made  by  foreign  observers  of  our  second- 
ary education  and  by  our  own  citizens  involves  the  failure 
to  secure  thoroughness  and  the  tendency  to  foster  super- 
ficiality. This  is  an  ever-present  danger  where  an  attempt 
is  made  to  adapt  education  to  individual  differences,  where 
curriculums  are  flexible,  and  variables  constitute  important 
parts  of  curriculums.  It  must  be  recognized  that  a  system 
of  curriculum  organization  and  administration  which  per- 
mits a  scattering  of  units  of  study,  allows  the  pupil  to  study 
a  number  of  rather  isolated  subjects,  to  begin  several  studies 
without  carrying  any  one  of  them  beyond  the  introductory 
and  elementary  stages,  to  attain  a  smattering  of  many  sub- 
jects with  failure  to  learn  any  one  of  them  thoroughly,  is 
fundamentally  wrong.  To  avoid  such  results  it  is  necessary 
that  limits  be  set  to  the  variables  which  are  found  in  any 
student's  program.  One  way  of  accomplishing  this  is  to 
require  sequential  or  advanced  work  in  some  specified  fields. 
A  method  better  adapted  to  the  demands  of  individual 
differences  is  to  require  that  advanced  work  be  done  in 
some  one  or  more  fields  with  the  selection  of  the  field  of 


CURRICULUMS  681 

"  concentration "  dependent  on  the  individual  student. 
Thus  a  "  major  "  may  be  required  in  some  one  of  the  fields 
not  considered  "  constants  "  in  the  curriculums  —  natural 
science,  mathematics,  foreign  language,  fine  arts,  or  the 
various  fields  of  practical  and  vocational  arts.  At  least  one 
such  major  should  be  required  of  every  "  normal  "  pupil. 

325.  Required,  preferential,  and  elective  subjects.  Edu- 
cational practice  in  the  past  has  commonly  (a)  made  the 
completion  of  a  prescribed  amount  of  work  of  definitely 
specified  character  an  absolute  prerequisite  for  entrance  to 
the  secondary  school,  and  (6)  made  an  absolute  prescription 
of  certain  subjects  in  the  curriculums  of  the  secondary- 
school .  As  a  result  pupils  in  large  numbers  have  been  re- 
tained in  the  elementary-school  grades  long  after  they  have 
ceased  to  receive  appreciable  benefit  through  the  studies 
there  offered,  after  they  have  passed  far  beyond  the  normal 
age  for  elementary-school  grades,  and  after  they  have 
chronologically,  physiologically,  and  socially  grown  far  be- 
yond the  groups  of  pupils  with  whom  they  are  associated. 
Inevitably  this  leads  to  undesirable  retardation  and  ulti- 
mately to  elimination  before  they  have  come  into  contact 
with  any  forms  of  education  other  than  those  of  the  ele- 
mentary school.  Doubtless  admission  to  the  secondary 
school  must  always  be  determined  primarily  by  "  peda- 
gogical age."  Nevertheless,  this  criterion  should  be  supple- 
mented by  other  criteria  of  chronological,  physiological,  and 
social  age,  and  all  pupils  so  mature  chronologically,  physio- 
logically, or  socially  that  they  may  benefit  more  by  some 
forms  of  secondary  education  than  by  the  limited  offerings 
of  elementary  education,  should  be  admitted  to  some  form 
of  secondary  education.  Such  a  practice  necessarily  means 
that  no  single  subject  of  study  of  the  secondary  school  can 
be  considered  absolutely  and  invariably  "  required."  Hence 
"  constants  "  in  the  curriculums  must  be  considered  as 


682     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

"  preferential  "  rather  than  "  required."  Here  it  is  prob- 
able that  some  distinction  must  be  made  between  diploma 
"  requirements  "  and  curriculum  requirements.  Limitation 
should  not  be  placed  on  the  courses  of  study  which  the 
individual  pupils  may  take.  Limitations  involving  "  re- 
quired "  subjects  must  be  placed  on  requirements  for  a 
diploma.  For  normal  pupils  "  required "  subjects  are 
appropriate.  For  somewhat  atypical  pupils  the  absolute 
requirement  of  specified  subjects  cannot  justly  be  made 
without  the  expectation  of  retardation,  elimination,  and 
loss  of  time,  energy,  and  money.  For  the  entire  pupil  group 
of  the  secondary  school  subjects  of  study  which  are  con- 
sidered of  universal  value  must  at  best  be  considered  as 
"  preferential."  For  "  normal  "  pupils  certain  subjects  of 
study  may  well  be  considered  "  required." 

In  some  ways  it  is  unfortunate  that  the  term  "  elective  " 
has  been  applied  to  subjects  of  study  falling  in  the  group 
of  "  variables  "  —  unfortunate  because  the  term  implies 
that  the  selection  of  "  variables  "  can  be  or  should  be  left  to 
the  judgment  of  the  pupils  for  the  most  part.  "  Election  " 
of  subjects  or  of  curriculums  is  peculiarly  unfortunate  where 
provision  is  not  made  (a)  for  training  in  the  earlier  grades 
which  may  provide  a  basis  for  intelligent  selection,  and  (6) 
for  educational  guidance.  A  necessary  accompaniment  of 
differentiation  in  subject  matter  and  in  curriculums  is  pro- 
vision for  diagnostic  training  and  educational  guidance. 

326.  Immediate  and  deferred  values.  A  glance  at  the 
curriculums  proposed  by  the  Committee  of  Ten  discloses 
the  fact  that  they  assume  the  completion  of  the  entire  course 
on  the  part  of  most  pupils  entering  the  school  and  that  the 
value  of  the  first-year's  work  is  largely  dependent  on  later 
study.  Recognition  of  the  fact  that  large  proportions  of 
pupils  must  leave  the  secondary  school  after  one,  two,  or 
three  years  of  study  demands  that,  as  far  as  is  possible, 


CTJRRICULUMS  683 

curriculums  should  be  so  organized  as  to  subordinate  de- 
ferred values  to  immediate  values  so  that  the  maximum  of 
benefit  may  be  secured  by  those  who  must  leave  school  early 
and  at  the  same  time  that  progressively  greater  benefit  may 
accrue  to  those  who  continue.  This  is  in  part  a  matter  of 
subject  organization  and  teaching  method,  in  part  a  matter 
of  curriculum  organization.  The  principle  applied  to  the 
former  factor  suggests  that  in  the  earlier  grades  of  the 
secondary  school  subject  be  organized  and  taught  with 
special  reference  to  the  major  and  more  important  elements 
immediately  applicable  to  the  activities  of  life  and  more 
technical,  specialized,  and  refined  elements  postponed  to 
further  study  in  later  grades.  Applied  to  the  factor  of 
curriculum  organization  the  principle  suggests  (a)  the  in- 
troduction in  early  grades  of  some  subjects  specifically 
designed  for  immediate  use  by  those  who  will  leave  school 
early;  (b)  the  organization  of  such  courses  as  "  general  " 
science,  community  civics,  etc.,  in  the  junior  high  school 
grades  for  the  distinct  purpose  of  providing  values  imme- 
diately available. 

III.  CURRICULUM  ORGANIZATION  BASED  ON 
PRINCIPLES  SUGGESTED 

327.  Preliminary  explanation  of  curriculums.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  the  character  of  curriculum  organization  in  the 
secondary  school  of  any  given  community  must  be  condi- 
tioned by  the  size  of  the  pupil  population,  its  character,  and 
the  resources  of  the  school  and  community,  so  that  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  any  single  curriculum  organization 
which  is  appropriate  in  toto  for  all  secondary  schools.  As 
a  working  basis  the  curriculum  organization  outlined  below 
assumes  a  secondary-school  population  sufficiently  large  and 
sufficiently  diversified  to  make  possible  the  extensive  offer- 


684     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ing  suggested  and  sufficient  resources  to  allow  the  organiza- 
tion and  offering  of  any  form  of  education  for  which  there 
exists  a  reasonable  demand  and  which  the  best  educational 
theory  can  justify.  By  a  process  of  elimination  where  neces- 
sary or  desirable  it  is  possible  to  outline  the  curriculum 
organization  of  any  secondary  school  on  the  basis  of  the 
plan  suggested. 

The  curriculum  organization  outlined  below  considers 
the  school  work  of  the  six  grades  following  six  grades  of 
elementary  education.  For  convenience  the  organization  is 
outlined  on  the  basis  of  two  three-grade  divisions  which 
would  correspond  to  but  not  necessarily  involve  a  three- 
grade  junior  high  school  followed  by  a  three-grade  senior 
high  school.  An  examination  of  the  organization  outlined 
will  show  that  relatively  slight  modifications  would  adapt 
the  scheme  to  the  eight-four  system  now  commonly  found, 
provided  the  work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  were 
reorganized  as  suggested.  The  latter  reorganization  appears 
desirable  whatever  be  the  form  of  external  administration 
and  divisional  separation. 

In  the  organization  outlined  for  grades  seven,  eight,  and 
nine  formal  separation  of  studies  into  curriculums  is  pur- 
posely avoided  on  the  ground  that  any  organization  of 
formally  separated  curriculums  tends  seriously  to  endanger 
flexibility,  to  encourage  premature  specialization,  and  to 
interfere  seriously  with  the  diagnostic  and  exploring  function 
of  the  earlier  grades.  Failure  to  make  a  formal  differentia- 
tion into  separate  curriculums  is  far  from  meaning  that 
different  groups  of  pupils  will  not  pursue  differentiated  lines 
of  work.  The  absence  of  curriculum  names  and  classifica- 
tions is  designed  solely  to  obviate  the  tendency  for  pupils  to 
select  special  lines  of  work  too  early,  to  continue  in  whatever 
lines  they  may  have  entered  through  inertia,  ignorance,  or 
following  the  lines  of  least  resistance,  and  to  prevent  the 


CURRICULUMS  685 

tendency  of  school  officers  permanently  to  catalog  pupils 
in  any  category  wherein  they  may  once  have  been  placed. 
Formal  curriculum  demarcation  has  no  place  in  the  early 
grades  of  the  junior  high  school  and  for  few  groups  even  in 
the  last  grade.  At  the  most  definitely  separated  curriculums 
should  be  provided  only  in  the  last  grade  of  that  school  and 
for  those  pupils  only  who  will  clearly  leave  at  the  end  of 
the  junior  high  school. 

In  the  organization  outlined  certain  studies  are  considered 
as  constants  to  be  studied  by  all  pupils  of  normal  progress 
and  as  studies  required  for  the  secondary-school  diploma. 
It  is  to  be  recognized,  however,  that  those  mature  pupils 
who  have  been  admitted  to  the  seventh  grade  without  the 
successful  completion  of  the  regular  work  of  the  first  six 
grades  may  be  allowed  to  study  any  combination  of  subjects 
which  their  limited  attainments,  capacities,  and  interests 
may  permit.  Such  pupils  are  to  be  considered  as  atypical, 
destined  in  the  majority  of  cases  to  leave  school  before  the 
completion  of  the  secondary-school  course,  and  entitled  to 
receive  at  best  certificates  of  the  work  which  they  have 
done  rather  than  the  diploma  of  the  school,  unless  later 
work  may  justify  their  readmission  to  full  standing. 

328.  Curriculum  organization  for  the  junior  high  school. 
Below  are  outlined  two  forms  of  curriculum  organization 
which  are  suggested  as  possible  schemes  for  the  junior  high 
school  —  grades  seven,  eight,  and  nine.  Neither,  of  course, 
is  to  be  considered  as  the  necessary  or  even  the  most  de- 
sirable form  of  organization.  The  sole  purpose  in  presenting 
the  two  forms  of  organization  is  to  illustrate  possible  ways 
in  which  principles  previously  considered  may  be  applied. 

Form  I  illustrates  a  possible  curriculum  organization  for 
a  junior  high  school  where  no  provision  is  made  for  super- 
vised study  or  combined  recitation-study  periods.  The 
number  of  class  meetings  is  assumed  to  correspond  to  present 


686      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


practice  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  i.e.,  about  thirty 
to  thirty-five  class  meetings  per  week,  the  length  of  each 
period  being  approximately  thirty  minutes. 

TABLE  CLIV.  CUBBICULUM  ORGANIZATION  FOR  A  JUNIOR 
HIGH  SCHOOL:  FORM  I 


Grade? 


GradeS 


Grade  9 


Periods 


Studies 
Constants : 

English 5 

Geography  (3),  history 

(2) 5 

Physiology  and  hygiene  3 

Arithmetic 5 

Physical  education. ...  2 
Music  (appreciation) . .  2 
Practical  arts:  domes- 
tic arts  (girls);  man- 
ual arts  (boys) 5 

Total  constants ....  27 

Variables : 
English:  various 

branches    for    those 

deficient 2 

Arithmetic:    for    those 

deficient 2 

Foreign  language 5 

Fine  arts 3 

Music  (technical) 3 

Commercial  studies ...  5 

Clerical  studies 5 

Industrial  studies 5 

Domestic  studies 5 

Agricultural  studies.  . .  5 

Total  variables 4-8 


Periods 


Studies  Periods        Studies 

Constants  :  Constants : 

English 5        English 5 

History  (U.S.),  civics.     5        Community  civics ....  5 

General  science 5 

Physical  education. ...  2 


General  science 

Mathematics:  (A)  com- 
bined arithmetic,  al- 
gebra, geometry;  or 
(B)  commercial 
arithmetic 4 

Physical  education..  ..     2 

Music  (appreciation). .     2 

Total  constants 23 


. ... 
Music  (appreciation). .     2 


Total  constants 19 


Variables  : 
English:  various 
branches    for    th 

ose 

Variables  : 
Foreign  language  5 
Mathematics  5 

.    .     2 

..     5 

Fine  arts      5 

Fine  arts  

.  .     3 

Music  (technical)..    ..     3 

Music  (technical).  . 
Commercial  studies 
Clerical  studies.  .  .  . 
Industrial  studies.  . 
Domestic  studies  .  . 
Agricultural  studies 

..     3 
5-10 
5-10 
5-10 
5-10 
5-10 

Commercial  studies     5-15 
Clerical  studies.  .  .  .     5-15 
Industrial  studies.  .     5-15 
Domestic  studies  .  .   .5—15 
Agricultural  studies    5-15 

Total  variables.  . .   8-12 


Total  variables ..  12-15 


NOTES:  1.  The  numbers  of  periods  set  are  merely  approximations  and  intended  to  be  sug- 
gestive rather  than  fixed. 

2.  The  practical  arts  constant  in  the  seventh  grade  may  be  made  diagnostic 
"short-unit"  courses  if  desired. 

3.  It  is  not  expected  that  all  schools,  perhaps  not  any  school,  will  provide  all  the 
studies  listed  under  variables.     The  extended  list  is  presented  for  selection 
according  to  the  needs  and  resources  of  any  given  school. 

4.  It  is  expected  that  the  more  able  pupils  may  pass  directly  from  the  eighth  grade 
into  the  senior  high  school. 

5.  Definitely  separated  curriculums  may  be  organized  for  special  groups  of  pupils 
who  will  leave  school  at  the  close  of  the  ninth  grade,  if  that  course  appears 
justified. 

Form  II  illustrates  a  possible  curriculum  organization 
where  provision  is  made  for  combined  recitation-study 
periods.  The  entire  school  day  is  assumed  to  be  seven  hours 
in  length  —  one  half -hour  each  day  for  assembly,  opening 


CURRICULUMS  687 

exercises,  music,  and  auditorium  work,  one  half -hour  each 
day  for  lunch,  and  six  hours  net  (including  time  for  changing 
classes)  for  class  meetings,  each  period  being  one  hour  in 
length  (inclusive  of  time  for  change  of  classes) .  The  same 
program  may  be  encompassed  in  a  six-hour  day  where  each 
period  is  made  fifty  minutes  in  length.  The  curriculum 
organization  of  Form  I  may  be  adapted  to  that  of  Form  II 
with  a  few  modifications  in  the  number  of  periods  assigned 
to  some  studies. 

TABLE  CLV.    CUBBICULUM  ORGANIZATION  FOB  A  JUNIOR 
HIGH  SCHOOL:  FORM  n 

Grade?  Grade  S  Grade  9 

Studies                    Periods  Studies  Periods  Studies  Periods 

Constants :  Constants :  Constants : 

English 5         English 5         English 5 

Geography  and  history  5  History  and  civics. . .  5  Community  civics  ....     4 

Arithmetic 5         General  science 4         General  science 4 

Physiology  and  hygiene  3         Mathematics 4         Physical  education 2 

Physical  education.  ...  2  Physical  education.. .  2 

Practical  arts 5 

Total  constants 25  Total  constants  ...  20  Total  constants 15 

Variables 5    Variables 10    Variables 15 

NOTES:  The  notes  appended  to  Form  I  (Table  CLTV)  apply  here.    The  same  studies  as 
those  in  Form  I  are  meant  here.   The  variables  are  the  same  here  as  for  Form  I. 

329.  Curriculum  organization  of  the  senior  high  school. 
Detailed  analysis  of  the  curriculum  organization  of  the 
senior  high  school  in  grades  ten,  eleven,  and  twelve  is  ren- 
dered very  difficult  in  the  abstract  for  a  number  of  reasons : 
(a)  the  major  part  of  the  work  of  those  grades  should  con- 
sist of  differentiated  studies  involving  many  variables,  the 
enumeration  of  which  would  be  of  little  worth  for  any 
given  secondary  school;  (6)  the  character  of  the  variables 
must  differ  in  different  communities,  especially  with  refer- 
ence to  vocational  studies;  (c)  in  the  majority  of  secondary 
schools  complete  offerings  are  economically  impossible  and 
selections  must  be  made  rigorously;  (d)  the  distribution  of 
studies  in  grades  ten  to  twelve  must  be  dependent  to  some 


688     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

extent  on  the  distribution  of  studies  in  grades  seven  to  nine 
so  that  all  possible  combinations  cannot  be  presented  in  any 
single  and  simple  tabulated  scheme. 

The  general  form  of  curriculum  organization  in  the  senior 
high  school  may  be  readily  outlined.  By  the  beginning  of 
the  tenth  grade  it  should  be  possible  to  group  pupils  for  the 
most  part  into  divisions  according  to  their  dominant  inter- 
ests, abilities,  and  destinies,  at  least  in  a  tentative  fashion. 
Curriculum  differentiation,  with  definite  though  not  exclu- 
sive lines  of  demarcation,  should  be  possible  and  should  be 
determined  according  to  the  dominant  interests,  abilities, 
and  destinies  of  pupils.  A  somewhat  comprehensive  organi- 
zation would  then  provide  for  the  curriculum  groupings 
suggested  in  this  list. 

(1)  For  those  entering  business  and  clerical  occupations  - 
the  business  and  clerical  curriculums,  including  the  follow- 
ing more  or  less  overlapping  curriculums :  (a)  various  forms 
of  office  and  clerical  occupations  which  emphasize    such 
studies  as  bookkeeping,  stenography  and  typewriting,  corre- 
spondence,  circularizing,   filing,   etc.;    (6)   merchandizing, 
selling,  and  store  service;  (c)  any  other  group  of  business  or 
clerical  arts. 

(2)  For    those    entering    industrial    occupations  —  the 
industrial    curriculums,    including    curriculums    preparing 
for  (a)  building  trades;  (6)  wood-working  trades;  (c)  metal- 
working  trades;    (d)  machinist  trades;    (e)-(?)  any  other 
industrial  occupations  desirable  and  practicable  according 
to  the  needs  of  pupils  and  society. 

(3)  For  those  entering  agricultural  occupations  —  agri- 
cultural curriculums,  including  those  involving  preparation 
for  (a)  general  farming;    (fe)  animal  husbandry;    (c)  -  (?) 
special  phases  of  agricultural  work  according  to  the  needs 
of  pupils  and  society. 

(4)  For  girls  entering  domestic  occupations  and  other 


CURRICULLMS  689 

girls  not  enrolled  in  other  curriculums  —  domestic  curricu- 
lums,  including  those  involving  (a)  preparation  for  house- 
keeping and  home-making;  (b)  the  preparation  for  nursing 
as  a  separate  occupation;  (c)  the  preparation  of  skilled 
workers  in  institutions  calling  for  domestic  and  personal 
service.  Some  parts  of  these  curriculums  may  well  overlap 
industrial  occupations  in  the  textile  and  clothing  trades. 

(5)  For  pupils  entering  higher  institutions  —  preparatory 
curriculums  including  those  preparing  (a)  for  the  academic 
college;  (6)  the  technical  or  other  special  college;  (c)  the 
normal  school. 

(6)  For  pupils  whose  future  activities  cannot  yet  be 
determined  with  any  assurance  —  the  general  curriculum. 
In  this  curriculum  the  basis  of  the  selection  of  studies 
should    involve    fundamental    and    diagnostic    forms    of 
education. 

(7)  -  (?)  In  some  of  the  largest  schools  it  is  practicable 
to  establish  other  special  curriculums,  e.g.,  for  music  and 
fine  arts. 

In  all  this  curriculum  organization  it  should  be  recognized 
that  three  "areas"  are  to  be  considered:  (a)  the  area  of  con- 
stants; (6)  the  area  of  curriculum  restriction;  (c)  the  area 
of  free  election.  The  area  of  constants  includes  that  portion 
of  the  work  of  the  senior  high-school  work  which  is  to  engage 
the  attention  of  all  pupils  of  regular  standing.  Here  belongs 
the  study  of  English,  social  science,  and  physical  training. 
The  area  of  curriculum  restriction  includes  that  portion  of  the 
work  of  the  senior  high  school  which  provides  for  the  special- 
ized education  appropriate  to  the  various  special  curricu- 
lums. The  area  of  free  election  includes  that  part  of  the 
school  work  which  should  be  left  to  the  unrestricted  choice 
of  the  pupil  whatever  special  curriculum  may  engage  his 
particular  attention,  save  only  in  so  far  as  he  may  not  pos- 
sess qualifications  necessary  successfully  to  pursue  any 


690     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


study.  While  it  is  difficult  to  determine  definitely  the  exact 
proportions  which  should  be  allotted  to  these  three  areas,  it 
may  be  suggested  that  approximately  two  fifths  of  the  total 
time  should  be  devoted  to  constants  in  the  curriculum  or- 
ganization, approximately  two  fifths  to  the  coordinate  stud- 
ies of  some  one  curriculum,  and  approximately  one  fifth  to 
studies  according  to  the  unrestricted  election  of  the  pupil. 
These  last  studies  may  or  may  not  be  elected  within  the 
field  of  his  special  curriculum  interest.  Diagramatically 
the  approximate  distribution  of  these  three  areas  may  be 
represented  as  follows. 

FIGURE  W.    ILLUSTRATING  THE  GENERAL  FORM  OF  CURRICULUM 
ORGANIZATION  IN  THE  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


CONSTANTS 


S 
CUB 

PECIA 
RICUL 

L 
UMS 

FREE  ELECTION 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

Analyze  the  curriculum  of  the  last  two  grades  of  the  present  elementary 
school.  How  does  the  existing  curriculum  compare  with  that  suggested 
for  the  first  two  grades  of  the  junior  high  school?  (Cf.  Fourteenth  Year- 
book of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  part  i;  Sixteenth 
Yearbook,  part  i.) 


CURRICULUMS  691 

2.  Consider  the  curriculum  organization  of  the  junior  high  school  with 
reference  to  its  diagnostic  and  exploring  function. 

3.  Trace  the  influence  of  college  admission  requirements  on  the  curriculum 
organization  of  the  secondary  school. 

4.  Compare  the  curriculum  organization  of  higher  schools  La  Prussia, 
France,  and  the  United  States. 

5.  What  measures  can  you  suggest  to  prevent  scattering  and  superficiality 
in  American  secondary  education? 

6.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  the  absolute  prescription  of 
certain  studies  in  all  curriculums  and  for  all  pupils? 

7.  For  any  given  community  work  out  an  ideal  curriculum  organization 
for  its  secondary  schools. 

8.  How  is  curriculum  organization  affected  by    factors  of  retardation, 
acceleration,  and  elimination? 

9.  Trace  the  influence  of  proper  recognition  of  the  factor  of  individual 
differences  on  the  curriculum  organization  of  secondary  schools. 

10.  Show  the  bearing  of  theories  of  development  on  the  curriculum  organi- 
zation of  the  secondary  school. 

11.  Analyze  the  influence  of  social  factors  on  the  curriculum  organization 
of  the  secondary  school. 

12.  Compare  and  criticize  the  curriculum  organization  of  three  actual 
secondary  schools,  one  in  an  agricultural  community,  one  in  an  in- 
dustrial city,  and  one  in  a  residential  city. 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Davis,  C.  O.,  High-School  Courses  of  Study. 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  Changes  Needed  in  American  Secondary  Education,  Publica- 
tions of  the  General  Education  Board,  Occasional  Papers,  no.  2. 

Flexner,  A.,  A  Modern  School,  Publications  of  the  General  Education 
Board,  Occasional  Papers,  no.  3 

Hollister,  H.  A.,  High-School  Administration,  chap.  vn. 

Hollister,  H.  A.,  High  School  and  Class  Management,  chap.  xv. 

Johnston,  C.  H.,  "Curriculum  Adjustments  in  Modern  High  Schools," 
School  Review,  vol.  xxn,  pp.  577-90. 

Johnston,  C.  H.,  "What  is  Curriculum  Differentiation,"  Educational  Ad- 
ministration and  Supervision,  vol.  II,  pp.  49-57. 

Koos,  L.  V.,  The  Administration  of  Secondary-School  Units. 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of 
Secondary  Education,  Report  of  Committee  on  Organisation  and  Adminis- 
tration, Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin. 

National  Education  Association,  Committee  of  Ten,  Report  on  Secondary 
School  Studies. 

National  Education  Association,  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  o- 


692     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Secondary  Education,  Report  of  the  Reviewing  Committee,  Bureau  of 
Education  Bulletin. 

National  Education  Association,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Articulation 
of  High  School  and  College,  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion (1911),  pp.  559-67. 

Newlon,  J.  H.,  "The  Need  for  a  Scientific  Curriculum  Policy  for  Junior  and 
Senior  High  Schools,"  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision, 
vol.  in,  pp.  253-68. 

Rapeer,  L.  W.,  "A  Core  Curriculum  for  High  Schools,"  School  and  Society, 
vol.  v,  pp.  541-49. 

Sachs,  J.,  The  American  Secondary  School,  chap.  in. 

Snedden,  D.,  "The  High  School  of  To-morrow,"  School  Review,  vol.  xxv, 
pp.  1-15. 

Snedden,  D.,  pp.  214-31,  745-74,  of  Monroe,  P.  (Editor),  Principles  of 
Secondary  Education. 

Yocum,  A.  D.,  "The  Determinants  of  the  Course  of  Study,"  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Education  Association  (1914),  pp.  223-35. 

Young,  J.  R.,  "Reorganization  of  the  High-School  Curriculum,"  Educa- 
tional Review,  vol.  LIII,  pp.  122-37. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE   ORGANIZATION   OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

(continued) 

I.  SOME  PHASES  OF  EXTERNAL,  ORGANIZATION 

330.  The  place  of  the  secondary  school.  For  the  individ- 
ual education  is  a  unitary  and  continuous  process  which 
predicates  no  separate  stages  of  elementary,  secondary,  and 
higher  education  except  in  the  most  general  senses.  For  this 
reason  a  system  of  education  which  proceeded  gradually 
and  without  points  of  abrupt  transition  would  be  the  ideal. 
In  such  a  system  secondary  education  could  be  considered 
merely  an  indistinctly  defined  division  which  developed 
gradually  out  of  an  indistinctly  defined  elementary  edu- 
cation and  merged  gradually  into  an  indistinctly  defined 
higher  education.  However,  where  children  must  be  edu- 
cated in  groups  the  exigencies  of  school  economy  and  effi- 
cient administration  necessitate  the  organization  of  the 
school  system  into  divisions  which  externally  at  least  are 
more  or  less  separate.  Thus  for  younger  pupils  in  the  lower 
grades  a  large  number  of  buildings  must  be  provided,  so 
situated  as  to  minimize  the  distance  to  be  traveled:  for 
older  pupils  fewer  buildings  are  required  and  distance  is  a 
matter  of  less  importance.  For  younger  pupils  studies  are 
relatively  uniform:  for  older  pupils  differentiated  education 
must  be  provided.  For  younger  pupils  the  single  teacher 
plan  is  possible  and  appropriate :  for  older  pupils  specialists 
in  various  fields  are  necessary  and  appropriate.  These  and 
numerous  other  factors  sooner  or  later  in  the  school  system 
necessitate  changes  in  educational  procedure  which  require 


694     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

special  forms  of  school  organization  and  result  in  adminis- 
tration divisions. 

If  it  be  recognized  that  the  exigencies  of  organization  and 
administration  necessitate  the  division  of  the  school  system 
into  two  or  more  departments,  the  problem  at  once  presents 
itself  —  At  what  point  or  points  should  the  division  or  divi- 
_sions  come?  In  Chapter  VII  were  adduced  certain  consid- 
erations suggesting  that  our  present  organization  is  faulty 
in  many  respects  and  that  a  better  scheme  would  be  as 
follows:  elementary  schools  for  children  of  ages  approxi- 
mately six^  to  twelve  (grades  one  to  six)  and  secondary 
schools  for  pupils  of  ages  thirteen  to  eighteen  (grades  seven 
to  twelve),  with  an  organization  such  as  to  provide  junior 
high  schools  for  pupils  of  ages  approximately  thirteen  to 
fifteen  (grades  seven  to  nine)  and  senior  high  schools  for  pu- 
pils of  ages  approximately  sixteen  to  eighteen  (grades  ten 
to  twelve).  Some  of  the  more  important  considerations  in- 
volved may  be  summarized  briefly  here. 

(1)  Pupils  in  grades  one  to  six  are  predominantly  imma- 
ture physiologically:  in  grades  ten  to  twelve  they  are  pre- 
dominantly mature:  in  grades  seven  to  nine  they  are  in 
a  transitional  stage  as  far  as  the  factor  of  puberty  is  con- 
cerned. At  the  age  of  twelve  less  than  five  per  cent  of  the 
pupils  are  post-pubescent :  at  the  age  of  sixteen  more  than 
four  fifths  of  the  pupils  are  post-pubescent:  ages  thirteen 
to  fifteen  are  markedly  transitional  ages  as  far  as  puberty 
is  concerned.1 

~~  (2)  Elimination  does  not  begin  to  manifest  its  influence 
strongly  until  about  the  age  of  fourteen  —  the  close  of  the 
compulsory  attendance  period  in  most  States.  In  the  school 
it  becomes  noticeable  by  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  grade 
and  is  at  present  very  strong  in  grades  seven,  eight,  and 
nine.  It  is  important  that  some  of  the  phases  of  secondary 
1  Cf.  chapters  i  and  n. 


ORGANIZATION  695 

education  be  operative  before  the  majority  of  pupils  leave 
school.1  It  is  also  important  that  the  broader  field  of  sec- 
ondary education  should  have  an  opportunity  to  exert  its 
influence  on  the  retention  of  pupils. 

(3)  Individual  differences  are  manifest  in  all  stages  of 
education.    They  become  greater  and  increasingly  impor- 
tant as  pupils  progress  through  the  grades.    While  there  is 
no  single  point  at  which  one  may  say  that  they  demand 
special  attention,  it  is  probable  that  special  consideration 
should  be  given  that  factor  and  special  provision  should  be 
made  as  early  as  the  sgventh^grade.    Certain  it  is  that  such 
provision  is  now  delayed  too  long.    It  is  to  be  noted  that 
effective  provision  for  individual  differences  cannot  be  made 
unless  fairly  large  total  groups   of   pupils  are   involved. 
Provision  for  individual  differences  to  the  extent  demanded 
by  secondary  education  cannot  be  made  effective  in  the 
ordinary  elementary  schools. 

(4)  Before  the  pupil  enters  on  rather  specialized  education 
in  the  later  grades  of  the  system  he  should  have  some  oppor- 
tunity to  try  out  and  test  his  capacities  and  interests.  Pro- 
vision for  such  diagnostic  education  becomes  an  important, 
function  of  the  junior  high  school,  leaving  the  major  part 
of  specialized  education  to  the  senior  high  school  or,  in  some 
cases,  to  the  college  and  university. 

(5)  The  junior  high  school  also  provides  for  a  possible 
somewhat  rounded  out  education  for  those  pupils  who  must 
leave  school  at  an  early  date. 

(6)  Of  the  various  forms  of  organization  in  the  second- 
ary school  the  "  three-three  plan  "  appears  most  desirable. 
Its  most  serious  competitor  is  the  "  two-four  plan."    The 
latter  plan  is  objectionable  for  several  reasons,    (a)  It  fos- 
ters the  perpetuation  of  many  evils  which  have  grown  up 
around  the   present  organization.    It  is  improbable  that 

1  Cf .  chapter  rv. 


696     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

undesirable  methods  of  teaching  and  of  organization  which 
have  developed  in  connection  with  our  present  first-year 
work  in  the  high  school  can  be  remedied  as  long  as  the  ex- 
isting organization  of  the  high  school  is  retained.  (6)  The 
break  which  is  now  in  evidence  between  the  eighth  and 
ninth  grades  corresponds  in  time  with  the  close  of  the  com- 
pulsory attendance  period.  The  "  three-three  "  plan  "  strad- 
dles "  that  critical  point  to  some  extent  and  thus  distrib- 
utes eliminating  factors,  (c)  The  "  two-four  "  plan  does  not 
correspond  well  with  the  factor  of  development  at  puberty. 

One  great  danger  threatens  the  success  of  the  "  six-three- 
three  "  plan  —  that  through  the  organization  of  three  de- 
partments in  the  school  system  education  may  lose  unity 
and  continuity.  Throughout  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that 
administration  should  always  conform  as  far  as  possible 
to  educational  demands  rather  than  require  that  educa- 
tional demands  be  subordinated  to  administration.  This 
means  that  in  the  division  of  the  system  into  three  depart- 
ments the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  to  avoid  breaks 
in  the  education  of  the  pupils. 

Particularly  important  in  this  connection  are  problems 
of  articulation  between  the  elementary  school  and  the 
junior  high  school  and  between  the  junior  high  school  and 
the  senior  high  school.  It  is  imperative  that  the  work  of  the 
seventh  grade  be  carefully  articulated  with  the  work  of  the 
"sixth  grade.  Promotion  from  the  elementary  school  to  the 
junior  high  school  should  be  based  primarily  on  pedagogical 
progress,  i.e.,  the  accomplishment  of  the  work  of  the  first 
six  grades.  This  should  be  supplemented,  however,  by  atten- 
tion to  other  measures  of  maturity,  e.g.,  chronological  age, 
j  psychological  age,  physiological  age,  and  social  age.  Re- 
gardless of  pedagogical  achievement  a  pupil  so  mature 
(mentally,  physiologically,  chronologically,  or  socially)  that 
he  can  secure  greater  benefit  from  some  phases  of  the  junior 


ORGANIZATION  697 

high  school  work  than  from  continuance  in  the  elementary 
school,  should  be  promoted  arbitrarily  to  the  junior  high 
school.  In  general  the  same  principle  should  be  observed 
in  promotion  to  the  senior  high  school. 

It  has  been  suggested  at  times  that  the  character  of  the 
junior  high  school  work  should  be  determined  by  the  needs 
of  those  who  will  not  go  to  the  senior  high  school.  Any  such 
conception  is  totally  unjustified.  The  junior  high  school 
should  certainly  provide  an  effective  education  for  pupils- 
who  will  not  enter  the  senior  high  school.  This  cannot 
mean,  however,  that  its  responsibility  for  the  education  of 
those  who  will  continue  their  education  can  be  neglected. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  constant  danger  that  the  work 
of  the  junior  high  school  may  be  determined  by  the  demands 
of  the  senior  high  school.  Important  though  the  needs  of 
those  who  are  to  enter  the  upper  school  may  be,  they  can- 
not cause  us  to  lose  sight  of  the  needs  of  those  who  must 
leave  at  the  close  of  the  junior  high  school.  The  character 
of  the  work  of  the  senior  high  school  must  be  determined  by 
the  capacities,  attainments,  and  needs  of  the  pupils  who 
come  from  the  junior  high  school.  The  senior  high  school 
must  not  dominate  the  work  of  the  junior  high  school. 

One  of  the  weakest  links  in  the  system  of  education  hi 
America  is  the  continuation  school.  In  many  communities 
no  form  of  continuation  education  is  provided  at  all.  In 
communities  which  do  make  some  provision  for  such  edu- 
cation it  is  largely  confined  to  "  evening  school "  work.  In 
many  communities  which  provide  evening  schools  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  is  so  unsatisfactory  that  it  scarcely  de- 
serves the  name  education.  In  1914—15  communities  of 
over  5000  population  reported  nearly  700;000  pupils  en- 
rolled in  evening  schools. l  Probably  less  than  500,000  pupils 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (1916),  vol.  n. 
pp.  232-38. 


698     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

actually  attended  evening  schools  for  any  appreciable  period 
in  that  year.  Compared  with  the  number  of  boys  and  girls 
of  ages  appropriate  for  continuation  education  and  not 
enrolled  in  the  regular  day  schools  that  number  is  insig- 
nificant. Since  attendance  at  school  up  to  the  age  of  about 
fourteen  is  almost  universally  compulsory  in  the  country, 
it  is  clear  that  the  greater  part  of  continuation  education 
(except  for  foreigners)  must  be  of  secondary  character.  In 
this  country  we  have  scarcely  begun  to  recognize  the  impor- 
tance of  continuation  education  for  those  pupils  who  leave 
school  early.  In  the  reorganization  of  the  school  system 
definite  and  adequate  provision  must  be  made  for  the  articu- 
lation of  the  junior  high  school  in  particular  with  forms  of 
continuation  education. 

331.  Comprehensive  versus  special-type  secondary 
schools.  The  development  of  specialized  curriculums  for 
various  groups  of  pupils  in  the  secondary  school  has  created 
this  important  problem  in  the  organization  and  administra- 
tion of  secondary  education  —  should  secondary  education 
be  provided  through  comprehensive  or  composite  schools  in 
which  all  phases  of  the  work  are  included  in  one  unified 
— scheme  of  organization  and  administration,  or  should  it  be 
provided  through  several  special-type  secondary  schools, 
each  restricted  to  a  single  curriculum  or  related  group  of 
curriculums?  Within  recent  years  there  has  been  manifest 
a  growing  tendency  in  large  cities  to  establish  a  series  of 
-special-type  high  schools,  e.g.,  commercial  high  schools, 
technical  high  schools,  industrial  schools,  practical-arts 
high  schools,  and  the  like.  With  the  development  of  the 
junior  high  school  there  has  even  been  a  tendency  in  some 
cities  to  establish  special-type  junior  high  schools.  In 
Chapter  XX  the  position  was  taken  that  the  organization 
of  clearly  differentiated  curriculums  is  out  of  place  in  the 
junior  high  school,  except  possibly  for  special  groups  of  pupils 


ORGANIZATION  699 

who  must  leave  school  at  the  close  of  the  ninth  grade.  If 
this  contention  be  sound,  it  follows  that  special-type  junior 
high  schools  cannot  be  justified.  The  problem  reduces  it- 
self, therefore,  to  the  present  four-grade  high  school  or  the 
senior  high  school  of  the  reorganized  system. 

First  to  be  considered  is  the  possibility  of  special-type 
high  schools.  In  considering  problems  of  secondary  educa- 
tion in  America  no  error  is  more  common  than  that  of 
assuming  the  large  secondary  school  in  a  populous  com- 
munity as  typical.  The  census  of  1910  showed  that  there 
were  226  cities  in  the  country  having  each  a  population  of 
25,000  or  over,  distributed  as  follows:  117  cities  having  a 
population  of  from  25,000  to  50,000;  59  cities  having  a  popu- 
lation each  of  from  50,000  to  100,000;  42  cities  having  each 
a  population  of  from  100,000  to  500,000  (the  estimate  for 
1915  indicates  51) ;  5  cities  having  each  a  population  of  from 
500,000  to  1,000,000  (the  estimate  for  1915  indicates  6);  and 
3  cities  having  each  a  population  of  over  1,000,000.  Cer- 
tainly cities  having  a  population  of  less  than  25,000  cannot 
consider  the  establishment  of  more  than  one  high  school  of 
the  present  type  or  more  than  one  senior  high  school,  and 
few  cities  of  less  than  50,000  population  can  economically 
establish  more  than  one  such  high  school.  One  hundred 
cities  would  probably  be  a  liberal  estimate  of  the  number  of 
communities  which  might  be  able  to  establish  systems  of- 
special-type  high  schools.  Even  then  many  of  those  cities 
could  not  establish  more  than  two  high  schools.  Any  com- 
plete system  of  special-type  high  schools  is  an  impossibility 
in  all  but  a  very  few  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  country.  For 
the  country  at  large  the  only  possibility  of  a  thorough-going 
system  of  special  type  high  schools  would  be  found  in  the 
total  abandonment  of  local  community  schools  and  the 
development  of  a  system  of  regional  high  schools.  The  most 
enthusiastic  advocate  of  special-type  high  schools  would 


700     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

scarcely  recommend  such  a  procedure.  If  further  evidence 
is  wanted,  it  should  be  supplied  by  the  figures  presented  in 
Table  XLIX.  Those  figures  indicate  that  nearly  eleven- 
twelfths  of  all  the  public  high  schools  in  the  country  are 
located  in  communities  of  less  than  eight  thousand  popula- 
tion each,  those  high  schools  having  on  the  average  from 
sixty  to  sixty -five  pupils  each. 

The  problem  under  consideration  is  thus  limited  to  a  few 
very  large  cities.  It,  therefore,  remains  to  consider  the 
relative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  comprehensive  or 
composite  high  schools  and  special-type  high  schools  in 
very  populous  communities.  Among  the  principal  advan- 
tages claimed  for  the  special-type  high  school  are  the  follow- 
ing: (a)  the  work  of  each  school  may  be  definitely  directed 
along  specialized  lines;  (6)  more  homogeneous  groupings  of 
pupils  are  possible ;  (c)  various  phases  of  the  school  work  may 
be  coordinated  and  concentrated  on  definite  ends;  (d)  by 
bringing  together  all  pupils  engaged  in  one  group  of  related 
curriculums  more  effective  use  of  the  school  plant  and  the 
teaching  force;  (e)  where  vocational  education  is  involved  a 
higher  degree  of  vocational  interest  may  be  developed  in  the 
special-type  vocational  school;  (/ )  many  matters  such  as  the 
arrangement  of  the  daily  program,  the  assignment  of  rooms, 
and  other  elements  of  school  machinery,  may  be  more 
readily  and  more  effectively  administered  in  the  special- 
type  school ;  (g)  in  schools  limited  to  special  forms  of  educa- 
tion the  school  plant  may  be  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
special  curriculums,  especially  where  practical  arts  and  vo- 
^cational  work  require  specially  constructed  rooms,  special 
apparatus,  and  special  organization;  (k)  by  concentrating 
,11  special  curriculum  work  in  special  schools  such  education 
is  made  more  economical. 

Among  the  principal  objections  to  special-type  secondary 
schools  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  (1)  They  tend 


ORGANIZATION  701 

toward  a  dangerous  overemphasis  on  those  special  phases  of 
education  which  form  the  basis  of  the  special  schools  and 
toward  the  subordination  of  aims  and  functions  not  limited 
to  special  curriculums.  (2)  They  tend  to  diminish  the  inte- 
grating function  of  secondary  education  by  the  separation  of 
various  social  and  vocational  groups.  In  the  past  the  social 
factor  involved  in  the  establishment  of  special-type  schools 
has  operated  commonly  to  interfere  seriously  with  the 
proper  development  of  vocational  education  as  well  as  with 
other  forms  of  secondary  education.  (3)  The  establishment 
of  special-type  schools  commonly  leads  to  a  reduction  in 
the  flexibility  of  programs  and  curriculums  by  lessening  the 
range  of  variables  in  each  school  and  by  separating  curricu- 
lums so  that  even  the  necessary  and  desirable  amount  of 
cross-cutting  becomes  impossible.  (4)  The  effective  admin- 
istration of  a  system  of  special-type  schools  presupposes  that 
real  educational  or  vocational  preferences  determine  the 
choice  of  schools  by  pupils  or  for  pupils.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
many  other  factors  affect  the  choice  of  school,  some  of  which 
are  quite  irrelevant  and  may  be  antagonistic  to  real  educa- 
tional or  vocational  needs.  Thus  many  pupils  choose  the 
high  school  which  is  nearest  their  homes,  others  the  school 
to  which  their  friends  have  gone  or  are  going,  others  the 
school  providing  social  attractions  or  having  successful  ath- 
letic teams.  Hence  in  many  cases  the  very  purpose  of  the 
special-type  high  school  is  defeated  by  factors  not  readily 
controlled  by  school  authorities.  (5)  Once  such  a  choice  of 
school  is  made,  transfer  to  another  school  is  relatively  un- 
common, however  ill-adapted  the  work  of  the  school  chosen 
is  to  the  capacities  or  interests  of  the  pupil.  No  system  of 
educational  organization  and  administration  can  prevent  a 
certain  loss  of  time  and  energy  when  mistakes  are  made  in 
the  choice  of  educational  offerings.  However,  where  transfer 
from  curriculum  to  curriculum  is  made  difficult,  as  in  the 


702     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

special-type  school  organization,  the  correction  of  original 
mistakes  is  rendered  difficult.  (6)  Under  a  special-type  high 
/school  organization  it  is  assumed  that  dominant  interests  and 
aptitudes  may  be  determined  at  an  early  age  and  that  they 
remain  essentially  constant.  Both  assumptions  are  contrary 
to  fact.  With  the  establishment  of  a  junior  high  school  pro- 

^vIHing  opportunities  for  diagnostic  education  and  with  an 
effective  plan  of  educational  guidance  in  operation,  the  situa- 
tion may  be  improved.  However,  educational  prognosis  can 
never  be  perfect  and  for  that  reason  flexibility  in  secondary- 
school  organization  and  administration  is  imperative.  (7)  It 
is  an  axiom  of  education  that  attendance  at  school,  es- 

I  pecially  where  legal  mandate  is  not  operative,  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  accessibility  of  schools.  The  maintenance  of 
special-type  high  schools  necessarily  increases  the  distance 
to  be  traveled  by  many  pupils.  This  means  much  time  lost 
in  travel,  much  expense  for  that  travel,  and  a  decrease  in  the 
attracting  power  of  the  high  school.  In  this  connection  it 
may  be  noted  also  that  the  interest  of  parents,  of  the  pupils, 
and  of  the  community  in  the  school  is  lessened  where  schools 
are  at  a  distance  from  the  homes.  (8)  The  economy  claimed 
for  special-type  high  schools  is  by  no  means  established. 
Granted  that  the  expense  of  operating  such  schools  is  eco- 
nomical as  far  as  the  school  budget  is  concerned,  there  still 
remains  the  problem  of  expense  to  the  pupils.  On  the 
assumption  of  two  hundred  days  in  the  school  year  and  a 
traveling  expense  of  ten  cents  each  day  per  pupil,  the  cost  to 
parents  per  year  per  pupil  becomes  twenty  dollars  —  a 
sizable  fee  for  education  in  a  free  public  school.  If  five  hun- 
dred pupils  are  compelled  to  incur  such  expense  because  of 
the  distance  of  the  special-type  schools  the  total  added  cost 
of  education  for  that  group  becomes  ten  thousand  dollars. 
The  figures  are,  of  course,  merely  illustrative,  but  they  sug- 
gest the  possibility  that  the  economy  of  special-type  schools 


ORGANIZATION  703 

is  sometimes  at  the  expense  of  pupils  attending  —  a  situation 
quite  inconsistent  with  the  conception  of  public  education 
in  America. 

On  the  whole  it  appears:  (a)  that  special-type  junior  high 
schools  are  unjustifiable;  (6)  that  special-type  four-grade 
high  schools  or  senior  high  schools  are  practicable  in  a  very 
few  large  cities  only;  (c)  that  the  comprehensive  or  composite 
or  consolidated  high  school  should  be  the  standard  type  even 
in  the  largest  cities.  The  problem  is  closely  related  in  all 
cases  to  the  problem  of  the  organization  of  vocational  edu- 
cation considered  in  the  following  section. 

In  cities  where  two  or  more  high  schools  are  maintained 
it  is  not  always  possible  to  provide  all  curriculums  in  all 
schools,  in  as  much  as  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  some 
curriculums  is  so  small  as  to  render  uneconomical  separate 
groups  in  each  high  school.  Here  the  lesser  of  two  evils  must 
be  chosen  and  certain  curriculums  may  be  organized  in  one 
school  only  with  provision  for  the  attendance  at  that  school 
of  pupils  from  other  districts  who  should  be  enrolled  in  those 
curriculums.  The  comprehensive  or  composite  high  school, 
however,  should  remain  the  standard  type. 

A  somewhat  analogous  problem  is  involved  in  small 
country  high  schools.  All  desirable  curriculums  cannot  be 
offered  in  every  small  high  school.  Effective  organization 
would  suggest  that  certain  curriculums  be  offered  in  selected 
schools  only  and  that  provision  be  made  for  the  admission 
to  these  schools  of  pupils  from  nearby  communities  whose 
needs  require  such  specialized  curriculums.  The  dis- 
advantages of  such  a  policy  are  obvious.  It  requires  but 
little  observation  of  rural  conditions,  however,  to  realize 
that  the  majority  of  such  objections  arise  from  the  necessary 
limitations  of  high-school  education  in  sparsely  settled 
districts  under  any  form  of  educational  organization  and 
administration. 


It  must  be  recognized  that  in  the  past  special  curriculums 
have  not  been  well  organized  and  administered  in  many 
comprehensive  or  composite  high  schools.  The  development 
of  special-type  high  schools  has  been  due  in  part  to  this  fact. 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  past  and  the  present 
are  but  parts  of  a  period  of  reorganization  and  experimenta- 
tion in  the  field  of  vocational  education.  Even  in  special- 
ized vocational  schools  education  to  date  has  been  far  from 
satisfactory.  It  should  be  noted  also  that  the  easiest  path 
to  reform  in  any  special  field  of  education  is  always  through 
the  isolation  of  that  field  and  concentration  on  it.  Imme- 
diate benefits,  however,  are  not  always  ultimate  gains  and 
the  shortest  way  through  to  a  single  goal  is  not  always  the 
best.  No  important  reorganization  can  become  effective  in 
a  day.  The  adjustment  of  modern  education  must  take  time 
and  we  shall  be  fortunate  if  important  modifications  in  the 
school  system  become  effective  within  a  school  generation. 
Nevertheless  it  must  be  recognized  that  the  effective  opera- 
tion of  the  comprehensive  or  composite  high  school  cannot 
materialize  until  (a)  the  various  special  curriculums  within 
such  a  school  are  considered  as  entitled  to  equal  opportunity 
and  (6)  each  curriculum  or  group  of  related  curriculums  is 
organized  and  administered  so  as  to  make  it  effective  and 
maintain  its  integrity.  As  long  as  our  present  system  of 
curriculum  organization  and  administration  is  maintained 
much  of  the  effectiveness  of  secondary  education  will  be 
jeopardized.  The  efficiency  of  the  comprehensive  or  com- 
posite high  school  depends  in  no  small  degree  on  the  proper 
organization  and  administration  of  its  curriculums. 

332.  Organization  of  vocational  secondary  education. 
Within  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  educational  sociology 
has  recognized  the  legitimacy  and  importance  of  the  voca- 
tional-economic aim  of  secondary  education.  However,  agree- 
ment as  to  its  legitimacy  and  importance  has  been  far  more 


ORGANIZATION  705 

general  than  agreement  as  to  its  organization  and  adminis- 
tration. Here  three  major  problems  call  for  consideration. 
(1)  The  first  of  these  problems  involves  the  relation  be- 
tween vocational  education  and  other  forms  of  education. 
Commonly  this  problem  is  considered  as  involving  the  re- 
lation between  "  vocational  "  and  "  liberal "  education, 
sometimes  on  the  assumption  of  an  antagonism  of  those  two 
forms  of  training.  The  indefiniteness  and  ambiguity  of  the 
term  "liberal"  renders  it  almost  profitless  to  consider  the 
problem  in  such  terms.  A  better  line  of  approach  to  the 
problem  is  that  outlined  in  Chapters  IX  and  X  where  it  was 
suggested  that  the  three  fundamental  aims  of  secondary 
education  are  the  social-civic  aim,  the  economic-vocational 
aim,  and  the  individualistic-a vocational  aim  —  involving 
the  training  of  the  individual  as  a  citizen,  as  a  worker,  and 
for  the  worthy  use  of  leisure.  Since  each  individual  must 
participate  in  the  three  forms  of  activity  implied  in  those 
aims  and  since  to  a  considerable  extent  those  aims  overlap, 
all  three  aims  must  be  recognized  in  the  education  of  every 
secondary -school  pupil.  Hence  the  complete  separation  of 
vocational  education  can  never  be  justified,  and  such  state- 
ments as  the  following  must  be  interpreted  with  care. 

I  think  the  conviction  is  steadily  growing  that  any  form  of 
vocational  education,  to  be  effective,  must  develop  its  own  teach- 
ing processes  as  well  as  means  of  administration,  and  that  on  the 
whole,  both  as  to  methods  of  instruction  and  instruments  of  ad- 
ministration, it  must  be  quite  independent  of  general  or  so-called 
"liberal"  education.  This  must  be  so  because  of  the  fundamental 
unlikenesses  between  the  ends  or  purposes  of  liberal  education  and 
the  ends  or  purposes  of  vocational  education.1 

Better  stated  is  the  following : 

From  the  standpoint  of  social  economy  it  seems  probable  that 
the  tendencies  described  above  "are  wrong;  that,  for  the  sake  of 

1  Snedden,  D.,  Problems  of  Secondary  Education,  p.  57. 


706     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

integral  development,  all  the  valid  aims  of  education  should  be 
kept  in  view  during  the  entire  preparatory  period.    Society  de- 
mands that  each  adult,  within  the  limits  of  his  capacity,  shall  be 
/physically  well,  shall  be  vocationally  capable,  shall  have  civic  and 
^i^'   moral  insight  and  motive,  and  shall  keep  alive  some  cultural  or 
;V      """aesthetic  interests.    But  to  insure  this  all-round  development,  it 
is  essential  that  each  part  of  it  receive  more  or  less  continuous 
attention;  it  may  well  be  doubted,  for  example,  whether  it  is  wise 
that  a  youth  of  sixteen  should  devote  himself  exclusively  to  any 
kind  of  vocational  preparation,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  social  and 
cultural  interests;  but  there  is  also  reason  to  suppose  that  much 
of  our  secondary  education,  which  utterly  ignores  vocational  con- 
siderations during  the  formative  period,  not  less  seriously  handi- 
caps its  students.1 

The  real  problem  involved  in  the  relation  of  vocational 
education  and  other  forms  of  education  concerns  (a)  the 
amount  and  character  of  vocational  education  to  be  pro- 
vided and  (6)  the  stage  of  the  introduction  of  specialized 
vocational  education.  These  considerations  lead  at  once  to 
the  second  problem  of  the  organization  of  vocational  educa- 
tion. 

(2)  Education  in  the  elementary  school  up  to  the  sixth 
grade  and  for  pupils  up  to  the  approximate  age  of  twelve 
cannot  and  should  not  be  considered  as  involving  vocational 
education  in  any  other  than  an  indirect  way.  By  the  be- 
ginning of  the  junior  high  school  it  is  possible  to  make  a  start 
in*  "  prevocational "  education.  Within  the  junior  high 
school  should  be  provided  opportunity  for  some  diagnostic 
education  touching  on  vocational  education  in  part,  some 
vocational  information  of  the  "  survey  of  vocations  "  type, 
and,  for  some  at  least,  experience  with  the  tools,  processes, 
materials,  and  products  of  certain  occupational  fields.  Here 
there  is  no  place  for  highly  specialized  vocational  training 

1  Dutton,  S.  T.,  and  Snedden,  D.,  The  Administration  of  Public  Educa- 
tion in  the  United  States,  pp.  419-20.  Quoted  with  the  permission  of  the 
publishers,  The  Macmillan  Company. 


ORGANIZATION  707 

in  processes.  The  acquisition  of  vocational  outlooks,  in- 
terests, and  sympathies,  the  development  of  underlying 
knowledges  and  fundamental  skills  of  a  broad  and  general 
character,  the  beginning  of  education  along  lines  which  may 
later  become  specialized  —  these  forms  of  vocational  edu- 
cation are  all  that  can  and  should  be  looked  for  in  the  junior 
high  school.  In  all  this,  however,  it  should  be  recognized 
that  concrete  experiences,  not  book  work  and  the  abstract 
class  recitation,  must  be  the  foundation  of  vocational  prep- 
aration in  the  junior  high  school.  First-hand  contact  with 
the  concrete  realities  involved  in  the  field  of  occupations  is 
a  necessity. 

In  the  senior  high  school  direct  vocational  education  must 
be  provided  through  some  highly  specialized  curriculums. 
With  proper  organization  of  diagnostic  education  and  "  pre- 
vocational  "  training  in  the  junior  high  school,  a  basis  for 
effective  direct  vocational  education  in  the  upper  school 
should  be  established.  For  some  groups  of  pupils  (practi- 
cally all  pupils  whose  education  is  not  to  be  continued  in  the 
college  or  other  higher  institution)  definite  and  specific 
vocational  training  looking  toward  the  development  of 
specialized  vocational  skill  becomes  an  important  desid- 
eratum in  the  senior  high  school,  though  other  forms  of 
education  still  have  their  proper  place  as  suggested  in 
Chapter  XX. 

The  continuation  school  so  neglected  in  American  edu- 
cation should  be  given  its  legitimate  and  necessary  place  in 
coordination  with  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools.  Here 
again,  while  the  function  of  the  continuation  school  is  by  no 
means  restricted  to  vocational  education,  that  form  of 
training  assumes  importance.  In  such  a  school  vocational 
education  should  be  of  a  definitely  specialized  character, 
aiming  to  develop  occupational  skill  to  a  degree  of  efficiency 
which  is  marketable. 


708     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

Vocational  education,  if  it  is  to  be  really  effective  and 
warrant  the  attention  of  the  school,  must  be  related  defin- 
itely and  functionally  with  the  occupational  world  for  which 
it  is  designed  to  prepare.  This  means  that  it  must  be 
.severely  "  practical,"  not  "  theoretical,"  that  it  must  em- 
ploy the  actual  tools,  machinery,  processes,  and  standards 
of  the  occupations,  that  training  must  be  provided  through 
teachers  who  are  themselves  experts  with  successful  experi- 
ence in  their  respective  occupations,  and  that  the  training 
provided  must  involve  first-hand  contact  with  concrete 
experiences  in  the  processes  of  the  appropriate  occupations. 
These  considerations  at  once  lead  to  the  problem  discussed 
in  the  following. 

(3)  One  of  the  most  difficult  and  most  persistent  problems 
of  the  organization  of  vocational  education  involves  the 
question  whether  it  can  be  provided  best  in  special  curric- 
ulums  in  comprehensive  or  composite  high  schools,  in 
special-type  high  schools,  or  through  cooperative  part-time 
education.  In  the  preceding  section  were  considered  the 
relative  advantages  of  comprehensive  or  composite  high 
schools  and  special-type  high  schools.  It  remains  to  con- 
sider the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  vo- 
cational education  provided  in  the  high  school  itself  and 
vocational  education  provided  through  cooperative  part- 
time  education  in  which  the  pupil  spends  a  part  of  his  time 
in  the  occupation  itself  under  the  direction  of  the  school  and 
of  the  industrial  officers.  Here  the  most  important  factors 
involved  are  those  discussed  below. 

(a)  Vocational  education  in  the  high  school  itself  must 
always  be  limited  to  a  relatively  small  number  of  the  more 
important  occupations  and  to  relatively  few  phases  of 
activity  common  to  special  parts  of  those  occupations.  In 
many  smaller  communities  it  is  all  but  impossible  to  pro- 
— vide  any  effective  program  of  vocational  education  in  the 


ORGANIZATION  709 

high  schools  because  of  the  small  numbers  of  pupils  with 
widely  varying  vocational  needs  and  interests.  The  range  of 
cooperative  part-time  vocational  education  is  limited  only 
by  the  occupations  found  in  the  community  and  the  possi- 
bility of  securing  effective  cooperation  on  the  part  of  those 
controlling  the  occupations. 

(6)  Most  forms  of  vocational  education  in  the  high  school 
are  very  expensive,  mistaken  attempts  on  the  part  of  school 
officers  to  make  vocational  courses  "  pay  for  themselves  " 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  In  many  high  schools  the 
authorities  deceive  themselves  and  the  public  through  ri- 
diculously absurd  bookkeeping  and  inventories.  Industrial 
courses  in  particular  are  very  expensive.  The  original  ex- 
pense for  equipment  is  great,  the  cost  of  materials  consumed 
and  in  many  cases  wasted  is  high,  and  the  constant  repair 
and  replacement  of  equipment  are  expensive.  In  this  con- 
nection it  should  be  noted  that  effective  industrial  education 
cannot  be  afforded  unless  machinery  and  other  equipment 
are  kept  "  up  to  date."  In  the  progressive  factory  of  to-day 
much  of  the  machinery  is  "  scrapped  "  about  every  ten 
years  and  depreciation  is  reckoned  at  the  rate  of  about  five 
per  cent  the  first  year  and  much  larger  proportions  there- 
after. Much  of  the  equipment  in  the  high  school  is  in  use 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  time  so  that  overhead  expense  is 
very  great.  The  expense  of  vocational  secondary  education 
can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  through  a  system  of  part- 
time  cooperative  work  wherever  such  a  system  is  possible. 
Further,  part-time  cooperative  education  makes  possible 
some  forms  of  vocational  training  whose  expense  would 
otherwise  be  prohibitive.  In  all  this  problem  it  should  be 
recognized  that  ordinary  estimates  of  the  cost  of  vocational 
education  in  the  high  school  are  very  untrustworthy,  in  part 
because  of  failure  to  account  properly  for  depreciation  of 
equipment  and  for  other  overhead  charges,  in  part  because 


710      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

the  returns  through  the  sale  or  use  of  products  are  grossly 
overestimated. 

(c)  In  a  paragraph  above  importance  was  attached  to  the 
necessity  of  relating  vocational  education  as  closely  as 
possible  to  the  occupations  for  which  it  is  designed  to  pre- 

'-""'pare.  It  is  very  doubtful  that  this  can  be  done  effectively 
as  long  as  vocational  education  is  confined  to  the  high-school 

^-building,  though  much  may  be  accomplished  where  it  is 
carried  on  through  "  projects."  Through  cooperative  part- 
time  education  emphasis  is  placed  on  first-hand  contact  with 
the  work-a-day  world  of  actual  occupations,  practice  is 
stressed  instead  of  theory,  industry  is  real  not  simulated 
(or  dissimulated),  and  the  vocation  is  learned  in  a  real  voca- 
tional atmosphere.  Here,  however,  some  distinction  must 
be  made  between  various  forms  of  vocational  education. 
Some  forms  of  clerical  work,  some  phases  of  agricultural 
education,  some  forms  of  household-arts  work  may  be  car- 
ried on  with  a  fair  degree  of  effectiveness  under  ordinary 
high-school  conditions.  Other  forms  of  those  same  branches 
cannot  be  provided  effectively  without  first-hand  connec- 
tion with  the  occupations  themselves.  Industrial  education 
in  particular  is  very  difficult,  if  not  actually  impossible,  in 
isolation  from  real  industry. 

(d)  The  slow  development  of  cooperative  part-time  vo- 
cational education  and  the  restriction  of  vocational  educa- 
tion to  the  high  school  itself  are  due  largely  to  the  relative 
ease  with  which  vocational  education  may  be  partially  or- 
ganized in  the  high  school  and  the  difficulty  of  organizing 
and  administering  cooperative  education.  The  crux  of  voca- 
tional education  is  found  in  its  organization  and  administra- 
tion.   The  special  difficulty  of  cooperative  education,  even 
where  those  who  control  factories,  stores,  and  other  occu- 
pational enterprises  are  ready  to  cooperate,  lies  in  the  fact 
that  those  who  control  and  are  responsible  for  education 


ORGANIZATION  711 

cannot  exercise  any  degree  of  control  over  the  vocational 
situation  and  for  that  reason  cannot  assure  satisfactory 
vocational  education.  Obviously  any  appreciable  degree 
of  control  over  the  vocational  situation  itself  can  neither  be 
expected  nor  desired.  Cooperative  part-time  vocational 
education  must  always  rest  on  a  somewhat  precarious  foot- 
ing, dependent  for  its  success  or  failure  on  conditions  which 
lie  beyond  the  control  of  the  educational  authorities.  In 
addition,  extensive  administrative  machinery  is  necessary 
for  the  effective  supervision  of  cooperative  part-time  educa- 
tion and  this  fact  sometimes  limits  the  value  of  other  bene- 
fits suggested  in  preceding  paragraphs. 

On  the  whole  it  appears  desirable  that  such  forms  of  voca- 
tional education  as  can  be  provided  equally  well  or  nearly 
as  well  in  the  school  as  in  the  occupation  itself  under  part- 
time  arrangements  would  better  be  provided  in  the  school 
where  supervision  and  direction  can  best  be  controlled,  e.g., 
much  of  the  clerical  arts.  Where  it  seems  that  the  imme- 
diate contact  with  actual  work-a-day  conditions  are  more 
important,  e.g.,  in  much  of  the  industrial  work,  cooperative 
part-time  vocational  work  should  be  provided  wherever 
local  conditions  make  such  cooperation  possible  and  bene- 
ficial. In  this  it  is  probable  that  much  more  should  be  done 
than  is  now  attempted.  It  should  be  observed,  however, 
that  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  organization  of 
cooperative  part-time  education  and  that  it  should  never  be 
attempted  except  where  definite  binding  agreements  can  be 
made  with  those  responsible  for  occupational  enterprises. 
The  high  school  undertakes  a  great  responsibility  when  it 
entrusts  an  important  part  of  the  pupils'  education  to  com- 
mercial enterprises.  Education  must  not  be  exploited  by 
industry. 


712     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

II.  SOME  PHASES  OF  INTERNAL  ORGANIZATION 

333.  The  organization  of  instruction.  While  detailed 
analysis  of  the  instruction  to  be  provided  in  the  secondary 
school  as  far  as  teaching  methods  are  concerned  lies  out- 
side the  scope  of  this  book,  a  few  important  matters  are 
so  intimately  related  to  the  effective  organization  of  sec- 
ondary education  that  they  deserve  brief  consideration 
here. 

(1)  In  the  past  the  materials  of  high-school  subjects  of 
study  have  been  organized  and  taught  according  to  the 
demands  of  the  studies  as  logically  organized  fields  of  knowl- 
edge. In  the  reorganization  of  secondary  education  problems 
of  subject  organization  and  teaching  methods  must  be 
approached  from  a  different  point  of  attack.  The  primary 
criteria  of  subject  organization  are  (a)  the  psychological 
demands  of  the  learning  process  as  determined  by  the  men- 
tal development  and  previous  experiences  of  the  pupils,  and 
(b)  the  demands  of  the  activities  of  life  in  which  the  pupils 
will  utilize  the  various  elements  of  their  education.  This 
does  not  necessarily  mean  that  all  subjects  will  lose  their 
logical  organization.  What  it  does  mean  is  that  whether 
or  not  any  given  subject  will  be  so  organized  and  taught  is 
to  be  determined  by  the  more  fundamental  considerations 
mentioned.  In  some  cases  the  entire  organization  of  mate- 
rials and  methods  must  be  changed.  In  other  cases  subjects 
will  be  organized  and  taught  much  according  to  the  best 
practice  of  the  present.  In  all  probability  the  desirable 
form  of  education  in  the  junior  high  school  will  demand 
radical  reorganization  of  subjects  of  study  in  such  a  way  as 
to  emphasize  elements  most  likely  to  prove  of  value  to  in- 
dividuals in  the  commoner  activities  of  life.  The  greater 
specialization  of  education  in  the  senior  high  school  will 
permit  and  justify  the  somewhat  comprehensive  and  logical 


ORGANIZATION  713 

organization  of  subject-matter  with  appropriate  teaching 
methods  emphasizing  intensive  study  in  special  fields. 

(2)  Closely  related  to  the  matter  considered  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  is  the  matter  of  immediate  and  deferred 
values.    The  tendency  of  secondary  education  in  the  past 
has  been  to  emphasize  deferred  values  at  the  expense  of 
immediate  values,  to  emphasize  in  the  organization  of  ma- 
terials and  teaching  methods  values  which  depend  for  their 
manifestation  on  education  continued  throughout  the  school 
or  extended  over  a  period  of  years.    We  are  beginning  to 
realize  that  pupils  in  large  numbers  leave  school  before  the 
close  of  the  full  course  and  that  for  them  the  subordination 
of  immediate  to  deferred  values  means  decided  educational 
loss.    As  at  present  organized  many  subjects  are  of  little 
value  to  the  pupil  unless  he  studies  them  for  several  years. 
Such  studies  must  be  reorganized  and  taught  so  that  their 
usefulness  begins  for  the  pupil  at  the  start  and  becomes  of 
progressively  greater  value  as  they  are  studied  longer.   The 
much-maligned  "general  studies"  have  distinct  value  in  the 
earlier  grades  of  secondary  education,  i.e.,  in  the  junior  high 
school. 

(3)  One  of  the  most  promising  of  recent  reforms  in  second- 
ary education  involves  the  reorganization  of  classroom  in- 
struction in  the  form  of  combined  recitation,  teaching,  and 
study.    The  term  applied  to  the  newer  form  of  classroom 
instruction  —  "supervised  study"   —  is  in  many  respects  a 
title  unfortunately  chosen.    A  better  term  would  be  "su-_ 
pervised  learning."  In  brief  the  plan  involves  increased  time 
allotted  to  the  class  meeting,  with  provision  for  "study" 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  class  teacher.    Intro- 
duced at  first  for  the  primary  purposes  of  providing  oppor- 
tunity for  study  under  favorable  conditions  and  of  affording 
opportunity  to  train  pupils  in  the  art  of  study,  it  bids  fair  to 
revolutionize  the  class  meeting  into  a  vastly  more  effective 


714     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

instrument  of  education.  Its  advantages  are  numerous: 
(a)  it  reduces  the  amount  of  study  to  be  done  outside  of  the 
school  where  conditions  are  frequently  such  as  to  render 
effective  study  impossible;  (6)  it  provides  for  study  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions  during  school  hours  by  bring- 
ing the  pupils'  study  under  the  direct  supervision  and  guid- 
ance of  the  class  teacher;  (c)  it  affords  an  opportunity  for 
the  teacher  to  train  pupils  in  effective  methods  of  study  both 
as  related  to  learning  in  general  and  as  related  to  specific 
studies;  (d)  it  makes  possible  more  effective  provision  for 
individual  differences  among  pupils  of  the  same  class; 
(e)  it  makes  possible  the  transformation  of  the  class  meeting 
from  a  period  largely  devoted  to  testing  to  a  period  devoted 
to  real  instruction;  (/)  it  makes  possible  an  effective  distri- 
bution of  the  time  to  "recitation,"  the  presentation  of  new 
material,  and  study;  (g)  it  permits  the  "checking  up"  of  the 
work  of  the  pupil  at  every  step  in  the  learning  process,  thus 
practically  eliminating  the  necessity  for  testing  pupils  dur- 
ing the  class  "recitation,"  making  dishonest  work  all  but 
impossible,  and  enabling  the  teacher  to  give  aid  at  the  point 
where  aid  is  most  needed.  The  possible  disadvantages  of  the 
plan  are :  (a)  the  increased  length  of  the  school  day  necessi- 
tated; (6)  the  probable  necessity  for  a  slightly  larger  teach- 
ing staff;  (c)  the  possibility  of  a  somewhat  increased  cost 
arising  from  those  two  changes;  (d)  the  danger  that  teach- 
ers may  fail  to  recognize  the  real  objects  to  be  attained  and 
permit  mechanization  of  the  class  meeting  to  defeat  the 
purposes  of  supervised  learning:  (e)  the  danger  that  teachers 
may  aid  the  pupils  to  such  an  extent  as  to  diminish  the 
stimuli  for  initiative,  responsibility,  and  independent  work. 
The  disadvantages  are  slight  and  the  dangers  are  amenable 
to  effective  supervision.  In  the  junior  high  school  particu- 
larly "supervised  learning"  affords  a  means  for  a  gradual 
transition  from  extensively  supervised  and  rather  depend- 


ORGANIZATION  715 

ent  work  of  the  elementary  school  to  work  demanding  a 
greater  degree  of  independence,  responsibility,  and  initia- 
tive in  the  senior  high  school. 

334.  The  organization  of  extra-curriculum  education. 
The  secondary  school  has  constantly  tended  to  draw  a 
sharply  dividing  line  between  education  through  the  cur- 
riculum and  education  through  various  activities  which  have 
developed  in  connection  with  school  life  apart  from  curricu- 
lum demands.  This  tendency  to  isolate  the  two  fields  of 
education  cannot  be  justified.  Properly  organized  and  di- 
rected the  extra-curriculum  activities  of  the  secondary 
school  can  be  made  instruments  of  education  by  no  means 
inferior  to  many  phases  of  the  work  included  within  the 
curriculum  proper.  Athletic  and  other  games,  musical 
organizations,  debating  societies,  class  societies,  the  various 
social  organizations  of  the  school  —  all  these  and  other 
forms  of  extra-curriculum  activity  can  be  so  organized  as 
to  make  important  contributions  to  the  social-civic,  the 
economic-vocational,  and  the  individualistic-avocational 
aims  of  secondary  education.  In  some  schools  they  have  been 
correlated  so  closely  with  parts  of  the  curriculum  as  to  form 
an  integral  part  of  secondary  education.  In  other  schools 
they  are  regarded  either  as  necessary  evils  to  be  discouraged 
or  as  side  issues  which  curriculum  demands  must  con- 
stantly combat.  Fortunately  secondary-school  authorities 
are  beginning  to  recognize  the  peculiar  educational  possibil- 
ities of  extra-curriculum  activities  and  the  necessity  of 
welding  the  formal  and  informal  activities  of  school  life  into 
a  system  of  integrated  education.  Thus  an  advance  step 
is  taken  in  coordinating  and  unifying  the  experiences  of 
the  educand  and  in  breaking  down  the  barriers  between 
the  school  and  life. 

Several  educational  possibilities  are  found  in  extra-cur- 
riculum activities  to  a  degree  not  approached  by  the  major- 


716     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

ity  of  curriculum  activities.  Among  those  possibilities  may 
be  emphasized  the  following:  (a)  The  majority  of  extra- 
curriculum  activities  have  developed  from  strong  spontane- 
ous interests  which  the  school  needs,  not  to  arouse,  but  only 
to  utilize  and  direct.  (6)  Social  training  through  actual 
participation  in  cooperative  activity  is  an  essential  element 
in  most  forms  of  extra-curriculum  education.  This  element 
is  at  a  minimum  in  most  curriculum  work,  (c)  Extra-cur- 
riculum activities  greatly  extend  the  field  of  avocational 
education,  (d)  Experience  has  shown  that  interest  in  certain 
forms  of  extra-curriculum  activities  can  do  more  than  any 
other  one  factor  to  unify  the  pupil  body  of  a  school. 

Athletic  clubs,  walking  clubs,  and  the  like,  afford  some 
of  the  most  valuable  opportunities  for  physical  education 
and  should  be  closely  correlated  with  curriculum  demands 
for  physical  training  and  hygiene.  Magazine  clubs,  the 
school  paper,  the  dramatic  club,  the  debating  club,  and 
similar  activities  afford  valuable  opportunities  for  training 
in  English  and  should  be  closely  coordinated  with  the  Eng- 
lish courses.  Musical  clubs  of  all  sorts  should  become  parts 
of  the  school  work  in  music.  The  social-civic  and  moral 
ends  of  education  find  educational  opportunities  of  great 
value  in  all  forms  of  extra-curriculum  activities  wherein 
participation  in  cooperative  enterprises  plays  a  part.  The 
individualistic-avocational  aim  of  education  finds  oppor- 
tunities in  all  extra-curriculum  activities.  Even  the  eco- 
nomic-vocational aim  of  education  is  not  without  some  op- 
portunities in  this  field,  e.g.,  through  musical  organizations, 
the  school  paper,  the  dramatic  club,  etc. 

Beyond  question  secondary  education  should  encompass 
the  extra-curriculum  activities  and,  as  far  as  possible,  bring 
them  within  the  scope  of  secondary-school  organization. 
However,  two  somewhat  opposed  dangers  must  be  guarded 
against :  (a)  the  danger  that  the  strong  spontaneous  interests 


ORGANIZATION  717 

of  extra-curriculum  activities  may  lead  to  their  overempha- 
sis; (6)  the  danger  that,  in  our  attempts  to  harness  extra- 
curriculum  activities  and  control  them  for  educational  pur- 
poses, we  may  destroy  the  very  interests  which  have  given 
those  activities  some  of  their  greatest  value  as  educational 
instruments.  If  these  two  dangers  be  guarded  against  ex- 
tra-curriculum activities  may  be  made  some  of  the  most 
powerful  instruments  of  secondary  education. 

335.  Educational  diagnosis  and  guidance.  Doubtless 
educational  diagnosis,  prognosis,  and  guidance  have  always 
played  some  part  informally  in  the  organization  of  sec- 
ondary education.  Doubtless  too  all  education  may  be 
conceived  in  some  senses  as  involving  a  measure  of  diag- 
nosis, prognosis,  and  guidance.  However,  definite  plans 
for  the  organization  of  those  phases  of  education  only  within 
recent  years  have  invited  the  attention  of  educators,  stimu- 
lated thereto  by  the  changing  character  of  the  school  pop- 
ulation, by  changes  in  educational  theory,  and  by  such  social 
changes  as  were  outlined  briefly  in  Chapter  IX.  The  move- 
ment received  its  first  great  impetus  along  the  line  of  voca- 
tional guidance  in  the  endeavor  to  provide  a  better  means 
of  adjustment  between  vocational  capacity  or  aptitude  and 
vocational  opportunity,  between  the  individual  and  his  oc- 
cupation, between  the  school  and  occupational  life.  As  the 
movement  developed  two  facts  became  clear:  (a)  that  from 
the  viewpoint  of  the  school  at  least  vocational  guidance  is 
but  one  phase  of  educational  guidance,  which  in  its  broader 
sense  includes  vocational  guidance,  moral  guidance,  social 
guidance,  avocational  guidance,  and  educational  guidance  in 
the  narrower  sense;  (6)  that  all  educational  guidance  is  pri- 
marily and  fundamentally  a  matter  of  providing  a  wide  va- 
riety of  educational  contacts  and  experiences  so  organized 
as  to  meet  the  needs  of  individual  differences  and  to  afford 
a  basis  of  actual  experience  for  the  intelligent  selection  of 


718     PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

vocation  and  avocation,  for  the  determination  of  moral  and 
social  conduct,  and  for  the  wise  choice  of  educational  offer- 
ings. The  older  conception  of  guidance  involved  primarily 
a  system  of  educational  advice  (in  some  cases  what  practi- 
cally amounted  to  educational  compulsion)  with  particular 
reference  to  the  selection  of  a  vocation.  The  newer  con- 
ception of  guidance  involves  primarily  a  system  of  educa- 
tional experiences  designed  to  permit  the  pupil  to  explore, 
try  out,  and  thus  gain  some  understanding  of  his  own  capaci- 
ties, aptitudes,  and  interests,  to  open  up  to  the  pupil's  view 
the  opportunities  of  life  and  of  education,  and,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  make  him  acquainted  with  the  privileges,  de- 
mands, and  responsibilities  of  life  in  its  various  phases, 
vocational  and  avocational,  social,  civic,  and  moral.  Only 
when  such  a  basis  of  experience  is  provided  can  any  system 
of  guidance  by  advice  be  safe  or  effective. 

The  diagnostic  and  directive  function  of  education  is 
important  at  all  stages.  Specially  important,  even  critical, 
however,  is  the  stage  of  education  covered  by  the  secondary 
school,  and  in  particular  by  the  junior  high  school.  There 
the  point  is  approached  where  children  must  leave  school  in 
large  numbers,  dominant  interests,  sometimes  evanescent, 
sometimes  permanent,  develop  rapidly  under  the  increasing 
influence  of  the  outside  world,  pupils  must  prepare  some  for 
immediate  entrance  into  occupations,  others  for  the  rather 
specialized  work  of  the  senior  high  schools,  and  numerous 
other  factors  call  for  diagnosis,  prognosis,  and  guidance. 
Hence  it  is  that  in  the  junior  high  school  special  attention 
must  be  paid  to  the  organization  of  education  in  such  a  way 
as  to  lay  a  basis  for  educational  guidance  along  the  lines 
suggested  above.  This  means :  (a)  the  widest  possible  range 
of  educational  offerings  suited  to  the  maturity  of  pupils, 
opening  up  as  many  fields  of  life's  activities  and  of  educa- 
tional opportunities  as  possible,  and  testing  every  important 


ORGANIZATION  719 

capacity  and  interest  of  pupils;  (6)  such  methods  of  teachr 
ing,  forms  of  organization  and  administration,  as  may  con- 
tribute to  the  diagnostic  and  directive  function  of  educa- 
tion; (c)  opportunity  for  gradually  increasing  concentration 
in  some  fields  looking  forward  to  specialization  in  the  senior 
high  school  or  in  some  cases  toward  direct  entrance  into 
life;  (d)  the  organization  of  certain  courses  primarily  on  the 
basis  of  their  diagnostic  and  prognostic  possibilities,  e.g., 
"survey  of  vocations,"  and  possibly  coordinated  "short- 
unit"  courses;  (e)  an  effective  form  of  administrative  ma- 
chinery for  educational  guidance  through  advice,  counsel- 
ing, and  possibly  occupational  placement. 

336.  The  social  organization  of  the  school.  The  American 
democracy  depends  for  its  existence  and  success  on  the 
social  consciousness  and  social  cooperation  of  its  citizens. 
Unless  the  school  can  make  a  significant  contribution  to  the 
development  of  social  consciousness  and  social  cooperation 
it  must  fail  in  one  of  its  most  important  purposes.  In  the 
endeavor  to  make  that  contribution  great  responsibility  must 
rest  on  the  secondary  school  wherein  is  trained  that  some- 
what select  group  of  individuals  who  must  ultimately  exert 
the  greatest  influence  on  our  social  and  civic  life.  There 
three  important  fields  of  opportunity  are  found  for  training 
to  social  consciousness  and  social  cooperation :  (a)  in  certain 
studies  of  the  curriculum  and  in  the  socialized  recitation; 
(6)  in  many  of  the  extra-curriculum  activities  of  the  school ; 
(c)  in  the  government  or  control  of  the  pupil  body.  Of  these 
three  fields  the  first  two  have  already  been  considered. 
The  third  deserves  special  consideration  here. 

The  traditional  methods  of  governing  the  pupil  body  have 
been  those  of  rule  and  authority  on  the  part  of  school  offi- 
cers and  obedience  to  rules  and  submission  to  authority  on 
the  part  of  pupils.  There  can  be  no  question  that  ultimate 
authority  must  always  rest  with  the  school  officers.  Neither 


can  there  be  any  doubt  that  in  many  respects  secondary- 
school  pupils  are  far  too  immature  to  exercise  complete 
control  over  their  own  actions  in  the  life  of  the  school.  Any 
unlimited  "student  self-government "  scheme  is  foredoomed 
to  failure.  The  failure  of  many  honestly  attempted  "stu- 
dent self-government"  plans  and  of  many  fraudulent  plans 
masquerading  under  that  title  testify  to  its  impracticability. 
Nevertheless  it  must  be  recognized  that  there  is  only  one 
way  to  acquire  social-cob'perativeness  and  that  is  through 
social  cooperation,  that  there  is  only  one  way  to  learn  how 
to  control  one's  conduct  and  that  is  through  meeting  the 
responsibility  for  that  conduct,  that  there  is  only  one  way 
for  groups  to  attain  the  ability  for  self-government  and  that 
is  through  actual  participation  by  the  group  in  its  own  gov- 
ernment. Socially  conscious  and  socially  cooperating  Amer- 
ican citizens  cannot  be  developed  through  the  school  unless 
in  the  school  those  citizens  are  trained  through  actual  par- 
ticipation in  the  cooperative  activities  of  the  school.  Self- 
governing  American  citizens  can  be  developed  only  through 
some  degree  of  exercise  in  actual  self-government.  The 
secondary  school  cannot  and  should  not  avoid  its  responsi- 
bility in  this  important  form  of  education. 

The  emphasis  above  laid  on  training  in  self-government 
through  self-government  should  not  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  control  and  discipline  of  the  pupil  body  in  the 
secondary  school  can  be  left  to  the  pupils.  It  should,  how- 
ever, lead  to  the  conclusion  that  from  the  beginning  of 
education  in  the  lower  grades  and  in  increasing  degree 
throughout  the  school  responsibility  for  various  forms  of 
self-government  should  be  placed  on  the  pupils  themselves 
as  fast  as  it  may  appear  that  they  are  able  to  bear  the  burden 
successfully.  It  should  also  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
wherever  possible  and  as  far  as  possible  the  cooperation  of 
pupils,  teachers,  and  administrative  officers  should  be  en- 


ORGANIZATION  721 

couraged  in  the  pupil  government  of  the  school.  In  no 
other  way  is  there  afforded  any  warrant  or  hope  that  the 
secondary  school  can  make  its  proper  contribution  to  the 
development  of  that  social  consciousness  and  social  cooper- 
ation necessary  for  the  existence  and  success  of  our  Ameri- 
can democracy. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  FURTHER  CONSIDERATION 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  means  which  may  be  employed  to  minimize  the 
educational  disadvantages   of  administrative   breaks  in   the   school 
system? 

2.  Make  a  comparative  study  of  the  organization  of  secondary  education 
in  two  cities  of  somewhat  similar  character  in  general  but  having  one 
a  system  of  comprehensive  or  composite  high  schools,  the  other  a 
system  of  special-type  high  schools. 

3.  Make  a  survey  of  the  possibilities  for  cooperative  part-time  vocational 
education  in  any  community. 

4.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  specialized  vocational  educa- 
tion in  the  junior  high  school? 

5.  What  means  can  you  suggest  of  providing  greater  opportunities  for 
secondary  education  in  rural  districts? 

6.  Make  a  comparative  study  of  continuation  schools  in  the  United  States 
and  in  Germany,  France,  and  England. 

7.  Analyze  the  evening-school  situation  in  the  United  States  or  in  any 
one  State. 

8.  What  changes  in  the  articulation  of  secondary  and  higher  education 
would  be  necessitated  by  the  organization  of  a  junior-senior  high- 
school  system? 

9.  Show  how  the  extra-curriculum  activities  of  the  secondary  school  might 
be  more  effectively  developed. 

10.  For  any  secondary  school  analyze  the  changes  which  would  be  necessi- 
tated by  the  introduction  of  a  system  of  supervised  learning. 

11.  Make  a  study  of  various  plans  which  have  been  elaborated  for  the 
organization  of  vocational  guidance.    (Cf.  Brewer,  J.  M.,  and  Kelly, 
R.  W.,  A  Selected  Critical  Bibliography  of  Vocational  Guidance.) 

12.  Make  a  study  of  schemes  for  "student  self-government"  in  secondary 
schools. 

13.  What  are  the  arguments  for  and  against  an  undivided  school  system  of 
twelve  grades? 


722      PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

NOTE:  References  given  in  previous  chapters  cover  most  of  the  problems 
considered  in  this  chapter.  To  those  references  may  be  added  the  following 
which  deal  with  educational  guidance  and  with  supervised  learning. 

I.  Educational  guidance: 

Bloomfield,  M.,  Youth,  School,  and  Vocation. 

Bloomfield,  M.  (Editor),  Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance. 

Bloomfield,  M.,  The  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth. 

Bloomfield,  M.,  "Vocational  Guidance  and  the  High  School,"  chap. 

xxiv  of  Johnston,  C.  H.  (Editor),  The  Modern  High  School. 
Brewer,  J.  M.,  "Vocational  Guidance  in  School  and  Occupation," 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 

vol.  LXVII,  pp.  54-63. 

Brewer,  J.  M.,  The  Vocational  Guidance  Movement. 
Davis,  J.  B.,  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance.  Contains  bibliographies. 
Hollingworth,  H.  L.,  Vocational  Psychology. 
Ruediger,  W.  C.,  "Avocational  Guidance,"  chap,  xxv  of  Johnston, 

C.  H.  (Editor),  The  Modern  High  School. 

Extended  bibliography:  Brewer,  J.  M.,  and  Kelly,  R.  W.,  A  Selected 
Critical  Bibliography  of  Vocational  Guidance. 

II.  Supervised  learning: 

Allen,  I.  M.,  "Experiments  in  Supervised  Study,"  School  Review, 
vol.  xxv,  pp.  398-411. 

Breslich,  E.  R.,  "Teaching  High-School  Pupils  to  Study,"  School 
Review,  vol.  xx,  pp.  505-15. 

Breslich,  E.  R.,  "Supervised  Study  as  a  Means  of  Providing  Supple- 
mentary Individual  Instruction,"  Thirteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Na- 
tional Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  part  i,  pp.  32-72. 

Colvin,  S.  S.,  An  Introduction  to  High-School  Teaching,  chap.  xvii. 

Earhart,  L.  B.,  Teaching  Children  to  Study. 

Hall-Quest,  A.  L.,  Supervised  Study.  Contains  bibliography. 

Hall-Quest,  A.  L.,  "Present  Tendencies  in  Supervised  Study," 
Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  vol.  i,  pp.  239-56. 

McMurry,  F.  M.,  How  to  Study. 

Parker,  S.  C.,  Methods  of. Teaching  in  High  Schools,  chap.  xvi. 

Extended  bibliography:  Hall-Quest,  A.  L.,  Supervised  Study,  pp. 
409-16. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Academy,  general  treatment,  170- 
84;  relation  to  the  public  high 
school,  196-97;  relation  to  higher 
education,  305. 

Acceleration  of  pupils,  general  treat- 
ment, 123-27.  Cf.  also  26-27,  290, 
696-97. 

Accrediting  system  of -admission  to 
college,  324-36. 

Adjustive  or  adaptive  function  of 
secondary  education,  376-77,  668. 

Administration  of  secondary  educa- 
tion, in  general  throughout  the 
book,  under  various  titles.  Cf.  Aims 
and  functions,  Program  of  studies, 
Curriculum,  Organization  of  secon- 
dary education,  Secondary  educa- 
tion in  relation  to  elementary  edu- 
cation, Junior  high  school,  Secon- 
dary education  in  relation  to 
higher  education,  Individual  dif- 
ferences, Acceleration,  Retarda- 
tion. Elimination,  Classification 
of  secondary-school  pupils,  Social 
principles,  Comprehensive  high 
school,  Special-type  high  school, 
Vocational  education,  Continua- 
tion education.  Part-time  educa- 
tion, Supervised  study,  Social  or- 
ganization, etc. 

Admission  to  college,  general  treat- 
ment, 303-36.  Cf.  College  admis- 
sion requirements,  Secondary  edu- 
cation in  relation  to  higher  educa- 
tion. 

Admission  to  junior  high  school  and 
to  senior  high  school,  696-97. 

Adolescence,  general  treatment  with 
interpretations  for  secondary  edu- 
cation, 3-71.  Cf.  also  262-64. 

^Esthetic  arts,  general  treatment, 
621-37.  Cf.  Music,  Design  and  re- 
lated arts. 

Age,  chronological,  physiological,  psy- 


chological, and  pedagogical  dis- 
tinguished, 5-8. 

Age-grade  distribution  of  pupils,  5-6, 
68-69,  76-77. 

Agricultural  curriculums,  688. 

Agricultural  education,  general  treat- 
ment, 605-11 ;  in  Germany,  222-23. 
Cf.  also  Vocational  education. 

Agricultural  occupations,  608-10. 

Agriculture,  180,  413,  414;  in  the 
junior  high  school,  686-87.  Cf. 
Agricultural  education. 

Aims  and  functions  of  secondary  edu- 
cation, general  treatment,  367-83, 
667-68.  For  aims  of  the  several 
studies  and  other  school  activities 
see  appropriate  titles,  e.g.,  English, 
athletics,  etc. 

Algebra,  general  treatment  of  mathe- 
matical study,  481-503.  Cf.  also, 
75,  180,  186,  188,  189,  266,  272, 
315,  320,  413,  414,  415,  416. 

Altona  plan  of  Reformschide,  213-15. 

American  History,  cf .  Social  sciences, 
History. 

American  Historical  Association, 
findings  and  recommendations  of, 
537-39. 

American  Political  Science  Associa- 
tion, recommendations  of  Commit- 
tee on  the  Teaching  of  Govern- 
ment, 561. 

Anatomical  development,  17. 

Ancient  history,  cf.  Social  Sciences, 
History. 

Ancient  Languages,  cf.  Latin,  Greek, 
Foreign  languages. 

Appendicitis  among  secondary-school 
pupils,  649. 

Appreciation  versus  accomplishment, 
390-91,  393,  440,  632,  634. 

Apprentices  and  apprenticeship,  362, 
595,  597,  600,  601.  Cf.  Vocational 
education. 


726 


INDEX 


Arithmetic,  general  treatment  of 
mathematical  study,  481-503.  Cf. 
also,  75,  79,  80,  111,  112,  165,  178, 
179,  180,  186,  188,  189,  283,  413, 
686,  687. 

Arithmetical  abilities,  individual  dif- 
ferences in,  79;  of  boys  and  girls 
compared,  111;  of  first-year  high- 
school  pupils,  76.  Cf .  Courtis. 

Armston  School,  181-82,  623. 

Art,  665,  686,  687.  Cf.  ^Esthetic 
arts,  Design  and  related  arts. 

Articulation  of  elementary  and  se- 
condary education,  general  treat- 
ment, 261-98.  Cf.  also  23-27,  49- 
53,  64-71,  131,  684-87,  693-98. 

Articulation  of  secondary  and  higher 
education,  general  treatment,  303- 
36. 

Association,  development  of  capacity 
in,  37-38;  individual  differences  in, 
76. 

Astronomy,  general  treatment  of  nat- 
ural science  instruction,  506-29. 
Cf.  also  178,  180,  320,  413,  414. 

Athletics,  general  treatment,  651- 
58.  Cf.  also  641,  715-17.  Cf. 
also  Physical  education. 

Attendance  of  pupils,  118-55. 

Austria,  205. 

Average,  as  a  measure,  66,  85. 

Average  deviation,  as  a  measure, 
85. 

Avocations,  cf .  Leisure. 

Ayres,  L.  P.,  on  retardation  costs, 
126;  on  elimination,  128-30;  on  the 
mobility  of  labor  and  population, 
359-60. 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  on  stages  of  develop- 
ment, 41 ;  on  the  influence  of  ado- 
lescence, 50,  58;  on  the  junior  high 
school,  296;  on  the  transfer  of  im- 
proved efficiency,  403. 

Baldwin,  B.  T.,  on  growth  and  school 
standing,  13,  14,  16-17;  on  pu- 
bescence, 26-28. 

Belgium,  205. 

Berry,  C.  S.,  on  physiology,  648;  on 
retardation,  etc.,  124. 

Bigelow,  M.  A.,  on  biology,  517. 


Biological  heredity,  individual  dif- 
ferences due  to,  89-95. 

Biology,  general  treatment  of  natu- 
ral science  instruction,  506-29.  Cf. 
also  414.  Cf.  also  Botany,  Zool- 
ogy, Physiology. 

Board  schools  of  England,  250. 

Boas,  F.,  on  growth  and  school  stand- 
ing, 8-13. 

Bones,  growth  of,  17. 

Bookkeeping,  general  treatment  of 
clerical  and  commercial  educa- 
tion, 583-93.  Cf .  also  180, 187, 188, 
189,  413,  414. 

Boston,  Public  Latin  School,  163-65; 
English  Classical  (High)  School, 
185-87;  Girls'  High  School,  187- 
88. 

Botany,  general  treatment  of  natural 
science  instruction,  506-29.  Cf. 
also  180,  188,  320,  413,  414. 

Boys,  adolescence,  21-23,  27-32; 
height  and  weight,  8-14;  vital  ca- 
pacity, 15;  mental  traits,  36-38. 
Cf.  Sex,  Girls,  Individual  differ- 
ences. 

Brain,  development  of,  16-17. 

Briggs,  T.  H.,  on  the  junior  high 
school,  293-94;  on  social  sciences, 
540-41. 

Bright's  disease  among  secondary- 
school  pupils,  649. 

Broome,  E.  C.,  on  the  accrediting 
system,  336. 

Brown,  E.  E.,  on  the  distinction  be- 
tween elementary  and  secondary 
education,  263-64;  on  the  accredit- 
ing system,  333. 

Building  trades,  599-601. 

Bulgaria,  205. 

Biirgerschule,  220,  222. 

Burnham,  W.  H.,  on  the  influence  of 
adolescence,  55-56. 

Burk,  F.,  figures  for  growth,  9, 10, 11, 
13,  78. 

Burritt,  B.  B.,  on  the  professional 
distribution  of  college  graduates, 
316. 

Business  education,  cf .  Commercial 
education. 

Business  English,  444,  590-91. 


INDEX 


727 


Calculus,  413. 

California,  junior  college  in,  310-11. 

Canada,  205. 

Cancellation,  individual  differences 
in,  76. 

Census,  Thirteenth  on  occupational 
statistics,  cf.  Occupations. 

Central  tendency,  85-86. 

Ceramic  trades,  600-01. 

Certificating  system  of  admission  to 
college,  324-36. 

Charterhouse,  248. 

Chase,  W.  J.,  on  the  development  of 
memory  through  history,  554. 

Chemistry,  general  treatment  of  nat- 
ural science  instruction,  506-29. 
Cf.  also  179,  180,  188,  272,  320, 
413,  414,  415. 

Child  labor  laws,  effect  of,  362-63. 

Chorus  work  in  music,  623-24,  632- 
33 

Chronological  age,  2-8,  261-62,  275- 
76. 

Church  and  religion,  effect  of  changes 
in,  360-61.  Cf.  Denominational 
schools,  Sectarian  Schools,  Relig- 
ious education,  Moral  education. 

Citizenship,  education  for,  368-69. 
Cf.  Civics,  Social  sciences. 

Civics,  general  treatment,  559-63. 
Cf.  also  413,  414,  676,  686-87. 
Cf.  also  Social  sciences. 

Civil  government,  cf.  Civics,  Social 
sciences. 

Classics,  cf.  Latin,  Greek,  Foreign 
languages. 

Classical  course,  508,  536,  664-66. 

Classical  languages,  cf .  Latin,  Greek, 
Foreign  languages. 

Classification  of  secondary-school 
pupils,  146-55,  672-74.  Cf.  also 
118-45.  Cf.  also  Individual  differ- 
ences, Curriculum,  etc. 

Clement,  J.  A.,  on  correlation  of  high 
school  and  college  standings,  331. 

Clerical  education,  583-93.  Cf.  Vo- 
cational education,  Commercial 
education. 

Clothing  trades,  599-601. 

Clubs,  etc.,  cf.  Extra-curriculum  ac- 
tivities. 


Coeducation,  108-15.  Cf.  Sex, 
Adolescence,  Puberty,  Individual 
differences,  Curriculums,  Domestic 
arts.  Cf.  also  87, 181, 190,  230,  245, 
253-54. 

College,  general  treatment  of  the  re- 
lation of  secondary  to  higher  edu- 
cation, 303-36;  secondary  school- 
pupils  going  to  college,  108,  146- 
51,  163-64;  historical  relation  and 
present  status,  303-14;  admission 
requirements,  315-23;  examina- 
tion and  accrediting  systems,  324- 
36.  For  special  .  subject  require- 
ments cf.  subject  titles,  English, 
Mathematics,  etc. 

College  Entrance  Examination 
Board,  325-28,  336. 

College,  the  French  communal,  232- 
46. 

Colonial  schools,  cf.  Latin  grammar 
school,  Academy. 

Columbus  junior  high  school,  292. 

Colvin,  S.  S.,  on  pure  science  and 
transfer  values,  500. 

Commercial  arithmetic  in  junior 
high  school,  686-87.  Cf .  Commer- 
cial education. 

Commercial  arts  as  related  to  design, 
etc.,  636. 

Commercial  cumculums,  688.  Cf. 
Commercial  education. 

Commercial  education,  general  treat- 
ment, 583-93.  Cf .  Vocational  edu- 
cation. 

Commercial  English,  444,  590-91. 

Commercial  French,  453-54,  590-92. 

Commercial  German,  453-54,  590- 
92. 

Commercial  occupations,  analysis 
of,  587-90. 

Commercial  schools,  cf .  Special-type 
schools. 

Commercial  Spanish,  453-44,  590- 
92. 

Commission  on  the  Reorganization 
of  Secondary  Education,  cf .  reports 
of  its  various  committees. 

Committee  on  Articulation  of  High 
School  and  College,  recommenda- 
tions of,  322-23. 


728 


INDEX 


Committee  on  College  Entrance  Re- 
quirements, on  units  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  requirements,  319;  on 
requirements  in  mathematics, 
484-85. 

Committee  on  Economy  of  Time  in 
Education,  recommendations,  287. 

Committee  (of  Fifteen)  on  Geome- 
try Syllabus,  492-93. 

Committee  on  High-School  Course 
in  English,  42^23. 

Committee  on  Minimum  Essentials, 
on  elementary-school  studies,  283. 

Committee  on  Modern  Languages, 
456. 

Committee  (of  Ten)  on  Secondary 
School  Studies,  on  graduates  going 
to  college,  147;  on  six-grade  secon- 
dary school,  291 ;  on  mathematics, 
484-85;  on  natural  sciences,  508- 
09;  on  social  sciences,  535-37;  on 
curriculums,  664-66. 

Committee  on  Social  Studies,  on  the 
aims,  character,  and  program  of 
social  studies,  544-46;  on  com- 
munity civics,  562-63;  on  Prob- 
lems of  American  Democracy, 
565-S7. 

Committee  on  Status  of  Instruction 
in  Hygiene  in  American  Educa- 
tional Institutions,  on  provisions 
for  physical  education,  641. 

Committee  (of  Seven)  on  Study  of 
History  in  Schools,  on  status  of 
history  instruction  in  1898,  537- 
39;  on  civil  government,  542. 

Committee  (of  Five)  on  Study  of 
History  in  Secondary  Schools,  rec- 
ommendations, 539. 

Community  Civics,  542-43,  560-63, 
686,  687.  Cf.  Civics,  Social  sci- 
ences. 

Community  life,  effect  of  changes  on 
secondary  education,  356-60. 

Compayre,  G.,  American  influence 
on  French  education,  237. 

Composite  mathematics,  492,  686, 
687. 

Composite  secondary  schools,  cf. 
Comprehensive  secondary  schools. 

Composition,  425-38.   Cf.  English. 


Comprehensive  secondary  schools 
versus  special-type  schools,  698- 
704.  ' 

Compulsory  attendance,  131-32, 
585,  596,  607,  612.  Cf.  Retarda- 
tion, Elimination. 

Concentration,  680-81. 

Conceptual  values,  mathematics, 
492-93;  natural  sciences,  521-22; 
social  sciences,  553-54. 

Concomitant  development,  theory 
of,  44-53. 

Connecticut,  Latin  grammar  schools 
in,  168-69. 

Constant  elements  in  curriculum 
organization,  674-76,  686,  687, 
689-90. 

Contingent  values,  391-92. 

Continuation  education  and  con- 
tinuation schools,  697-98,  707;  in 
France,  239;  in  Germany,  222-23. 
Cf.  Vocational  education. 

Continuity  in  education,  680-81. 

Cooperative  part-time  education,  cf. 
Part-time  education. 

Correlation  of  high-school  and  col- 
lege standing,  328-33. 

Cosmopolitan  high  school,  cf.  com- 
prehensive secondary  school. 

Cost,  of  junior  high  school,  297;  of 
retardation,  126-27;  of  vocational 
education,  582-84. 

Counts,  G.  S.,  on  the  distribution  of 
high-school  graduates,  151. 

Courtis,  S.  A.,  and  the  Courtis  Stan- 
dard Tests,  on  the  reasoning  abil- 
ity of  children,  47;  individual  dif- 
ferences in  arithmetical  abilities, 
75,  76,  79,  84;  on  sex  differences, 
110-12. 

Courses  of  study,  cf .  Curriculums. 

Crampton,  C.  W.,  on  The  influence  o 
growth  and  puberty,  21-23,  28, 67- 
68;  on  sex  hygiene  and  sex  peda- 
gogy, 650-51. 

Criteria  of  subject  values,  general 
treatment,  387-418. 

Culture  and  cultural  education,  cf. 
Leisure.  Cf.  also  footnote,  p.  171. 

Curriculums,  general  treatment, 
662-90;  historical  and  compara- 


INDEX 


729 


live  considerations,  662-67;  prin- 
ciples determining  curriculum  or- 
ganization and  differentiation, 
667-83;  junior  and  senior  high- 
school  curriculum  organization, 
683-90;  curriculums  of  higher 
schools  in  Prussia,  209-18;  in 
France,  235^41:  in  England,  249, 
252-53;  curriculum  of  Latin  gram- 
mar schools,  164-67;  curriculums 
of  the  academies,  178-82. 

Dancing,  as  an  aesthetic  art,  621 ;  in 
physical  education,  654-56.  Cf. 
^Esthetic  arts,  Physical  education. 

Davis,  B.  M.,  on  agricultural  educa- 
tion, 606. 

Davis,  C.  O.,  on  adolescence  and  the 
beginning  of  secondary  education, 
50,  58. 

Dearborn,  W.  F.,  on  the  distribution 
of  high-school  grades,  81-82;  on 
the  correlation  of  high-school  and 
college  grades,  330-31. 

Death  rate,  17-19,  642,  649. 

Declamation.  179, 180, 186, 187,  413. 

Deferred  values,  682-83,  713. 

De  Garmo,  C.,  on  values  of  the  nat- 
ural sciences,  522. 

Democracy,  342-44,  244-46,  368. 
719-21. 

Denmark,  205,  273. 

Denominational  schools,  361. 

Departmental  teaching,  279,  293-94. 

Design  and  related  arts,  general 
treatment,  633-37.  Cf.  yEsthetic 
arts,  Industrial  arts,  Domesticarts, 
Commercial  arts. 

Development,  physical,  3-32;  psy- 
chological, 34-71. 

Dewey,  J.,  on  mental  development, 
43^15;  on  social  changes,  353-54; 
on  language  study,  425-28,  430, 
432,  446;  on  aesthetic  arts,  625. 

Dexter,  E.  G.,  on  the  academy 
movement,  175;  on  the  high-school 
movement,  194-95. 

Diagnosis,  cf.  Educational  diagnosis, 
Diagnostic  education,  Diagnostic 
function,  Educational  guidance, 
Individual  differences,  Elimina- 


tion, Expectancy  of  stay,  Classifi- 
cation of  pupils. 

Diagnostic  education,  294,  382-83, 
695,  699,  706,  717-19.  Cf.  Edu- 
cational diagnosis,  Diagnostic 
function,  Educational  guidance, 
Individual  differences,  Elimina- 
tion, Expectancy  of  stay,  Classifi- 
cation of  pupils. 

Diagnostic  function  of  secondary 
education,  382-83,  669.  Cf.  Diag- 
nostic education,  Educational  di- 
agnosis, Educational  guidance,  In- 
dividual differences,  Elimination, 
Expectancy  of  stay,  Classification 
of  pupils. 

Differences,  cf .  Individual  differences. 

Differentiating  function,  378-79, 
668-69.  Cf .  Individual  differences. 

Differentiation,  social,  347-49;  edu- 
cational, 280,  294-95,  677,  662- 
90. 

Differentiated  curriculums,  662-90. 

Direct  values,  general  treatment, 
388-94;  of  various  studies,  cf.  sub- 
ject titles. 

Disciplinary  values,  cf.  Transfer  of 
improved  efficiency. 

Discipline,  53,  71,  719-21. 

Dissociation  as  the  basis  of  transfer, 
397  ff. 

Distribution  of  college  graduates, 
316. 

Distribution  of  high-school  gradu- 
ates, 150-53. 

Distribution  of  individual  differ- 
ences,  75-86.  Cf.  Individual  dif 
ferences. 

Distribution  of  pupils  in  school,  118- 
55.  Cf.  Individual  differences,  Re- 
tardation, Elimination. 

District  school  system,  168-70,  272. 

Domestic  arts,  domestic  science, 
domestic  economy,  etc.,  cf.  Domes- 
tic education. 

Domestic  curriculums,  688—89. 

Domestic  (arts)  education,  general 
treatment,  611-15.  Cf.  Voca- 
tional education,  Practical  arts 
education.  As  related  to  aesthetic 
arts,  636-37. 


730 


INDEX 


Douglass,  A.  A.,  on  the  junior  high 

school,  293. 
Drawing,  cf .  Design  and  related  arts, 

^Esthetic  arts.    Cf.  also  320,  321, 

413,  414. 

Dummer  Academy,  172. 
Dutton,  S.  T.,  and  Snedden,  D.,  on 

Vocational  education,  705-06. 
Dynes,   J.   J.,   on   retardation   and 

elimination,  140. 

Early  promise  and  elimination,  137- 
38. 

ftcole  practique,  232. 

Ecole  primaire,  232  ff.;  Ecole  pri- 
maire  sup£rieure,  239. 

Economics,  563-67,  320,  413.  Cf. 
Social  sciences. 

Economic  conditions  and  elimina- 
tion, 135. 

Economic  factors  affecting  individ- 
ual differences,  100-06. 

Economic-vocational  aim  of  secon- 
dary education,  368-71. 

Economic- vocational  values,  cf .  sub- 
ject titles. 

Economy  in  Education,  126-27,  286- 
87. 

Economy  of  Tune  in  Education,  rec- 
ommendations of  committee,  287. 

Educational  diagnosis,  100-08,  131- 
55,  294,  330-33,  382-83,  669,  671, 
672-74,  695,  717-19. 

Educational  guidance,  717-19.  Cf. 
Educational  diagnosis,  Expec- 
tancy of  stay,  Classification  of 
pupils,  Diagnostic  education,  Diag- 
nostic function,  Individual  differ- 
ences, Retardation,  Elimination, 
etc. 

Electrical  trades,  600-01. 

Election  and  elective  studies,  670- 
71,  676-82. 

Ekmentarschule,  209. 

Elementary  education,  general  treat- 
ment in  relation  to  secondary  edu- 
cation, junior  high  school,  etc., 
261-98;  distinctions  between  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  education, 
261-69;  historical  relation,  269- 
72;  foreign  systems,  272-74,  208- 


09,  221-22,  226-27,  232-33,  245, 
255;  defects  in  present  relation, 
274-83;  reforms  planned,  284-98. 
Cf.  also  49,  64. 

Elementary  science,  cf.  General  sci- 
ence. 

Elimination,  general  treatment,  128- 
45,  153-55,  281-82,  287-88,  294, 
694-95. 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  on  the  values  of  nat- 
ural science  study,  517. 

Endowed  schools  of  England,  247- 
50. 

Engineering  trades,  600-01. 

England,  secondary  education  in, 
general  treatment,  246-58;  Latin 
grammar  school,  162;  academy 
movement,  170;  organization  of 
school  system,  273. 

English,  general  treatment  of  its 
place  in  the  program  of  studies, 
420-45.  Cf.  also  321-23,  413-16, 
665,  675-76,  686-87;  distribu- 
tion of  grades  in  English,  81. 

English  Classical  (High)  school  of 
Boston,  185-87. 

English  course,  508,  536,  664-66. 

Enrollment  in  secondary  schools, 
United  States,  118-23;  in  Ger, 
many,  220-22,  228;  in  France,  242; 
in  England,  252,  256;  in  certain 
other  countries,  205. 

Environmental  factors  and  individ- 
ual differences,  95-105. 

Errors  in  interpreting  individual  dif- 
ferences, 87-88. 

Ethics,  taught  in  France,  544;  in 
America,  413. 

Eton  College,  248. 

Etymology,  413,  464-65. 

Europe,  secondary  education  in 
203-58;  industrial  education  in> 
593-94.  Cf.  Foreign  countries, 
Germany,  France,  England,  etc. 

Evening  schools,  697-98. 

Evidences  of  Christianity,  180,  187, 
188. 

Examinations  for  college  entrance, 
324-36. 

Expectancy  of  stay  in  the  secondary 
school,  141-45.  Cf.  also  Educa- 


INDEX 


731 


tional  diagnosis,  Educational  gui- 
dance, Classification  of  pupils, 
Retardation,  Elimination,  Diag- 
nostic education,  etc. 

Expense,  cf.  Cost. 

Experimental  investigation  of  trans- 
fer, 407^09. 

Extra-curriculum  activities,  715-17. 

Factory  system,  effects  of,  361,  595. 

Faculty  psychology,  394,  459-60, 
496,  514,  522,  554-55,  587. 

Fallacies  involved  in  determining 
direct  values,  389-94;  Spencer's 
fallacies,  512-17. 

Fathers,  occupations  of,  102-03. 

Fine  arts,  cf.  ^Esthetic  arts. 

Flexibility  of  organization  and  ad- 
ministration, 294,  677-80. 

Food  industries,  599-601. 

Foreign-born  children  and  children 
of  foreign-born  parentage,  95-100. 
Cf.  Biological  heredity,  Social 
heredity. 

Foreign  countries,  secondary  edu- 
cation in,  203-58,  272-74,  666- 
67. 

Foreign  languages,  general  treat- 
ment of  instruction  in,  447-78.  Cf. 
also  51,  70,  321-23,  413-15,  438, 
665,  686,  687.  Cf.  Latin,  Greek, 
German,  French,  Spanish. 

Formal  discipline,  cf .  Transfer  of  im- 
proved efficiency. 

Fortbttdungschule,  221-23.  Cf.  Ger- 
many, education  in. 

Foster,  W.  L.,  on  pubescence  as  a 
basis  for  classification,  24-25,  67. 

France,  education  in,  general  treat- 
ment, 231-46.  Cf.  also  205,  206, 
272-74,  422,  450-51,  512,  543-44. 

Frankfort  plan  of  Reformschule,  213- 
15. 

Franklin's  Academy,  171-72,  178, 
481. 

Frauenschule,  216-18. 

French,  general  treatment  of  foreign 
language  instruction,  447-77.  Cf. 
also  178,  179,  180,  188,  190,  209- 
12,  214-15,  217-18,  236,  238,  241, 
249,  520,  590. 


Fresno,  California,  Junior  College, 

311. 
Functions  of  secondary  education, 

375-83,  668-69. 

General  high  school,  cf.  Comprehen- 
sive secondary  school. 

General  science,  320,  413,  525-29, 
676,  686-87.  Cf.  Natural  sciences. 

Generalization,  379  ff.  Cf.  Dissocia- 
tion, Transfer  of  improved  effi- 
ciency. 

Geography,  165,  178,  179,  180,  186, 
187,  188,  276,  283,  413,  676,  686- 
87. 

Geology,  general  treatment  of  nat- 
ural science  instruction,  506-29. 
Cf.  also  180,  320,  413. 

Geometry,  general  treatment  of 
mathematical  studies,  481-503.  Cf . 
also  165,  178,  179,  180,  187,  188, 
320,  402,  403,  413,  414,  415,  686, 
687. 

German,  general  treatment  of  for- 
eign language  instruction,  447-77. 
Cf.  also  180,  209-12,  214-15,  217- 
18,  238,  249,  320,  413,  414,  415, 
416,  417,  520,  590. 

Germany,  education  in,  general 
treatment,  206-31.  Cf.  also  171, 
205,  272-74,  421-22,  450,  484,  511, 
543-44. 

Gilbert,  J.  A.,  on  growth  and  school 
standing,  14,  16;  on  development 
of  mental  traits,  36. 

Ginnasio,  273. 

Girls,  height  and  weight,  8-14;  vital 
capacity,  15;  pubescence  and 
adolescence,  21  ff . ;  development  of 
mental  traits,  36-38;  compared 
with  boys,  108-15;  secondary  edu- 
cation of  in  academy,  181-82;  sec- 
ondary education  of  in  Germany, 
216-19;  secondary  education  of  in 
France,  240-41;  secondary  educa- 
tion of  in  England,  253-54.  Cf. 
Sex,  Individual  differences,  Co- 
education. 

Government,  cf.  Social  sciences, 
Civics. 

Government  of  pupils,  719-21. 


732 


INDEX 


Grades,  distribution  of,  79,  81. 

Gradual  development,  theory  of, 
54  ff. 

Gradual  transition,  principle  of,  293- 
94. 

Graduates,  distribution  of  college, 
316. 

Graduates,  distribution  of  high- 
school,  14&-53. 

Grammar,  413,  434.   Cf.  English. 

Grammar  school,  cf.  Latin  grammar 
school. 

Grant-list  and  efficient  schools  of 
England  and  Wales,  250-54. 

Greece,  aesthetic  arts  in  ancient 
Greece,  621-22;  physical  educa- 
tion in  ancient  Greece,  640;  edu- 
cation in  modern  Greece,  205,  273. 

Greek,  general  treatment  of  foreign 
language,  instruction,  447-77.  Cf. 
also  164-65,  178,  209,  212,  214, 
236,  238,  249,  304,  314,  320,  413, 
414. 

Grip  of  hand,  76. 

Growth,  physical  traits,  3-32;  men- 
tal traits,  34-71. 

Guidance,  cf.  Educational  guidance, 
Educational  diagnosis,  Expectancy 
of  stay,  Classification  of  pupils, 
Diagnostic  education,  Diagnostic 
function,  Individual  differences, 
Retardation,  Elimination. 

Guizot  Law,  237. 

Gymnasium,  641.  Cf.  Physical  edu- 
cation. 

Gymnasium,  209  ff.  Cf.  Germany, 
education  in. 

Gymnastics,  652-58.  Cf.  Physical 
Education. 

Hadley,  A.  T.,  on  distinction  be- 
tween elementary,  secondary,  and 
higher  education,  265. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  on  adolescence,  56-58. 

Handwork,  cf.  Manual  arts,  Manual 
training,  Practical  arts  education, 
etc. 

Harrow,  248. 

Hartwell,  E.  M.,  on  death  rate,  18. 

Head,  circumference  of,  15-17. 

Health,     in    relation     to     physical 


growth,  17-19.  Cf.  Physical  edu- 
cation, Hygiene. 

Heart  disease,  649. 

Hecker's  Realschule,  171. 

Height,  growth  in,  8-14;  individual 
differences  in,  76,  78. 

Henderson,  E.  N.,  on  Rosenkrantz's 
theory  of  mental  stages,  41-43. 

Heredity,  cf.  Biological  heredity, 
Social  heredity,  Individual  dif- 
ferences. 

Heterogeneity,  of  population,  358- 
59;  of  school  groups,  cf.  Individual 
differences. 

High  school,  historical  development, 
184-200;  relation  to  the  elemen- 
tary school,  261-98;  relation  to 
higher  institutions,  303-36.  Cf. 
Secondary  education,  Junior  high 
school,  Senior  high  school,  Com- 
prehensive secondary  school,  Spe- 
cial-type schools,  Program  of 
Studies,  Curriculums,  Organiza- 
tion, etc. 

High-school  course,  pupils'  estimate 
of  value,  107-08. 

High-school  graduates,  distribution 
of,  146-53. 

High-school  pupils,  physical  traits, 
3-32;  mental  traits,  34-71 ;  individ- 
ual differences,  74-115;  attitudes 
toward  school  work,  interests,  etc., 
103-08;  acceleration  and  retarda- 
tion, 123-28;  elimination,  128-45; 
expectancy  of  stay  in  school,  142- 
45;  distribution  and  classification, 
146-55,  671-74;  going  to  college  or 
other  higher  institution,  146-53, 
312-14. 

Higher  education  in  relation  to  sec- 
ondary education,  303-36. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  on  the  values  of  the 
study  of  history,  554-55. 

Historical  development  of  secondary 
education,  161-200. 

History,  general  treatment  of  social 
science  instruction,  534-69,  espe- 
cially 545-59.  Cf.  also  171,  179- 
80,  186-87,  188-89,  209-12,  214- 
15,  217-18,  236,  238,  241,  249,  253, 
411,  413-15,  583-604,  676,  686-87. 


INDEX 


733 


History  of  English  literature  as  a 
study,  413. 

Hohere  Schule,  208-31.  Cf.  Ger- 
many, education  in. 

Hoheres  Lehrerinnenseminar,  216-19. 
Cf.  Germany,  education  in. 

Holland,  E.  O..  on  the  relation  be- 
tween secondary  schools  and  nor- 
mal schools,  309. 

Holley,  C.  E.,  on  home  conditions 
and  persistence  in  school,  100-01, 
135-37. 

Home  and  family  life,  the  effect  of 
changes  in  secondary  education, 
350-56,  578,  585,  595,  607,  613, 
644. 

Home  conditions  and  elimination, 
134-37. 

Home  economics,  cf.  Domestic  edu- 
cation. 

Home  making,  etc.,  cf.  Domestic 
education. 

Home  study,  cf.  Supervised  study  .^ 

Hopkins,  Edward,  and  the  Latin 
grammar  schools,  163. 

Household  arts  education,  cf.  Do- 
mestic education. 

Household  economics,  cf.  Domestic 
education. 

Household  science,  cf .  Domestic  edu- 
cation. 

Huxley,  T.,  on  the  values  of  natural 
science  instruction,  530. 

Hygiene,  645-51.  Cf.  also,  413, 
508,  519,  641,  686,  687.  Cf.  Natu- 
ral sciences,  Physical  education, 
Sex  hygiene. 

Illness,  at  adolescence,  19;  prevent- 
able through  education,  642. 

Immigration,  bearing  of,  on  second- 
ary education,  95-100. 

Income  of  the  family  as  related  to 
persistence  in  school,  101-02. 

Indirect  values,  394-412.  Cf.  also 
subject  titles. 

Individual  differences,  general  treat- 
ment of  character,  distribution, 
and  causes,  74-115;  necessity  for 
earlier  recognition,  285-86,  290, 
665-66,  695;  importance  in  the 


junior  high  school,  294,  685-87;  as 
a  social  factor,  347-49;  in  relation 
to  the  differentiating  function  of 
secondary  education,  378-79,  668- 
69,  671-75,  676-82;  in  relation  to 
supervised  study,  714. 

Individualistic-avocational  aim  of 
secondary  education,  general  treat- 
ment, 367,  371-74,  667-68;  related 
to  literature,  640-42;  related  to 
history,  552;  related  to  music,  630- 
31. 

Industrial  (arts)  education,  general 
treatment,  593-605;  cumculums, 
688;  as  related  to  aesthetic  arts, 
626,  634-36;  in  Germany,  222-23. 
Cf.  Vocational  education. 

Industrial  occupations,  analysis  of, 
597-601. 

Inspection,  cf.  Accrediting  system. 

Instincts,  48. 

Instruction,  organization  of,  712-15. 
Cf .  Supervised  study,  Cumculums, 
Program  of  studies,  etc. 

Integrating  function  of  secondary 
education,  296-97,  377-78,  439, 
551,  668,  676.  Cf.  Integration, 
Social  Heredity,  etc. 

Integration,  social,  95-100,  296-97, 
347-49,  377-78,  439,  551,  668,  676. 

Intermediate  school,  cf.  Junior  high 
school. 

Interests  of  pupils,  103-08,  113-15, 
701-02.  Cf .  Individual  differences, 
Educational  guidance,  Education- 
al diagnosis,  Diagnostic  function, 
Diagnostic  education,  Curricu- 
lums,  Vocational  education,  etc. 

Italian,  413.   Cf.  Foreign  languages. 

Italy,  205,  273. 

James,  W.,  on  memory,  44;  on  in- 
stincts, 48. 

Japan,  205,  273. 

Joliet  (Illinois)  Junior  College,  310. 

Jones,  A.  L.,  on  examinations  as  a 
test  of  fitness  for  college  admission, 
328-29. 

Judd,  C.  H.,  on  the  problem  of  trans 
fer,  395-97,  400,  408,  419. 

Junior  college,  310-12. 


734 


INDEX 


Junior  high  school,  general  treatment, 
284-98;  curriculum  organization, 
684-87;  place  in  the  school  system, 
693-98;  comprehensive  versus 
special-type  organization,  684-85, 
698-99;  organization  of  instruc- 
tion and  supervised  study,  712-15; 
diagnosis  and  guidance,  718-19.  Cf . 
Elementary  education  in  relation 
to  secondary  education. 

Kalamazoo  High  School  case,  200. 

Kandel,  I.,  on  the  Einheitschide  in 
Germany,  224. 

Kansas,  teacher-training  courses  in 
high  schools,  308. 

Karpinski,  L.  C.,  on  the  values  of 
mathematical  study,  490,  493. 

Keatings,  M.  W.,  on  methods  of  his- 
tory instruction,  556-58. 

Keer,  J.,  on  the  academy,  in  Scot- 
land, 171. 

Kerschensteiner,  G.,  on  German  and 
American  education,  227,  229. 

King,  I.,  on  gradual  development, 
60-62;  on  the  interests  and  habits 
of  high-school  pupils,  102-04. 

Kingsley,  C.  D.,  on  college  entrance 
requirements,  317-23;  on  the 
Study  of  Nations,  569. 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  on  mental  traits, 
47. 

Laboratory  work,  507-08. 

Land  grants  to  academies,  175-78. 

Language  study,  cf.  English,  For- 
eign languages,  Latin,  Greek,  Ger- 
man, French,  Spanish. 

Latin,  general  treatment  of  foreign 
language  study,  447-77.  Cf.  also 
164-65, 166, 167, 172,  178-80, 188, 
189,  209-10,  212,  214-15,  217, 
236-38,  241,  249,  253,  304,  306, 
314,  320,  413-15,  416,  417. 

Latin  grammar  school,  general  treat- 
ment, 160-70.  Cf.  also,  269-70, 
304-05,  420-21,  481,  506,  534,  662. 

Latin-scientific  course,  508,  536,  664, 
665,  666. 

Leicester  Academy,  181. 

Leisure,  preparation  for  the  worthy 


use  of,  371-74.  Cf.  Individuals 
tic-avocational  aim. 

Liberal  and  vocational  education, 
705-06. 

Liceo,  273. 

Lincoln,  E.  A.,  on  the  correlation  of 
standing  in  high  school,  college- 
entrance  examinations,  and  in 
early  college,  331-32. 

Linguistic  education,  cf.  English, 
Language  study,  Foreign  lan- 
guages. 

Literature,  general  treatment,  420- 
25,  438-45,  627-28.  Cf.  English, 
^Esthetic  arts.  Cf.  also,  51,  413, 
414,  415,  424-25,  438-42. 

Lodge,  H.  C.,  on  the  values  of  classi- 
cal studies,  459-60. 

Logic,  178,  179,  180,  186,  188,  189, 
413. 

Los  Angeles  Junior  High  School,  292. 

Lungs,  growth  of,  15-16. 

Lyc6e,  231  ff. 

Lyzeum,  216-18. 

MacDonald,  A.,  on  growth  and 
school  progress,  13. 

Machinist  trades,  599-601. 

Madchenschule,  208,  216-19.  Cf. 
Germany,  education  in. 

Maine,  state  aid  in,  199. 

Major  studies,  for  college  admission, 
321-23;  for  concentration,  680-81. 

Mann,  Horace,  on  history  in  early 
schools,  535. 

Manual  arts  in  the  junior  high  school, 
686,  687. 

Manual  training,  413,  414,  573,  593- 
94.  Cf.  Practical  arts  education, 
Vocational  education,  Industrial 
education. 

Maryland,  academies  in,  174. 

Massachusetts,  Latin  grammar 
schools,  163-69;  academies,  172- 
74,  176-77;  public  high  schools, 
185-93;  legal  provisions  for  sec- 
ondary education,  165-66,  188- 
92. 

Massachusetts  Commission  on  In- 
dustrial and  Technical  Education. 
618. 


INDEX 


735 


Mathematics,  general  treatment, 
481-503.  Cf.  also,  75-76,  79,  80, 
81-82,  111,  165,  172,  178-80,  186, 
187,  188,  189,  209-12,  214,  215, 
217,  218,  235,  236,  238,  249,  253, 
283,  306,  319,  320,  321,  322,  323, 
413,  414,  415,  416,  664,  665,  686, 
687.  Cf.  Arithmetic,  Algebra, 
Geometry,  Trigonometry,  Calcu- 
lus. 

Maturity,  cf.  Adolescence,  Puberty. 

Mayo,  M.  J.,  on  the  mental  capac- 
ity of  the  negro  pupil,  90-95. 

Mechanical  drawing,  cf .  Design  and 
related  arts,  Practical  arts  educa- 
tion, Vocational  education. 

Mechanics,  413. 

Median,  85. 

Median  deviation,  85. 

Medical  examination,  641.  Cf.  Phys- 
ical education. 

Memories,  development  with  age, 
38-39;  individual  differences,  76. 

Men  teachers,  280. 

Meningitis,  649. 

Mensuration,  179,  180,  186,  413. 

Mental  development,  general  treat- 
ment, 34-71,  262-64. 

Mental  discipline,  cf.  Transfer  of 
improved  efficiency. 

Mental  traits,  general  treatment,  34- 
71. 

Merchandising,  cf.  Commercial  edu- 
cation. 

Merchant  Taylors',  248. 

Metal-working  trades,  599-601. 

Meteorology,  180,  413.  Cf.  Natural 
sciences. 

Methods  of  teaching,  as  affected  by 
theories  of  development,  52-53, 
70-71;  supervised  study,  713-15; 
deferred  and  immediate  values, 
713;  in  the  junior  high  school,  278- 
81,  294-95.  Cf.  subject  titles. 

Military  training,  640,  641,  652,  657- 
58. 

Milliken,  R.  A.,  on  the  propaedeutic 
values  of  mathematics,  490. 

Mills,  J.  E.,  on  the  values  of  chem- 
istry, 515. 

Mineralogy,  180,  413. 


Minneapolis  Survey,  604. 

Minnesota,  state  aid  in,  200. 

Minor  studies,  322-23. 

Mittelschule,  221-22. 

Mobility  of  labor  and  population,  ef- 
fect on  education,  359-60. 

Mode,  85. 

Modern  languages,  general  treat- 
ment of  foreign  language  instruc- 
tion, 447-77.  Cf.  also  German, 
French,  Spanish,  Italian. 

Modern  Language  Association,  on 
the  scope  of  modern  language  in- 
struction, 456. 

Modern  language  course,  508,  536, 
664-66. 

Monroe,  P.,  on  the  bearing  of  ado- 
lescence on  secondary  education, 
65,  69-70;  on  German  schools, 
220,  222;  on  French  schools,  237. 

Moral-social  education,  as  affected 
by  changes  in  the  home,  in  com- 
munity life,  and  in  the  vocation. 
351-53,  363-64;  as  effected  bj 
changes  in  the  Church,  360-61. 

Moravian  academies,  172. 

Mortality  statistics,  17-18,  642-14, 
649. 

Mother  tongue,  cf.  English. 

Motor  skill,  51. 

Music,  general  treatment,  628-33. 
Cf.  .Esthetic  arts.  Cf.  also  180, 
209,  210,  217,  236,  241,  249,  253, 
283,  320,  413,  414,  415,  686,  687, 


Nationality,  individual  differences 
due  to,  95-100;  relation  to  elimina- 
tion, 136. 

Natural  history,  180,  413. 

Natural  Philosophy,  cf.  Physics. 

Natural  sciences,  general  treatment, 
506-29.  Cf.  Physics,  Chemistry, 
Biology,  General  science,  Physi- 
ology, Astronomy,  Geology,  Mete- 
orology, Physical  geography,  Bot- 
any, Zoo-logy.  Cf.  also  321-23,  413, 
414,  515,  645-51,  665,  686,  687. 

Natural  theology,  187,  188,  413. 

Nazareth  Hall,  172. 

Navigation,  179,  180,  186,  413. 


736 


INDEX 


Negroes,  mental  capacity  of,  90-95. 

Nervous  diseases,  644. 

Nervous  system,  growth  of,  26. 

Netherlands,  205. 

New  England,  Latin  grammar  school 
in,  169;  academies  in,  175;  workers 
in  various  occupations,  580. 

New  England  College  Entrance  Cer- 
tificating Board,  334^35,  338. 

New  Hampshire,  Latin  grammar 
schools  in,  168,  169. 

New  York  State,  academies  in,  174, 
177,  180,  193;  high-school  move- 
ment, 193. 

New  York  State  Board  of  Regents, 
325. 

Normal  age,  123-;24. 

Normal  distribution,  77-84. 

Normal  schools,  308-10. 

Norsworthy,  N.,  on  memory  span, 
38. 

North  Carolina,  academies  in,  174. 

North  Central  Association  of  Col- 
leges and  Secondary  schools,  335. 

North  Central  States,  teacher  train- 
ing in  high  schools,  308. 

Norway,  205. 

Oberlehrer,  223-24. 

Oberlyzeum,  216-19. 

Oberrealschule,  310  ff.  Cf.  Germany, 
education  in. 

Occupational  choices  of  high-school 
pupils,  103-06. 

Occupations,  analysis  of,  general 
divisions,  578-80;  clerical,  587- 
88;  commercial,  588-90;  indus- 
trial, 597-602,  604;  agricultural, 
608-10;  of  women,  613-14.  Cf. 
Practical  arts  education,  Voca- 
tional education,  Industrial  Edu- 
cation, Clerical  education,  Com- 
mercial education,  Agricultural 
education,  Domestic  education. 

Occupation  of  pupils'  fathers,  101- 
03,  136. 

Occupations  of  high-school  gradu- 
ates, 152-53. 

Ohio,  high-school  movement  in,  163- 
64. 

Organic  diseases,  644. 


Organization,  of  curriculums,  662- 

690;  of  the  school  system,  693-98; 

of  the  secondary  school,  698-704; 

of  vocational  secondary  education. 

704-12;    of    instruction,    712-15; 

of     extra-curriculum     education, 

715-17;  of  educational  guidance, 

717-19;  social  organization  of  the 

school,  719-21. 
Organs  and  parts  of  the  body,  growth 

of,  14-17. 
Ossification,  17. 
Over-age    pupils,    cf.    Retardation, 

Promotion. 

Painting,  cf.  ^Esthetic  arts,  Design 
and  related  arts. 

Part-time  education,  596,  602,  708- 
11.  Cf.  Vocational  education. 

Paterson,  N.J.,  age-grade  distribu- 
tion, 5;  distribution  of  pupils  ac- 
cording to  stages  of  puberty,  27-32. 

Pearse,  A.  S.,  on  the  values  of  bio- 
logical study,  516-17. 

Pearson,  K.,  on  scientific  method, 
524-25. 

Pedagogical  age,  6-7,  276-77. 

Pennsylvania,  academies  in,  309. 

Pennsylvania  State  Normal  Schools, 
309. 

Perkins,  A.  S.,  report  of  experiment 
on  the  results  of  Latin  study,  474- 
75. 

Pettee  Committee,  on  the  division  of 
the  system  of  education,  292. 

Phillips  Academies  at  Andover  and 
Exeter,  172, 178-79. 

Physical  development,  general  treat- 
ment, 3-32.  Cf.  also  262-64,  669- 
71.  Cf.  Adolescence,  Puberty, 
Physical  education. 

Physical  education,  general  treat- 
ment, 640-58. 

Physical  geography,  413,  414,  415. 
Cf.  Natural  sciences. 

Physical  training,  general  treatment, 
651-58.  Cf.  Physical  education. 

Physical  traits,  3-32. 

Physics,  general  treatment  of  natural 
science  instruction,  506-29.  Cf. 
also,  178,  179,  180,  186,  188,  189, 


INDEX 


272,  320,  413,  414,  415.  Cf.  Natu- 
ral sciences. 

Physiological  age,  7,  19-30,  284-85. 
Cf.  Adolescence,  Puberty,  Physi- 
cal development. 

Physiology,  general  treatment  of 
physical  education,  645-51;  gen- 
eral treatment  of  natural  science 
instruction,  506-29.  Cf.  also  180, 
320,  413,  414,  415,  686,  687. 

Plato,  on  Greek  education,  621-22. 

Play,  654-58. 

Plymouth  Colony,  Latin  grammar 
school,  168. 

Political  economy,  cf.  Economics, 
Social  sciences. 

Postpubescence,  cf.  Puberty,  Ado- 
lescence. 

Porter,  W.  T.,  on  growth  and  school 
progress,  12-14. 

Portugal,  205. 

Practical  arts  education,  general 
treatment,  572-615.  Cf.  Voca- 
tional education,  Industrial  edu- 
cation, Commercial  education, 
Agricultural  education,  Domestic 
education. 

Preferential  studies,  681-82. 

Preparation  for  college,  cf.  College. 

Preparatory  curriculums,  689. 

Preparatory  schools,  cf.  Academy, 
Private  schools,  Propaedeutic  func- 
tion, College. 

Prepubescence,  cf.  Puberty,  Adoles- 
cence. 

Preventive  medicine,  643. 

Prevocational  education,  288-89, 
706-07.  Cf .  Vocational  education. 

Primary  education,  cf.  Elementary 
education,  £cole  primaire. 

Printing  trades,  600-01. 

Private  schools,  119-20,  196-97.  Cf. 
Academy. 

Probejahr,  223. 

Problems  of  American  Democracy, 
as  a  study,  546,  565-67. 

Problem-solving  methods,  402-03. 

Professeur,  243-44. 

Professions  entered  by  college  and 
university  graduates,  315-16. 

Program  of  studies  (not  curriculums), 


criteria  of  subject  values,  general 
treatment,  386-412;  analysis  of 
program,  412-18.  Cf.  Subject 
titles,  Curriculums. 

Progymnasium,  209  ff .  Cf .  Germany, 
education  in. 

Promotion,  294,  696-97. 

Propaedeutic  function  of  secondary 
education,  379-80,  669.  Cf.  Col- 
lege. 

Prussia,  education  in,  206-31. 

Pryor,  on  anatomical  age,  17. 

Psychological  age,  7,  34-71,  262-64, 
284-85,  696-97. 

Pubescence,  cf.  Puberty,  Adoles- 
cence. 

Puberty,  general  treatment,  19-32, 
34-71,  262-64. 

Public  schools  of  England,  247  S. 

Pupils,  physical  traits,  3-32;  mental 
traits,  34-71;  individual  differ- 
ences, 74-115;  distribution  and 
classification,  118-55,  671-74. 

Pyle,  W.  H.,  on  association  and  sub- 
stitution tests,  37. 

Questionnaire  methods,  63-64. 

Racial  heredity,  89-95.  Cf.  Biologi- 
cal heredity,  Social  heredity,  In- 
dividual differences. 

Rapeer,  L.  W.,  on  physical  educa- 
tion, 642,  648,  649,  659. 

Reaction  time,  36. 

Realgymnasium,  210  ff .  Cf .  Germany, 
education  in. 

Realprogymnasium,  210  ff.  Cf.  Ger- 
many, education  in. 

Realschule,  210  ff .  Cf .  Germany,  edu- 
cation in. 

Reasoning,  theories  involving  the  de- 
velopment of  capacity  for,  39-71; 
individual  differences  in  arith- 
metical reasoning  among  high- 
school  pupils,  76.  Cf .  also  Transfer 
of  improved  efficiency. 

Recitation,  reforms  in  supervised 
study,  713-14. 

Reformschule,  Reformgymnasium, 
213-15.  Cf.  Germany,  education 


738 


INDEX 


Religion,  effects  of  changes  in  the 
Church,  360-61 ;  religion  as  a  study 
in  German  higher  schools,  209, 
210,  211,  212,  214,  215,  217,  218. 
Cf.  Denominational  schools,  Sec- 
tarian schools. 

Reorganization  of  elementary  and 
secondary  education,  274-98,  693- 
721.  Cf.  Junior  high  school,  Social 
principles.  For  reorganization  of 
means  of  instruction,  cf.  subject 
titles. 

Repeaters,  cf.  Retardation. 

Required  studies,  675-76,  681-82. 
Cf.  Constants,  Individual  differ- 
ences, Election  and  elective  stud- 
ies, Preferential  studies,  Vari- 
ables, Curriculums,  and  subject 
titles. 

Retardation,  general  treatment,  123- 
27.  Cf.  also,  281-82,  287-88,  294, 
696-97.  Cf.  Acceleration,  Elimi- 
nation, Promotion,  Physical  de- 
velopment, Mental  development. 

Rhetoric,  178,  179,  180,  186,  188, 
189,  413,  414,  415,  416.  Cf.  Eng- 
lish. 

Rhode  Island,  Latin  grammar 
schools  in,  168. 

Rigid  curriculums,  677-80. 

Robinson,  J.  H.,  on  historical  in- 
struction, 568. 

Robison,  C.  H.,  on  the  transfer  val- 
ues of  agricultural  study,  608. 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  schools 
maintained  by,  184. 

Rosenkrantz,  J.  K.  F.,  on  stages  of 
mental  development,  41-42. 

Rotch,  on  anatomical  age,  17. 

Ruediger,  W.  C.,  on  transfer,  404. 

Rugby,  248. 

Rugg,  H.  O.,  transfer  values  of  math- 
ematical study,  497-98. 

Rural  communities,  secondary  educa- 
tion in,  582,  607,  703;  statistics  of 
secondary  schools  and  attendance, 
120-21;  distribution  of  population 
in  rural  and  urban  communities, 
357.  Cf.  Agricultural  education, 
Urbanization,  Smith-Hughes  Law. 

Russia,  205. 


St.  Paul's  (London),  248. 

Salaries  of  teachers,  in  Germany, 
223;  in  France,  244. 

Salesmanship,  cf.  Commercial  edu- 
cation. 

Salmon,  L.,  on  the  values  of  histori- 
cal study,  554. 

Saltatory  development,  54  ff.  Cf. 
Adolescence,  Puberty,  Physical  de- 
velopment, Mental  development, 
Gradual  development. 

Santa  Barbara  (California)  Junior 
College,  311. 

Schools,  comprehensive  versus  spe- 
cial-type, 698-704. 

Schultze,  A.,  on  the  values  of  mathe- 
matical study,  487-88,  490,  494. 

Science,  cf.  Natural  sciences,  Social 
sciences. 

Scientific  method,  524-25. 

Scotland,  academies  in,  170-71;  or- 
ganization of  education,  273. 

Secondary  education,  historical  de- 
velopment in  America,  161-200; 
secondary  education  in  foreign 
countries,  203-58;  in  relation  to 
elementary  education,  261-98;  in 
relation  to  higher  education,  303- 
36;  social  principles  determining 
secondary  education,  340-64;  aims 
and  functions,  367-83;  program 
of  studies,  387-658;  curriculum 
organization,  662-90;  phases  of 
external  organization,  693-711; 
phases  of  internal  organization, 
712-21. 

Secondary-school  pupils,  physical 
traits,  3-32;  mental  traits,  34-71; 
individual  differences,  74-115; 
numbers,  classification,  and  dis- 
tribution, 118-55,  671-74. 

Sectarian  schools,  184,  361. 

Seeley,  J.  R.,  on  history  instruction, 
557. 

Segregation,  cf.  Coeducation. 

Selection,  89. 

Selective  function  of  secondary  edu- 
cation, 380-82,  669. 

Self-government,  719-21. 

Senior  high  school,  curriculum  or- 
ganization, 687-90;  general  econ' 


INDEX 


739 


omy,  694-98.  Cf.  Junior  high 
school,  Curriculums,  Comprehen- 
sive secondary  school. 

Sense  discrimination,  36. 

Serial  or  periodic  development,  the- 
ory of,  39  ff. 

Sewing,  cf.  Domestic  education. 

Sex,  individual  differences  due  to, 
108-15.  Cf.  Adolescence,  Coedu- 
cation, Physical  traits,  Mental 
traits,  Individual  differences,  Girls, 
Puberty. 

Sex  hygiene  and  sex  pedagogy,  650- 
51.  Cf.  Adolescence,  Puberty, 
Coeducation. 

Sex  instincts,  development  of,  59,  61. 
Cf.  Adolescence,  Puberty,  Indi- 
vidual differences,  Coeducation. 

Shallies,  G.  W.,  on  the  distribution 
of  high-school  graduates,  152. 

Shopwork,  cf.  Industrial  education, 
Vocational  education,  Practical 
arts  education. 

Short-unit  courses,  686,  687.  Cf. 
Diagnostic  education,  Diagnostic 
function. 

Shrewsbury,  248. 

Six-grade  secondary  school,  291-98, 
684-90,  693-98.  Cf.  Junior  high 
school,  Senior  high  school,  Curric- 
ulums, Organization. 

Size  of  family  and  elimination,  135-36. 

Size  of  secondary  school,  120-21, 
582,  677,  683,  699-700. 

Skewed  distribution,  83-84. 

Skull,  growth  of,  16. 

Sleight,  W.  G.,  on  transfer  values, 
400,  406-07. 

Small,  W.  H.,  on  the  Latin  grammar 
school,  169. 

Smedley,  F.  W.,  on  physical  traits, 
13,  15-16. 

Smith,  A.  T.,  on  foreign  school  sys- 
tems, 274. 

Smith,  D.  E.,  on  the  values  of  mathe- 
matical study,  488,  494. 

Smith,  F.  O.,  on  the  correlation  of 
pupils'  standing  in  high  school  and 
college,  331-32. 

Smith,  H.  B.,  on  industrial  educa- 
tion, 581-82. 


Smith-Hughes  Law  for  Vocational 
Education,  574-75,  594,  606. 

Snedden,  D.,  on  vocational  secon- 
dary education,  705-06. 

Social-civic  aim  of  secondary  edu- 
cation, general  treatment,  367-69, 
667-68;  in  relation  to  literature, 
438-39,  441-42;  in  relation  to  for- 
eign language  study,  455-57;  in 
relation  to  social  science  study, 
544-69;  as  related  to  physical  train- 
ing and  athletics,  651-58;  as  re- 
lated to  military  training,  658;  as 
related  to  curriculum  organization, 
667-68,  675-76;  as  related  to  ex- 
tra-curriculum education,  715-17; 
as  related  to  the  social  organiza- 
tion of  the  school,  719-21. 

Social  evolution  and  educational 
adjustment,  344-64. 

Social  factors  involved  in  the  reor- 
ganization of  grades  seven  to  nine, 
264-65. 

Social  heredity,  95-100. 

Social  ideals  and  social  organization 
determining  secondary  education, 
341-44. 

Social  institutions,  changes  in,  affect- 
ing secondary  education,  349-64, 
577-78,  584-85,  594-96,  606-08, 
612-13. 

Social  integration  and  social  differ- 
entiation, 95-100,  340-41,  S47--49. 
Cf.  Social  principles,  Integration, 
Integrating  function,  Social  hered- 
ity. 

Social  organization  of  secondary 
education,  cf.  Social  ideals,  Social 
evolution  and  educational  adjust- 
ment, Social  principles,  Organiza- 
tion of  social  education,  Curricu- 
lums,  Extra-curriculum  educa- 
tion, etc. 

Social  principles  determining  sec- 
ondary education,  340-64. 

Social  sciences,  general  treatment. 
534-69.  Cf.  History,  Civics.  Com- 
munity civics,  Economics,  Litera- 
ture, Problems  of  American  De- 
mocracy. 

Social  solidarity,  cf.  Social  integration. 


740 


INDEX 


Sociology,  565-67. 

Spain,  205. 

Spanish,  general  treatment  of  for- 
eign language  instruction,  447-77. 
Cf.  also,  320,  413,414,  590-92.  Cf. 
also  Foreign  languages. 

Specialization,  687-90,  698-704,  717- 
19. 

Special-type  schools,  698-704. 

Spelling,  individual  differences  in,  76. 

Spencer,  H.,  on  education  for  leisure, 
371-72;  on  the  values  of  natural 
science  study,  513-16. 

Stages  of  mental  development,  39  ff. 

Standard  deviation,  85. 

Starch,  D.,  experiments  on  the  re- 
sults of  foreign  language  study, 
476. 

Starch,  D.,  and  Elliott,  E.  C.,  on  va- 
riability in  grading,  327. 

State  aid,  to  academies,  176-78;  to 
secondary  education,  199-200. 

State  systems  of  secondary  educa- 
tion, 197-200. 

State  universities  and  the  secondary 
school,  307. 

Stenography,  cf.  Clerical  education, 
Commercial  education.  Cf.  also, 
180,  413. 

Strayer,  G.  D.,  on  retardation,  124; 
on  elimination,  128,  129,  130. 

Studies,  cf.  Program  of  studies,  sub- 
ject titles. 

Studienanstalten,  216  ff.  Cf.  Ger- 
many, education  in. 

Study  of  Nations,  569. 

Subject-matter,  51-52,  69-70.  Cf. 
also  Instruction,  Program  of  stud- 
ies. 

Subject  values,  criteria  of,  387-418. 

Subjects,  cf .  Program  of  studies,  sub- 
ject titles. 

Suicide,  649. 

Supervised  study,  686-87,  713-15. 

Surveying,  180,  186,  413. 

Sweden,  205,  273. 

Swimming,  641. 

Switzerland,  205. 

Teachers,  numbers,  per  school,  per 
pupil,  120-21;  in  German  higher 


schools,  223-24;  in  French  higher 
schools,  243-44;  American  and  for- 
eign compared,  230-31;  demand 
and  supply,  119;  in  elementary 
and  secondary  schools,  280. 

Teacher-training  courses  in  the  high 
school,  308-10. 

Technical  high  schools,  573,  593. 

Terman,  L.  M.,  on  physical  traits,  11, 
14,  16-17,  19;  on  sex  variability, 
113. 

Textile  trades,  599-601. 

Thompson,  F.  V.,  on  commercial  oc- 
cupations, 583. 

Thompson,  H.  B.,  on  sex  differences, 
110. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  on  the  develop- 
ment of  mental  traits,  45-46,  48- 
49,  58-60;  on  racial  traits,  92;  on 
sex  differences,  110-11,  113,  114- 
15;  on  elimination,  128,  129,  130; 
on  the  standing  of  pupils  on  ad- 
mission examinations  and  in  col- 
lege, 328;  on  the  transfer  of  im- 
proved efficiency,  395,  396,  398, 
399,  403,  406,  408-09. 

Thought,  relation  of  language  to, 
423  ff.,  462  ff. 

Transfer  of  improved  efficiency,  gen- 
eral treatment,  394-412;  as  related 
to  foreign  language  study,  459-62; 
as  related  to  mathematical  study, 
494-500;  as  related  to  natural  sci- 
ence study,  516-17,  522-25;  as  re 
lated  to  social  science  study,  554- 
56;  as  related  to  practical  and 
manual  arts,  576-77;  as  related  to 
stenography,  586-87;  as  related  to 
agricultural  education,  608. 

Trigonometry,  general  treatment  of 
mathematical  instruction,  481- 
503.  Cf.  also,  179,  180,  186,  320, 
413,  414. 

Tuberculosis,  649. 

Typewriting,  cf.  Clerical  education, 
Commercial  education. 

Typhoid  fever,  649. 

Under-age  pupils,  cf.  Acceleration. 
Units  of  high-school  study,  316  ff. 
University,  cf.  College. 


INDEX 


741 


Urban  communities,  population,  357; 

secondary  schools  in,  120-21. 
Urbanization,  effects  on  secondary 

education,  357-58. 

Values  of  subjects,  general  treatment 
of  subject  values  and  their  criteria, 
387^18.  Cf.  subject  titles,  Eng- 
lish, Foreign  languages,  Mathe- 
matics, Natural  sciences,  Social 
sciences,  Practical  arts  education, 
Vocational  education,  ^Esthetic 
arts,  Physical  education,  etc. 

Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  on  age  distribu- 
tion of  first-year  high-school  pupils, 
77;  on  the  home  conditions  of  high- 
school  pupils,  101-04;  on  vocation- 
al choices  of  high-school  pupils, 
104-06;  on  pupils'  attitudes  toward 
high-school  education,  107;  analy- 
sis of  factors  of  elimination,  133- 
39,  141-44. 

Variability,  cf .  Individual  differences. 

Variables  in  the  curriculums,  674- 
75,  676-80,  686,  687,  689-90. 

Vermont,  Latin  grammar  schools, 
168. 

Vernacular,  cf.  English. 

Virginia,  academies,  174;  Latin  gram- 
mar schools,  162. 

Vital  capacity,  15-16. 

Vocabulary,  425  ff. 

Vocational  choices  of  high-school 
pupils,  104-06.  Cf.  Vocational 
education,  Vocational  guidance, 
Diagnostic  education,  Diagnostic 
function. 

Vocational  education,  general  treat- 
ment, 572-615,  704-11;  as  affected 
by  changes  in  the  home  and  family 
life,  353-55;  as  affected  by  changes 
in  industrial  life,  361-64;  as  af- 
fected by  changes  in  community 


life,  356-60;  in  Germany,  222.  Cf. 
also,  121,  288-89.  Cf.  Clerical 
education,  Commercial  education, 
Agricultural  education,  Indus- 
trial education,  Domestic  educa- 
tion, Pre vocational  education,  Eco- 
nomic-vocational aim  of  second- 
ary education,  Vocational  guid- 
ance. 

Vocational  guidance,  general  treat- 
ment of  educational  guidance,  717- 
19.  Cf.  Educational  guidance, 
Diagnostic  education,  Diagnostic 
function,  Educational  Diagnosis, 
Elimination,  Individual  differ- 
ences, Distribution  and  Classifica- 
tion of  pupils,  Vocational  choices, 
Expectancy  of  stay,  etc. 

Volksschule,  208  ff.  Cf.  Germany, 
education  in. 

Vorschide,  208  ff .  Cf.  Germany,  edu- 
cation in. 

Weight,  growth  of  children  in,  8-14. 
West,  G.  M.,  on  growth  and  school 

progress,  12-13. 
Westminster,  248. 
Winchester,  248. 
Wisconsin,  state  aid  in,  200. 
Woodworking  trades,  591-601. 
Worcester  (Massachusetts),  children 

of  foreign-born  parentage,  99-100. 

Yocum,    A.    D.,    on   mathematical 

study,  487. 
Young,  J.  W.  A.,  on  mathematical 

study,  487,  488,  489, 491,  494,  496. 

Zoology,  general  treatment  of  natu- 
ral sciences,  506-29.  Cf.  also,  180, 
188,  320,  413,  414,  Cf.  Natural 
Sciences,  Biology. 

Zymotic  diseases,  644. 


NEW  ISSUES   IN  THE 

Riverside  Literature  Series 

For  the  Grades 

ALDKICH'S  Marjorie  Daw  and  Other  Stories.    No.  265. 
ANTIN'S  At  School  in  the  Promised  Land.     No.  245. 
BURROUGHS'S  The  Wit  of  a  Duck,  and  Other  Papers.    No.  259. 

IRVING'S  Tales  from  the  Alhambra.  Adapted  by  Josephine  Brower. 
No.  260. 

Kipling  Stories  and  Poems  Every  Child  should  Know.    Part  I, 
No.  257.     Part  II,  No.  258. 

MUIR'S  The  Boyhood  of  a  Naturalist.    No.  247. 

SHARP'S  Ways  of  the  Woods.    No.  266. 

WIGGIN'S  Rebecca  of  Sunnybrook  Farm.    No.  264. 

Selections  for  Reading  and  Memorizing.  Grades  I- VIII.  Seven 
volumes,  Nos.  FF-MM  inclusive. 

For  High  Schools 

BOSWELL'S  The  Life  of  Johnson.    Abridged.    No.  248. 
CLARKE'S  A  Treasury  of  War  Poetry.    No.  262. 

Liberty,  Peace,  and  Justice.    (Documents  and  Addresses  1776- 
1918.)     No.  261. 

KELLER'S  The  Story  of  My  Life.    No.  253. 
PALMER'S  Self-Cultivation  in  English.    No.  249. 
PEABODY'S  The  Piper.    No.  263. 
RICHARDS'S  High  Tide.    An  Anthology.    No.  256. 

For  Colleges 

HOWELLS'S  A  Modern  Instance.    No.  252. 

LOCKWOOD'S  English  Sonnets.    No.  244. 

RITTENHOUSE'S  The  Little  Book  of  American  Poets.    No.  255. 

RITTENHOUSE'S  The  Little  Book  of  Modern  Verse.    No.  254. 

SHEPARD'S  Shakespeare  Questions.    No.  246. 

SHERIDAN'S  The  School  for  Scandal.    No.  250. 

Sir  Gawain  and  the  Green  Knight,  and  Piers  the  Ploughman, 
No.  251. 


Houghton  Miff  tin  Company 


1940 


PROBLEMS  OF  CONDUCT 

BY 
DURANT  DRAKE 

Professor  of  Philosophy,  Vassar  College 

An  Introductory  Survey  of  Ethics 

THE  Boston  Transcript  says  :  "It  is  the  great 
merit  of  Professor  Drake's  book  that  it  moves 
always  in  a  concrete  sphere  of  life  as  we  daily 
live  it.     It  never  moralizes,  it  never  lays  down  obiter 
dicta,  it  simply  talks  over  with  us  our  personal  prob- 
lems precisely  as  a  keen,  experienced,  and  always 
sympathetic  friend  might  do.    Through  and  through 
scientific   and   scholarly,   it   is   never  academic   in 
method  and  matter." 


BY 
DURANT  DRAKE 

THIS  book,  like  Professor  Drake's  Problems 
of  Conduct,  represents  a  course  of  lectures 
given  for  several  years  to  undergraduates  of 
Wesleyan  University.     Their  aim  is  to  give  a  rapid 
survey  of  the  field,  such  that  the  man  who  is  confused 
by  the  chaos  of  opinions  on  these  matters,  and  him- 
self   but   little    able   to  judge   between  conflicting 
statements,  may  here  get  his  bearings  and  see  his 
way  to  stable  belief  and  energetic  action. 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

BOSTON    NEW  YORK    CHICAGO 

1726 


HOW  TO  STUDY 
AND 

TEACHING  HOW  TO  STUDY 

By 
F.  M.  McMURRY 

Professor  ef  Elementary  Education,  Teachers  College 

Columbia  University 

Every  teacher,  student,  and  parent  should  read  this 
book,  —  perhaps  the  most  fundamentally  important 
educational  book  that  has  recently  appeared. 

Some  of  the  questions  which  are  fully  and  help- 
fully answered  in  the  book: 

Why  young  people  have  not  been  learning  to  study 
effectively. 

The  changes  necessary  to  be  made  in  the  schools  in 
order  that  they  may  learn  to  study  properly. 

How  the  large  amount  of  waste  in  home  study  caa 
be  prevented. 

How  adults  should  study. 

To  what  extent  children  have  the  native  capacity  and 
experience  necessary  for  fruitful  study. 

What  can  be  done  towards  teaching  even  the  young- 
est children  to  form  the  right  habits  of  study. 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

BOSTON          NEW  YORK          CHICAGO 


VOCATIONAL  PREPARATION 

THE  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  OF  YOUTH 

By  Meyer  Bloomfield 
A  monograph  by  the  former  Director  of  the  Vocation  Bureau  of  Boston. 

YOUTH,  SCHOOL,  AND  VOCATION   By  Meyer  Bloomfielr* 

A  first-hand  presentation  of  the  meaning  and  work  of  the  vocational  guidanc 
movement. 

CHOOSING  A  VOCATION  By  Frank  Parsons 

This  book  is  an  indispensable  manual  for  every  vocational  counselor. 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

By  David  Snedden 

The  author  is  the  Professor  of  Education,  Teachers  College,  and  one  of  the 
leaders  in  the  movement  for  the  closer  adaptation  of  public  schools  to  the  actual 
ueeds  of  youth. 

PREVOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

By  Frank  M.  Leavitt  and  Edith  Brown 

The  first  authoritative  book  to  tell  how  the  public  schools  may  prepare  pupils  to 
select  wisely  the  work  to  which  they  are  best  adapted. 

THE   PEOPLE'S   SCHOOL  By  Ruth  Mary  Week. 

A  statement  regarding  the  vocational  training  movement  in  this  country  and 
abroad. 

VOCATIONS  FOR  GIRLS 

By  Mary  A.  Lasell»  and  Katherine  'Wiley 

Information  as  to  conditions  of  work  and  the  opportunities  in  the  more  common 
vocations  open  to  girls  with  only  a  high-school  education. 

THE    HOME    SCHOOL  By  Ada  Wilson  Trowbridg* 

An  account  of  a  unique  and  successful  experiment  in  teaching  practical  house- 
hold economics. 

VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

By  David  Snedden,  Ruth  Mary  Weeks,  and  Ellwood  P.  Cubberley 

A  combination  of  three  volumes  from  the  Riverside  Educational^  Monographs 
treating  different  phases  of  vocational  education, —  theory,  administration,  and 
practice. 

PRINCIPLES    AND    METHODS   OF    INDUSTRIAL 

EDUCATION  By  William  H.  Dooley 

This  is  a  book  for  use  in  teacher  training  classes.  There  is  an  Introduction  by 
Charles  A.  Prosser,  and  an  equipment  of  thought  stimulating  questions,  together 
with  reading  references  and  courses  of  study. 

INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  :  Its  Problems,  Methods, 

and   Dangers  By  Albert  H.  Leake 

A  study  and  criticism  of  the  opportunities  provided  for  the  education  of  the 
industrial  worker. 

ESTABLISHING  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS 

By  Harry  Bradley  Smith 
A  practical  discussion  of  the  steps  to  be  taken  in  establishing  industrial  schools. 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN   COMPANY 

1908 


TEXTS  FOR  EVENING  SCHOOLS 

AMERICANIZATION  AND  CITIZENSHIP 

By  HANSON  HART  WEBSTER. 

ENGLISH  FOR  FOREIGNERS.    Book  I 

By  SARA  R.  O'BRIEN.    With  Preface  by  T.  M.  BALLIET. 

ENGLISH  FOR  FOREIGNERS.  Book  H 
By  SARA  R.  O'BRIEN. 

FIRST  STEPS  IN  AMERICANIZATION 

By  J.  J.  MAHONEY  and  C.  M.  HERLIHY.     (For  teachers'  use.) 

CIVICS  FOR  NEW  AMERICANS 

By  MABEL  HILL  and  PHILIP  DAVIS.    Illustrated. 

VOCATIONAL  ARITHMETIC 

By  H.  D.  VINCENT,  Principal  of  School  Three,  and  Supervising 
Principal  in  the  Evening  Schools,  Troy,  N.Y. 

BUSINESS 

PRACTICAL  BUSINESS  ENGLISH 

By  OSCAR  C.  GALLAGHER,  Head  Master,  West  Roxbury  High 
School,  and  LEONARD  B.  MOULTON,  Department  of  English,  High 
School  of  Commerce,  Boston. 

THE  BUSINESS  LETTER 
By  ION  E.  DWYER. 

WRITING  AN  ADVERTISEMENT 

By  S.  ROLAND  HALL.  With  an  Introduction  by  OSCAR  C. 
GALLAGHER. 

EVERY-DAY  BUSINESS  FOR  WOMEN 
By  MARY  A.  WILBUR. 

VOCATIONS  FOR  GIRLS 

By  MARY  A.  LASELLE  and  KATHERINE  E.  WILEY. 

MONEY.  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT 

By  W.  R.  HAYWARD,  Principal  of  the  Curtis  Evening  High 
School,  and  Chairman  of  the  Commercial  Department  of  the 
Washington  Irving  High  School,  New  York  City. 

SPANISH 

SPANISH  TAUGHT  IN  SPANISH 

By  CHARLES  F.  McHALE,  Instructor  in  Spanish  in  the  National 
City  Bank,  New  York. 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

1933 


AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT 

GOVERNMENT  AND  POLITICS  IN   THE   UNITED 
STATES.     Revised  Edition. 

By  WILLIAM  B.  GUITTEAU,  Ph.D.,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Toledo, 
Ohio. 

This  book  fully  covers  the  problems  of  American  Democracy. 
It  gives  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  various  forms  of  government, 
local,  state,  and  national,  emphasizing  the  practical  activities  in 
which  students  are  most  interested,  and  the  problems  with  which  as 
citizens  they  will  be  most  concerned. 

GOVERNMENT  AND   POLITICS  IN    THE   UNITED 
STATES.    Briefer  Edition. 

By  WILLIAM  BACKUS  GUITTEAU. 

This  book  meets  the  requirements  of  high  schools  limiting  the 
work  in  civics  to  less  than  a  year. 

PREPARING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP. 

By  WILLIAM  BACKUS  GUITTEAU. 

This  is  an  admirable  textbook  for  the  upper  grammar  grades,  or 
for  the  first  year  of  the  high  school.  All  necessary  facts  regarding 
local,  state,  and  national  government  are  given,  with  the  main  em- 
phasis upon  the  practical  aspects  of  government. 

CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  IN   THE  UNITED  STATES. 

By  JOHN  FISKE,  LL.D.    New  Edition,  with  additions  by  D.  S.  Sanford, 
Head  Master  of  the  Sanford  School,  Redding  Ridge,  Conn. 

AMERICAN  IDEALS. 

Edited  by  NORMAN  FOERSTER  and  W.  W.  PIERSON,  Jr.,  University  of 
North  Carolina. 

This  collection  of  representative  essays  and  addresses  of  our  most 
eminent  statesmen  and  men  of  letters  reveals  the  broad  foundations 
from  which  our  national  ideals  have  sprung. 

AMERICANIZATION  AND  CITIZENSHIP. 

By  HANSON  HART  WEBSTER. 

Important  and  distinctive  features  of  this  book  are:  —  (i)  the 
Catechism  upon  the  United  States  Constitution ;  (2)  the  statement  of 
the  principles  underlying  our  government ;  (3)  the  explanation  of  the 
duties  and  privileges  of  citizens.  It  is  recommended  as  a  valuable 
handbook  for  all  Americans,  both  native  and  foreign-born. 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

1710 


RIVERSIDE 
TEXTBOOKS    IN    EDUCATION 

General  Educational  Theory 

EXPERIMENTAL  EDUCATION. 
By  F.  N.  FREEMAN,  University  of  Chicago. 

HOW  CHILDREN  LEARN. 
By  F.  N.  FREEMAN. 

THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  COMMON  BRANCHES. 
By  F.  N.  FREEMAN. 

DISCIPLINE  AS  A  SCHOOL  PROBLEM. 
By  A.  C.  PERKY,  JR. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY. 
By  W.  R.  SMITH,  Kansas  State  Normal  School. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  CHILD  PSYCHOLOGY. 

By  C.  W.  WADDLE,  Ph.D.,  Los  Angeles  State  Normal  School. 

History  of  Education 

A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATIONAL  PRACTICE  AND  PROGRESS. 

By  E.  P.  CUEBERLBY,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

A  BOOK  OF  READINGS  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 
By  E.  P.  CUBBBRLBY. 

PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
By  E.  P.  CuBBEnLBY. 

THE   EVOLUTION  OF  THE  EDUCATIONAL  IDEAL. 
By  MABEL  I.  EMERSON, 

Administration  and  Supervision  of  Schools 

HEALTHFUL    SCHOOLS:    HOW   TO    BUILD,   EQUIP,  AND   MAIN- 
TAIN  THEM. 

By  MAY  AYRES,  J.  F.  WILLIAMS,  M.D.,  University  of  Cincinnati,  and  T.  D. 
WOOD,  A.M.,  M.D.,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

PUBLIC  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION. 

By  E.  P.  CUBBERLKY. 

RURAL  LIFE  AND  EDUCATION. 
By  E.  P.  CUBBEKLBY. 

HEALTH  WORK   IN  THE  SCHOOLS. 
By  E.  B.  HOAG,  M.D.,  and  L.  M.  TERMAN,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING. 
By  W.  S.  MONROB,  University  of  Illinois. 

1946* 


EDUCATIONAL  TESTS  AND  MEASUREMENTS. 
By  W.  S.  MONROE,  J.  C.  DsVoss,  Kansas  State  Normal  School;  and  F.  j'. 
KELLY,  University  of  Kansas. 

THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION. 
By  H.  W.  NUTT,  University  of  Kansas. 

STATISTICAL  METHODS  APPLIED  TO  EDUCATION. 
By  H.  O.  RUGG,  University  of  Chicago. 

CLASSROOM  ORGANIZATION  AND  CONTROL. 

By  J.  B.  SEARS,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 

A  HANDBOOK  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  OFFICERS. 

By  N.  D.  SHOWALTER,  Washington  State  Normal  School. 

THE  HYGIENE  OF  THE  SCHOOL  CHILD. 

By  L.  M.  TERMAN. 

THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  INTELLIGENCE. 
By  L.  M.  TERMAN. 

Test  Material   for  the  Measurement  of  Intelligence.     Record  Booklets  for  the 
Measurement  of  Intelligence. 

THE  INTELLIGENCE  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN. 

By  L.  M.  TERMAN. 

Methods  of  Teaching 

TEACHING  LITERATURE  IN  THE  GRAMMAR  GRADES  AND  HIGH 
SCHOOL. 
By  EMMA  M.  BOLBNIUS. 

HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  FUNDAMENTAL  SUBJECTS. 

By  C.  N.  KENDALL  and  G.  A.  MIRICK. 

HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS. 
By  C.  N.  KENDALL  and  G.  A.  MIRICK. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL. 
By  G.  H.  TRAFTON,  State  Normal  School,  Mankato,  Minnesota. 

TEACHING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

By  T.  J.  WOOFTER,  University  of  Georgia. 

Secondary  Education 

THE  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 
By  THOS.  H.  BRIGGS,  Columbia  University. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL. 
By  CHARLES  SWAIN  THOMAS. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 
By  ALEXANDER  INGLIS,  Harvard  University. 

PROBLEMS  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 
By  DAVID  SNEDDEN,  Columbia  University. 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 
BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 

1926  b 


PRACTICAL  NEW  TEXTBOOKS 

PRACTICAL  BUSINESS  ENGLISH. 

By  OSCAR  C.  GALLAGHER,  formerly  Head  Master,  West  Roxbury  High 
School,  Boston,  and  LEONARD  B.  MOULTON,  Department  of  English, 
High  School  of  Commerce,  Boston. 

Practical  Business  English  tells  how  and  what  to  write  to  conduct 
and  promote  business.  Written  primarily  for  pupils  in  the  third  and 
fourth  years  of  high  school,  this  very  practical  text  is  a  firm  founda- 
tion on  which  to  base  future  business  success.  Principles  are  pre- 
sented clearly  and  definitely.  Every  exercise  is  so  planned  and 
analyzed  that  the  pupil  has  a  certain  piece  of  work  before  him,  with 
specific  directions  as  to  how  to  do  it.  Much  of  the  material  in  the 
book  is  new  and  has  not  been  treated  in  other  books  of  similar  char- 
acter. It  is  the  direct  result  of  long  classroom  experience. 

SPANISH  TAUGHT  IN  SPANISH. 

By  CHARLES  F.  MCHALE,  Instructor  in  Spanish  in  the  National  City 
Bank,  New  York. 

The  strong  appeal  of  Spanish  Taught  in  Spanish  is  that  the  pupil 
learns  his  lessons  in  Spanish  right  from  the  start.  This  method 
stimulates  interest  and  thus  enables  the  pupil  to  think  in  Spanish 
and  to  absorb  the  language  with  amazing  rapidity.  When  this  text 
has  been  thoroughly  mastered,  the  pupil  will  find  himself  able  to  em- 
ploy the  Spanish  language  for  every  practical  purpose. 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  EVERYDAY  LIFE. 

By  EDGAR  F.  VAN  BUSKIRK,  formerly  in  charge  of  General  Science, 
DeWitt  Clinton  High  School,  New  York  City,  and  EDITH  L.  SMITH, 
Instructor,  Geography  Department,  Boston  Normal  School 
This  is  the  first  science  book  to  be  built  on  the  topic-project-problem 
plan,  which   has  proved  so  successful  in  practice.     Yet  it  has  a 
definite  unifying  principle,  so  generally  lacking  in  books  in  General 
Science.    The  basis  is  Everyday  Needs.    All  the  material  is  grouped 
under  five  units,  which  are  subdivided  into  projects. 

(I)  The  Air  and  ffcnv  We  Use  It.— (2)  Water  and  Hcno  We  Use 
It.—  (3)  Foods  and  How  We  Use  Them.  —  (4)  Protection  — -  Homes 
and  Clothing.—  (5)  The  Work  of  the  World. 

The  projects  are  arranged  to  give  scope  to  the  pupil's  initiative. 
The  approach  to  each  subject  is  made  from  the  experiment  to  the 
textbook.  The  course  bears  a  close  relation  to  the  familiar  conditions 
of  the  pupil's  life.  The  applicability  of  what  he  is  studying  is  COP 
stantly  impressed  upon  his  mind. 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

1935 


PRACTICAL  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 
In  Four  Books 

By  EDWIN  L.  MILLER 

Principal  of  the  Northwestern  High  School 
Detroit,  Michigan 

This  series  marks  a  radical  departure  in  methods  of  teaching 
English.  It  is  flexible,  direct,  and  informal.  In  line  with  the 
modern  tendency  in  education,  it  emphasizes  the  practical 
aspect,  the  why  of  learning  to  write  and  to  speak  good  English. 
Original  work  is  encouraged  in  both  teacher  and  pupils,  and 
especial  attention  is  given  to  training  in  oral  composition. 

While  designed  for  independent  use  in  the  four  years  of  the 
high  school,  the  books  will  admirably  supplement  a  formal 
treatise  on  rhetoric  and  composition. 

Book  I  Teaches  the  freshman  how  to  write  a  correct, 
coherent,  readable  letter,  how  to  speak  fluent, 
graceful,  precise  English,  how  to  gather  material 
and  criticise  his  own  work,  and  begins  the  study  of 
description. 

Book  II  Reviews  description,  teaches  the  sophomore  the 
fundamentals  of  narration  through  news  writing, 
and  takes  up  advertisement  writing. 

Book  III  Begins  advanced  composition  in  the  junior  year, 
deals  with  various  methods  of  narration  and 
description,  and  takes  up  exposition  in  detail. 

Book  IV  Reviews  exposition  and  develops  the  subject  of 
argumentation  —  oration  and  debating — in  the 
senior  year. 

The  author  has  devoted  several  years  to  the  perfection  ol 
the  plan  embodied  in  this  series.  Not  only  has  he  succeeded 
in  rounding  out  a  live  course  of  English  instruction  from  th< 
teacher's  point  of  view,  but  he  has  presented  each  chapter  ij 
such  a  way  that  the  pupil  realizes  i's  importance  to  him. 


HOUGHTQN  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

1949 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
Lot  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


iCiK? 


ED./ 


QL  APR    4 15 


SUBJECT  TO  FINE  IF 


EDUCATION 


NOT  RETt.'RMED  T 


Form  L9-50m-9,'60(B3610B4)444 


Ed.  Lib, 

LB 

160? 


YCH  Library 

07152 


7  683  9 


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A     000996147     5 


